CHAPTER
I: FROM FAMILY ECONOMY TO CITY ECONOMY.
Development at the time of the epics.—Genos, collective ownership, and family autarkeia.—Formation of private property.—Unequal distribution of landed property.—Movable property.—Wealth.—Beginnings of city economy.—The economic ideal in the epics
II: WORK IN THE FAMILY.
1. THE MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY.—Work in common.—Work of the men.—Work of the women
2. THE SLAVES.—Small extent of slavery in Homeric times.—Sources of slavery.—Sale of slaves.—Household slaves.—Agricultural slaves.—Condition of the slaves
III: WORK OUTSIDE THE FAMILY
1. THE PROFESSIONAL CRAFTSMEN (DEMIURGES).—Classes of Demiurges and division of labour.—“Liberal” professions: soothsayers, singers, doctors, heralds.—Manual professions: work in wood, metal, leather, clay.—Condition of the Demiurges
2. THE HIRED MEN (THETES).—Vagabonds.—Beggars.—Wage-workers.—Employments of the Thetes.—Their condition
IV: STOCK-BREEDING AND AGRICULTURE.
1. STOCK-BREEDING.—Extension of pastures.—Appropriation of common pastures.—Odysseus’ farm.—Life of the herdsmen,—Horse-breeding.—Polyphemos’ dairy.—Hunting and fishing
2. AGRICULTURE.—Extension of agriculture.—The temenos as type of big property.—Methods.—Labour.—Progress of vegetable-growing and fruit-growing.—The small peasant.
V: INDUSTRY.
The forge.—Work at the customer’s place.—No industrial employers.—Competition.—The tekton and work in wood.—The chalkeus (metal).—The skytotomos (leather).—The kerameus (pottery)
VI: PIRACY AND TRADE
1. PIRACY.—Insufficience of the home market.—Acquisition by piracy.—Foreign pirates in Greece.—The Phœnicians.—The Lemnians and Cretans.—The earliest Greek navigation.—Greek pirates
2. TRADE.—Moral conditions of trade: hospitality.—Technical conditions: a system of weights and measures.—The ox as unit of value.—Metal units of exchange.—Trade by land.—Progress of trade by sea.—Scheria of the Phæacians.—Relations of Greece with Thrace, Egypt, the West, and the North
I: ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION. LAND AND MONEY.
Growing intensity of economic life.—Persistence of natural and family economy.—Progress of agriculture: reclamation and tree-growing.—Commercial and urban economy.—Weights and measures.—Beginnings of money.—Spread of money economy.—Expansion of trade: chrematistike.—Transformation of moral ideas.—Social and political development
II: SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION. THE CLASSES.
1. THE UPPER CLASSES.—The Eupatrids.—Their power on the land and military power.—The great commoners.—Fusion of the well-born and the rich: aristocracy and plutocracy.—Luxury
2. THE LOWER CLASSES.—The middle class.—The lower class.—Impoverishment of the peasants.—Protests and conflicts.—Reforms in Attica
3. SERFDOM AND SLAVERY.—Origins of serfdom.—Countries of serfs.—Development of slavery.—Industrial slavery.—Economic effects of slavery
III: THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE OF SPARTA.
Unique nature of the Spartan system.—Its origins.—Its conservative and warlike character.—Land system: civic land and Perioikis.—The “Equals.”—Syssitiai.—The Helots.—Their economic condition.—Their legal position.—The Perioeci.—Their monopoly of industry and trade.—Sparta powerless to maintain an inhuman constitution
IV: COLONIZATION.
Causes of colonization.—Agricultural colonization.—Commercial colonization.—Spontaneous colonization and organized colonization.—Colonists and natives.—Colonists and mother city.—Colonies in Thrace and on the Euxine.—Factories in Egypt and at Cyrene.—Colonies in Great Greece and Sicily.—Massalia.—Economic consequences of colonization
V: TRADE.
The Mediterranean market.—Security of the agora and conduct of fairs.—Trade by land.—Progress of navigation.—Money and writing.—Division of labour in marine trade.—Trade with Lydia, Egypt, and Cyrenaica.—The Milesians on the Euxine.—Corinth and trade in the West.—Sybaris.—Cumæ.—The Phocæans on the Adriatic and at Massalia.—Commercial prosperity of Greece.—Social and political consequences
VI: INDUSTRY.
Late development of industry.—Raw materials.—Technical education.—Inventions.—Industrial specialization.—The workshop of medium industry.—The textile industry.—Metal-working.—Pottery of Ionia, Corinth, and Athens.—Competition between craftsmen and between cities
PART THREE THE ATHENIAN PERIOD
I: DEMOCRACY AND PROPERTY.
Evolution of Greece towards democracy.—Progress of democracy in Athens
1. THE STATE AND THE INDIVIDUAL.—Sovereignty of the people.—Misthophoria.—Radicalism, socialistic and conservative.—Advantages given to citizens by the State: Cleruchies, public works, assistance, theorika.—Social equilibrium.—State and individual in respect of property.—Rights of the “Crown.”—Restrictions to the right of individual ownership.—Expropriation in the public interest.—No wholesale spoliation.—Financial policy of Athens
2. SOCIALISM.—Agrarian and aristocratic character of socialist doctrines in Greece.—The old systems: Pythagoras, etc.—Plato.—Popular socialism
II: IDEAS ON LABOUR.
Contempt of aristocratic cities for manual labour.—Prejudices of the oligarchy in democratic cities.—The ideas of Plato and Aristotle.—Athenian opinion on the whole favourable to labour.—Persistence of prejudices.—Distinction between professions.—Inclination towards liberal careers
III: THE CITIZENS.
The citizenship.—Disappearance of the census classes.—Persistence of social distinctions.—The nobles.—The peasants.—The working classes in the city.—Small participation of citizens in industry and trade.—The land and public offices
IV: THE METICS.
Condition of the Metics.—Their origin and their grouping in Attica.—Economic rôle of the Metics.—Great part played by Metics in industry in the Vth century; further progress in the IVth.—Peculiar situation of the mining industry.—Preponderance of the Metics in trade in general, business on a big scale, shipping, banking.—Their wealth.—Metics in intellectual professions.—Stamp given by the Metics to sophistry, philosophy, eloquence, music, drama.—Service rendered to Athens by the Metics.—Formation of an international class in the days of the City State
V: THE SLAVES.
1. THE RECRUITING AND CONDITION OF THE SLAVES.—Sources of slavery.—The slave-trade.—Prices.—Legal status of slaves in Greece in general.—The slave in Attic law.—Athenian “philanthropy”
2. SLAVE LABOUR.—Number of the slaves.—Relative number of male and female slaves.—Household work of slaves.—Agricultural slaves.—-Industrial slaves
3. MILDER FORMS OF SLAVERY.—Hired slaves.—Slaves “living out.”—Public slaves
4. THE FREEDMEN.—Modes of manumission.—Condition of the freedmen.—-Activities of the freedmen.—Rarity of manumission.—Slavery and the idea of the city
VI: THE DIVISION OF LABOUR.
Division of political labour.—Division of economic labour.—Division of labour in Plato and Xenophon.—Specialization of trades in the production of food and clothing.—Division of labour in mining, pottery, building, etc.—True significance of the division of labour in ancient Greece
VII: MONEY.
1. THE MONETARY SYSTEM.—Survivals of natural economy and triumph of monetary economy.—Disappearance of gold through hoarding in the Vth century.—Abundance of gold in the IVth century.—Political autonomy and monetary anarchy.—The “Laureiot owls.”—Monetary hegemony of Athens.—Rise in prices
2. INVESTMENTS AND INTEREST.—Circulation of wealth.—Return of investments in real property.—Return of slaves.—Loans at interest.—High rate of interest
VIII: LANDED PROPERTY AND AGRICULTURE.
Importance of agriculture in Attica
1. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAND.—Countries of large estates.—Property in Attica in the time of Solon.—Progressive splitting up of the soil.—Facilities for the reconstitution of the large property.—Buying up of small lots.—Speculation in land
2. THE RURAL POPULATION.—Large number of citizens owning land.—The great landlord.—The farm-manager.—The small farmer.—Prosperity of the peasant in the Vth century.—His growing difficulties in the IVth.—Tenant farmers.—Agricultural day-labourers
3. RURAL ECONOMY.—Attic agricultural science.—Corngrowing: production, consumption, import.—Stock-breeding.—Tree-growing.—Market-gardening.—Social consequences of the agricultural transformation
IX: INDUSTRY.
1. THE SITUATION OF INDUSTRY.—Growing importance of industry.—Small and medium industry.—Persistence of family labour.—Small number of workers in concerns.—Small amount of capital invested.—Absence of machinery.—Supply of raw materials.—Public works divided up.—Little over-production.—Returns of industry.—Industry and art
2. WORKERS AND WAGES.—Skilled workers, labourers, and assistants.—Absence of legal measures in favour of workers.—Apprentices.—Engagement.—The worker’s day.—Work in the workshop.—Work in the mine.—The foreman.—Return of labour.—Wages in kind.—Wages by the day.—Unemployment.—Pay by the piece.—Distribution of day-work and piece-work.—The standard of living
X: TRADE.
Growing importance of trade
1. MATERIAL CONDITIONS OF TRADE.—Kapeleia and emporia.—Trade without a middleman.—Petty trade.—The Agora.—Traders at the festivals and with the armies.—Roads.—Means of transport.—Cost of transport by land.—Means of correspondence.—Progress of navigation.—Length of voyages.—Division of labour in emporia.—Cost of sea transport
2. LEGAL CONDITIONS OF TRADE.—Commercial liberty.—State control: Agoranomoi and Metronomoi.—Supervision of the corn trade.—Customs.—The State as trader.—Commercial law
3. COMMERCIAL COMPANIES AND BANKS.—Freedom of association.—Marine trading companies.—Temporary nature of commercial associations.—Mining and metal-working companies.—Banking.—Its origins.—Its principal operations.—The great bankers.—Speculation
4. THE COMMERCIAL HEGEMONY OF ATHENS.—The Peiræeus.—The sea-routes.—Relations with Thrace, the Euxine, the East, the West.—Barbarian custom.—Imports and exports.—Volume of business.—Athens the emporium of Greece.—The sea empire of Athens.—Tendencies towards the formation of a world market
PART FOUR THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD
I: POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION.
Small cities and large states.—Mixture of races and unity of civilization.—Monarchy.—The monarch divides and regulates social labour.—State interference.—Heredity of trades.—Progress of specialization.—Ideas on labour.—Associations and trade unions
II: THE SPREAD OF THE MONETARY SYSTEM.
Extent and intensity of the circulation of money.—Alexander’s coinage.—Countries of natural economy.—Progress of money economy in Egypt in public and private life.—Prices
III: THE TOWNS.
Greek emigration.—Decay of the cities of Greece.—Displacement of the great centres towards the east.—The new towns.—Alexandria.—Rhodes.—Delos
IV: LANDED PROPERTY AND AGRICULTURE.
New distribution of the soil.—Land system in Macedonia.—Land system in Ptolemaic Egypt: Royal Land, Concession Land, Sacred Land, Gift Land, Cleruchic Land, Private Possession.—Agriculture in Egypt.—Land system in the Seleucid empire.—Landed property in Greece.—Decay of agriculture.—The food problem.—Tenant farmers.—Agrarian pauperism
V: INDUSTRY.
1. THE SITUATION OF INDUSTRY.—Conditions favourable to industry.—Labour.—Slavery.—Technical education and apprenticeship.—Machines.—The State as manufacturer in Egypt.—Mines and quarries.—Monopolies.—Industry in the Asiatic kingdoms.—Private industry in Greece
2. WORKERS AND WAGES.—Convicts in the Egyptian mines.—Regulation of labour in Egypt.—Wages.—The value of wages.—Strikes.—Shortage of labour in Greece.—Fall in wages.—Influence of piece-work on pay by the day.—Strikes and State intervention.—Bad situation of the working classes
VI: TRADE.
1. THE ORGANIZATION OF TRADE.—Conditions favourable to trade.—Markets and shops.—Commercial companies.—Speculation.—Diffusion of credit and fall in interest.—State banks.—Elaborate organization of credit in Egypt.—Development of means of communication.—Sea navigation.—River navigation.—Land transport.—The post
2. THE EXPANSION OF TRADE.—Importance of foreign trade.—Ethiopia and the Red Sea.—The Greeks in India.—Bactriana and China.—The voyage of Pytheas