Note: Page numbers in bold refer to the primary treatment of a specific philosopher. Page numbers in italics refer to concept definitions. Page numbers with (fig) refer to illustrations.
Abelard, Peter, 203
absurdities, paradoxes as, 358
Academic Questions (Cicero), 88–89
Academic Skepticism, 152, 163, 169
acquired traits theory, 11
“Address to the Academie Parisienne de Mathematiques” (Pascal), 223
aerodynamics, 222
aesthetics, 74
Against the Logicians (Sextus Empiricus), 148, 156
Albert the Great, 199
Alexander the Great, 85, 86, 171, 208
Alexinus, 212
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Carroll), 333–34
Anaxagoras, 43
Anaximenes, 208
Andronikos of Rhodes, 88
Anselm of Canterbury, 168
anthropomorphism, 17
antinomies: antinomies of pure reason, 249, 287–93, 293–95, 304; premiseless antinomies, 368; Quine on, 351–52
“Antinomy” (White), 302
Antipater, 86
Antisthenes of Athens, 112
Apollo, 51
apostolic poverty doctrine, 193–94
Aquinas, Thomas, 144, 177–86, 199, 203
argument against place, 52
argumentum ad hominem, 271
argumentum cornutum, 96
Aristocles (Plato), 100–101. See also Plato
Ariston, 137
Aristophanes, 162
Aristotle, 116–29; on Anaximander, 13; argument patterns, 354; Aspasius on, 96; on common sense, 8, 123–25; condemnation of 1277, 189; Copernican paradox and, 224; ethical theory, 97–98; on fatalism, 129; growing argument, 133; influence, 87–88; on language, 356; on the liar paradox, 198; library, 87–88; monarchy paradox, 85–86; motion paradoxes, 49, 50–52; on origins, 11; rules of inference, 299; spy questions, 84–86; on substances and properties, 266; on time, 121–22; on vacuums, 221
arithmetic. See mathematics
Ars Combinatoria (Leibniz), 245
astrology, 165
astronomy, 311
“The Auction of Philosophers” (Lucian), 207–8
Augustine, 162–76; on God’s existence, 17–18; immutability of God, 178, 179; influence, 213; on the liar paradox, 197; on reason, 168, 287
axiom of infinity, 368
Babylonians, 21
Bach, Emmon, 202
balance, 22
barber paradox, 365
Basic Laws of Arithmetic (Frege), 329
Beauvoir, Simone de, 343
Being and Nothingness (Sartre), 343
Bennett, Robert, 39
Berkeley, George, 217, 297, 318
Berry, G. G., 332
Bertrand, Joseph Louis, 246–51
Bertrand’s paradox, 246
Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche), 125
Bieberbach, Ludwig, 236
“The Big Rock Candy Mountain” (McClintock), 242
birthday paradox, 353
bisection argument, 352
bivalence principle, 95–96, 122
Boethius, 178
bridge paradox, 207
Brouwer, Luitzen, 325
Buddhism, 93
bundle theory, 266
Burali-Forti paradox, 327–28, 368
Callisthenes, 86
Canadian flag, 7 (fig)
Candide (Voltaire), 242
Cantor, Georg, 54–55, 57, 317–18, 322–28, 346–47
Carneades, 152
Carroll, Lewis, 4, 214, 333–34, 358, 366
Carter, Brandon, 350–51, 369, 370
causal theory of perception, 270
certainties, 169
Cervantes, Miguel de, 209
Chisholm, Roderick, 143
Choice and Chance (Skyrms), 354
Christianity. See also God: Aquinas, 177–86; Augustine, 163–76; condemnation of 1277, 187–90, 191, 196; divine command theory, 192; faith, 165–66; freewill and, 128, 191; origins of the universe and, 10; Pascal’s evangelism, 229–32
Chroust, Anton-Hermann, 85
Chrysippus, 38, 129, 130–47, 196, 207–8
Cicero, 88–89, 129, 163, 197, 213
circumnavigator’s paradox, 213–15
City of God (Augustine), 170
Clarke, Samuel, 287, 291–92, 295
The Clouds (Aristophanes), 162
Code of Canon Law (1917), 180
cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), 170, 254, 334
Collegium logicum (Goethe), 309
Commentary on the Sentences (Ockham), 191
common sense: Aristotle on, 123–24; inference and, 173; linguistic philosophy and, 341; Moore on, 320; nature of, 145; Reid on, 268–83
composition fallacy, 53
The Concept of Mind (Ryle), 340
conclusions of arguments, 6
condemnation of 1277, 187–90, 191, 196
conflict resolution, 238
consequences, moral relevance of, 285
consistency in logic, 204, 205, 365
continuity principle, 243
Contra Academicos (Augustine), 163
contradictions, 112–15, 303–15, 316–32, 365
Copernican paradox, 224
Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), 284–85, 299, 302
Crito, 69
Cyclops of Homer’s Odyssey, 34–35, 36–37
Davies, Lady Eleanor, 228
De fallaciis (Aquinas), 199
De Fato (Cicero), 129
De Ludo Aleae (Cardano), 223
De Orbitis Planetarum (Hegel), 311
death, mortal dread of, 230
Decline of the West (Spengler), 127
Dedekind, Richard, 326
definitions, 60, 79, 79–82, 337
Demophilus, 86
Descartes, René: appearances and noumenal reality, 297; on belief, 229; cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), 170, 254, 334; on following arguments, 276–77; on metaphysical dualisms, 216–21; on reason, 269; Ryle on, 340–41
determinism, 125–29, 290–92, 301–2
The Development of Logic (Kneale and Kneale), 90
dialectic method of inquiry, 61, 110–11
dice, 223
dilemma of freedom or determinism, 290–92
Diodorus Cronos, 119–22, 122–23
Diogenes Laertius, 3, 38, 76, 85, 88–89, 92
Dion and Theon, 138, 139–40, 141–42
Discourse on Method (Descartes), 218
divine command theory, 192
doctrine of apostolic poverty, 193–94
doctrine of family resemblance, 347
doctrine of reminiscence, 65–68
Don Quixote (Cervantes), 209
doomsday argument, 350–51, 370
Dunsany, Lord, 116
Dutchbooks, 239
Eastern philosophy, 93
Eco, Umberto, 193
economic theory, 235
Edinburgh Review, 274
education, 196
Electra. See paradox of the veiled figure
Elements (Euclid), 23
emotions, 285
empiricism, 253, 255–67, 268, 294, 295
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 110–11
The End of the World (Leslie), 350
Enlightenment, 310
enthymeme, 354
epistemology, 74
equality, 22
eristic method of inquiry, 62
errors of commission, 78
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Locke), 255
An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry (Russell), 317
Eternal Questions, 334
ethics: of Aristotle, 97–98; epistemology and, 74; ethical determinism, 125–29; ethical theory, 97–98, 235; of paradox, 91–93; principles of common sense and, 273
Euclid, 299
Euclides, 71, 72–73, 74, 76, 78, 81–82
Eurymedon, 86
Eusebius, 84
evaluative finitism, 233
evolutionary theory, 11, 281–82, 356
faith, 165–66. See also Christianity
fallacy of composition, 53
false identity statements, 79
falsidical paradoxes, 351–54, 358
family resemblance doctrine, 347
finite numbers, 319
finitism, evaluative, 233
flight, 222
Foundations of Statistics (Savage), 233
Fraassen, Bas van, 250
fractions, 20
freewill, 128, 191, 290–92, 301–2, 336
Frege, Gottlob, 89, 329, 331, 336
fusions, 361
Gaia hypothesis, 134
Galileo, 360
gambler’s fallacy, 15
Gazzaniga, Michael, 286
genetic fallacy, 181
geometry. See also mathematics: contradictions in, 317; Egyptians’ interest in, 20; geometrical probability paradoxes, 246–49; independent axioms, 272; principles of common sense and, 273; probability, 245–51; Rhind Papyrus, 20–21
Giles of Rome, 199
God. See also Christianity; metaphysics: Augustine’s portrayal of, 173; common sense and, 281–82; existence of, 16–17, 106–7, 166, 218–19, 241–42, 273, 292, 301; immutability of, 177–80; nature of, 180–82; omniscience, 180, 192; thoughts of, 240
God: A Biography (Miles), 177, 181–82
Goethe, Johann, 309
Goodman, Nelson, 155–56, 354–55, 361–62
Goodman’s paradox, 356
gradualism about paradoxes, 369–71
grammatical sophisms, 202
grandfather paradox, 118
Grelling, Kurt, 332
growing argument, 130–33, 133–34, 135–36, 137–38, 140
Halley, Edmond, 228
Hatshepsut, 39
Hayes, Patrick, 281
heap paradox, 53
Hegel: A Reexamination (Findlay), 314
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 303–15, 319
Heidegger, Martin, 38
Hempel, Carl, 357
Heraclitus, 27, 33, 78, 131, 307, 310
Hesiod, 3
Hiappasus of Metapontum, 25
Hindu culture, 21
Hintikka, Jaakko, 106
History of England (Hume), 252
A History of (Beckman), 182
Hodja, Nasreddin, 313
Hoffman, Albert, 151
hooded man. See paradox of the veiled figure
Hume, David, 252–55, 270, 272–73, 278, 295
Huygens, Christian, 221
idealism, 319
identicals, substitutivity of, 78
identity: Chrysippus, 136–47; identity assumption, 141; identity paradoxes, 71–72, 299; identity statement, 78, 80–81; of indiscernibles, 243–44; necessity of, 145–46
ignorance, 74
illness, 231
In Praise of Folly (Erasmus), 162–63
inconsistency, 111
Indiana House of Representatives, 60
indiscernibles principle, 243–44
inference rules, 367
infinity. See also mathematics: axiom of infinity, 368; complexity of, 17; Descartes on, 218; Greeks on infinity, 20; infinite analysis, 241; infinite number of tasks, 54–55; infinite numbers and, 318; infinite populations, 235; infinite sequence, 10; infinite time, 2, 233–34, 235; infinite utility, 232; infinite value, 233–34, 235; infinitesimals, 318; Peter of Spain on, 188; prone to paradox, 12; Wittgenstein on, 348; Zeno on, 47
inheritance theory, 11
Inquiry into the Human Mind: On the Principles of Common Sense (Reid), 268–69
insolubles, 194–99, 202–3, 210–12
intellectual perversion, paradoxes as, 312–13
intentions in conflict, 56
Introduction to Metaphysics (Heidegger), 38
Jaynes, E. T., 250
John XXI, 189
jokes in philosophy, 340
Jourdain, Philip, 332
Kant: A Biography (Kuehn), 287
Kant, Immanuel, 284–302; on antinomies, 249; Hegel on, 303, 305, 310–11; metaphysics, 296, 298, 309; on peace and war, 310; on reason and appearances, 304
Kelsen, Hans, 85
Kenny, Anthony, 340
Kepler, Johannes, 217
kinematics, 317
Kneale, Martha, 90
Kneale, William, 90
Konig, Julius, 332
Kripke, Saul, 147, 159–60, 345–46
Kuehn, Manfred, 287
Lamarck, Jean, 11
Lampe, Martin, 287
Landau, Edmund, 236
Langford, C. H., 80
language: grammatical jokes, 333–48; grammatical rules, 352; grammatical sophisms, 202; logic and, 321–22, 335–36; mathematics and, 322–31; myths regarding, 37–42; principles of common sense and, 273; private languages, 338, 348; Quine’s paradoxes and, 359–60; semantic paradoxes, 35–36, 332, 359–60; timelessness and eternity, 183
Laplace, Pierre-Simon de, 238
law of diminishing marginal utility of money, 233
Lazarus, 144
Lazzerini, M., 246
Le Lionnais, Francois, 363
Leclerc, Georges Louis, 245
Lee, Nathaniel, 275
Leibniz, Gottfried, 238–44, 246–51, 266, 287, 291, 295
Leslie, John, 350
“Let’s Make a Deal” (television show), 224–25
Lewinsky, Monica, 39
liar paradox: as an insoluble, 194–96, 197–99; Aristotle on, 198; Augustine on, 197; in Bible, 83; Buridan’s sophisms and, 210, 211; contempt for, 212–13, 299; contingent liar paradoxes, 352; diagonal argument and, 326–27; Epimenides, 93–95; law of bivalence, 95–96; looped liar, 332; Plato and, 102; Russell’s use of, 90
Lincoln, Abraham, 337
linguistics, 37–42, 202. See also language
Littlewood, J. E., 18
Lloyd, Edward, 227
logic: in common sense, 273; logical sophisms, 202; prior to the plague, 190; Russell’s use of, 321, 325–31; of truth-value gaps, 90
logicism, 323
looped liar paradox, 332
Lovelock, James, 134
Lowell, Percival, 297
Lumpl and Goliath, 140, 144, 146
Lutterell, John, 193
Mackie, J. L., 6
Mackinson, D. C., 103
The Magic Mountain (Mann), 313
Malraux, André, 343
Mani, 163
Mann, Thomas, 313
map by Anaximander, 12
Marchand, Jean-Christophe, 284, 286
material constitution paradoxes, 130–47
material objects, 297
“Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types” (Russell), 332
Mathematical Logic (Quine), 368
mathematics. See also geometry; infinity: arithmetic, 20–21; arithmetic machine, 216–21; cardinality, 323–24, 325; diagonal argument, 323–26; finite numbers, 319; fractions, 20; Galileo on, 360; imaginary numbers, 304–5; infinite numbers, 318; interesting numbers, 362–64; language of, 322–23; law of averages, 15–17; natural numbers, 324, 362–63; negative numbers, 2–3, 10, 304–5; ordinal numbers, 327–28; probability theory, 152, 223, 227, 238–40, 245–51; rational numbers, 323–24; real numbers, 323–24; Russell’s contradiction, 326–31; sets, 361; transfinite numbers, 317–18, 325
Matthews, Gareth, 6
Mayan culture, 21
McCarthy, John, 281
McClintock, Harry, 242
meaningless paradoxes, 36
Meditations (Descartes), 170, 218
Mendel, Gregor, 11
Menedemus, 212
mereological essentialism, 131, 143
metaphysics. See also God: arguments for God’s existence, 301; Aristotle on, 178–79; Descartes on, 216–21; Kant on, 296, 298, 309; Lord Kelvin on, 369–70; McTaggart’s temporal paradoxes, 185; physics and, 298, 369–70; Quine on, 361; reason and, 311; study of infinity, 235
Methods of Ethics (Sidgwick), 278
Mill, John Stuart, 172, 316, 354
modus ponens, 160
money and law of diminishing marginal utility of, 233
Montaigne, 213
Moore, G. E., 80, 157–58, 279–80, 319–20
motion paradoxes, 5, 49–52, 50 (fig), 307–8
Myson, 108
naive set theory, 90
The Name of the Rose (Eco), 193
Naming and Necessity (Kripke), 147
National History and Theory of the Heavens (Kant), 284
nature, 360
The Nature of Things (Anaximander), 13
nebular hypothesis, 284
necessary beings, 293
necessity assumption, 141
negative existentials, 28–31, 36, 299
negative numbers, 2–3, 10, 304–5
negative theology, 181
Neoplatonism, 163
neutrality, 158
Nichomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 96
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 125–26, 183
Nombres remarguables (Le Lionnais), 363
nominalism, 361
Nonexistent Objects (Parson), 30–31
numbers. See mathematics
objectivity of paradoxes, 212
Ockham, William of, 187, 191–96, 209–10, 285
Oedipus the King (Sophocles), 3
oldest recorded paradoxes, 10–12
Omar Khayyam, 118
On Beyond Zebra (Seuss), 347
“On Denoting” (Russell), 30, 90
“On False Modesty” (Plutarch), 212
“On Referring” (Strawson), 90
opposites, battle between, 13–17, 20
optics, 217
orthodoxies, 224
Outlines of Pyrrhonism (Sextus Empiricus), 148
Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy (Zeller), 89
pain, Wittgenstein on, 339, 347
paraconsistent logics, 114
Parade magazine, 225
paradox: definitions, 3–10, 350–51, 358; earliest recorded paradox, 10–12, 224
paradoxes. See also liar paradox: of analysis, 79–82; of the arrow, 306–7; of the barber, 365; of Bertrand, 246; of the birthday, 353; of the chicken or egg, 4, 11; of the circumnavigator, 213–15; of compensation, 13–17; of division, 226–28; of the gods, 55–56; of the grandfather, 118; of the heap, 53; of Hiappasus, 25–26; of the horned man, 90, 95–96; of identity, 90, 299; of inquiry, 64–65, 80; of material constitution, 130–47; of material implication, 105–6; of measurement, 175; of motion, 5, 49–52, 50 (fig); of plurality, 45–48; of the preface, 102–4; of the raven, 357; of St. Petersburg, 232–34; of strict implication, 106–7; of the truth-teller, 100–102; of the two envelopes, 234–36; of the veiled figure, 71–72, 78–79, 81
Parmenides, 28–43; “as if” theory of physics, 123; defense of, 90; elenchus argument, 112; Euclides and, 76; on existence, 31–33; on experience, 33–34; on place, 52; on plurality of simple things, 142; on premises and conclusions, 91; reaction to, 34–37; on reality of time, 279; on reason, 27, 33–34; refutation of, 47; on semantic solutions, 35; on the senses, 52–53; sorites arguments, 98; Zeno and, 45, 48
Parthenon, 109
Paul, 93
Penrose triangle, 8, 8 (fig), 304
Pensées (Pascal), 229
perdurance, 77
“Perpetual Peace” (Kant), 310
Perseus, 137
perspective, 242
Peters, Stanley, 202
Phaenarete, 66
phenomena, 303
Philetas, 196
philosophers, 22
Philosophical Investigations (Wittgenstein), 340
The Philosophical Lexicon (Dennett), 357–58
physics: empiricism and, 268; infinity research, 235; mathematics in, 361; metaphysics and, 298, 369–70; of opposites, 16; quantum mechanics, 128; thought experiments, 189–90
Pierce, Charles, 156
Pillow Problems (Dodgson), 334
piousness, 192
The Pirates of Penzance, 351
place, argument against, 52
Plato, 100–115; on appearance, 296; Aristotle and, 84; on astronomy, 311; Augustine and, 179; Euclides and, 71, 74; on forms, 361; on growing argument, 133; on origins, 174; paradox of analysis, 81; prayer and, 166; Socrates and, 59
plurality paradoxes, 45–48, 142
Plutarch, 88
Poincaré, Henri, 325
Polygnotos, 223
populations, infinite, 235
pragmatic paradoxes, 162–76, 206, 210
“Prayer to Ask God for the Good Use of Illnesses” (Pascal), 231
precision, 97
premises, paradoxes without, 366–68
primary qualities, 298
Principia Mathematica (Russell and Whitehead), 332, 349, 361
principle of alternative compositional possibilities, 141, 143
principle of bivalence, 95–96, 122
principle of continuity, 243
principle of contradiction, 303–15
principle of indifference, 246–51
principle of sufficient reason, 237–51, 291
principle of the identity of indiscernibles, 266
principle of the substitutivity of identicals, 81
Principles of Mathematics (Russell), 328, 331
Prior Analytics (Aristotle), 195
probability theory, 152, 223, 227, 238–40, 245–51
problem of the criterion, 154–56
projection thesis, 298
proof of a proposition, 19
“A Proof of the External World” (Moore), 279
propositions, 19, 60–61, 152–53, 153, 209–10
Protagoras, 52–53, 62, 102, 112
Ptolemy Philopator, 155
Ptolemy Soter, 119
Pyrrho of Elis, 149
quantum mechanics, 128
questions in philosophy, 340
Quine, Willard Van Orman, 349–71
Ramus, Peter, 189
rationalism, 253, 268, 294, 295, 311, 322–33
raven paradox, 357
Rea, Michael, 140
reason: antinomies of pure reason, 249, 287–93, 293–95, 304; appearances and, 304; Augustine on, 168, 287; Hegel on, 312; Hume on, 253; jumble arguments and, 104–5; Kant on, 309; principle of sufficient reason, 237–51; Reid on, 269, 275–76; reliance on, 164–66; rule of, 33–34; Socrates on, 125
reciprocity, 22
reductio ad absurdum: defined, 91–92, 169, 289; dialetheist’s contradictions and, 114; role of, 310; Sextus Empiricus’ use of, 153; Socrates’ use of, 109
Reid, Thomas, 172, 268–83, 320, 341
relativism, Protagorean, 102–3
religion, 167, 181, 268, 312. See also Christianity; God
The Republic (Plato), 66–67, 74
Richard, Jules, 332
riddles: of induction, 354–57; as logical analogies, 340; mathematical riddles, 20–21; origin riddles, 1–3, 10–12; as paradoxes, 3–10, 349; Quine’s paradoxes and, 358; Sphinx’s riddle, 3–4
A Room of One’s Own (Woolf), 52
Rosser, Barkley, 368
Russell, Bertrand, 316–32; antinomy, 351; on Aquinas, 179; on common sense, 279; on contradictions, 336; on ‘is,’ 39; on nonexistent objects, 30; paradoxes of identity, 90; religious beliefs, 167; Wittgenstein and, 7
Ryle, Gilbert, 340
Saint Anselm of Canterbury, 167
St. Petersburg paradox, 232–34, 246
The Sand Reckoner (Archimedes), 46
Sathon (Little Willy) (Antisthenes), 112
Savage, Leonard, 233
Savant, Marilyn vos, 225
science, 280. See also specific fields such as physics
scientific revolution, 190
Scotus, John Duns, 168
self-awareness, 230
self-reference, 195
semantic paradoxes, 35–36, 332, 359–60
September 11 terrorist attacks, 4
Sextus Empiricus, 148–61; on appearance, 168–69; Hume on, 254; method of equipollence, 294–95; Pascal and, 230, 231; on philosophical inquiry, 337; skepticism of, 295; sorites paradox, 98; soul’s existence argument, 171
Ship of Theseus, 132, 140, 145
Sidgwick, Henry, 278
simplicity, 360
singular propositions, 153
Sisyphus, 44
skepticism, 295
Skinner, B. F., 127
Skyrms, Brian, 354
Smith, Norman Kemp, 285
Smith, Sydney, 273
Socrates, 58–70; Augustine and, 164; commandments, 108, 159; on deduction, 108–9; on definition, 337; dialectic debate, 61–63, 74–76, 111; Elenchus problem, 110–12; on following arguments, 157, 276; on forms, 337; objection to Protagoras, 102–3; Parmenides and, 76–78; on piousness, 192; prayer and, 166; on reason, 125; on virtue, 74; Zeno and, 45, 47–48
solipsism, 172
sophism, 62–63, 147–48, 200–215, 201
Sophismata (Albert of Saxony), 201–2
Sophistic Elenchi (Aristotle), 197–98
Sophocles, 3
sorites: Cicero on, 88; of Democritus, 53–54; Parmenidean approach and, 96–99; premises, 107; Russell’s use of, 90; solution, 122; of Zeno, 52–54
soundness of arguments, 105
space-time worms, 41–42, 77, 143
specious present, 175
Spengler, Oswald, 127
Sphaerus the Stoic, 155
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 339
Stilpo, 119
Strawson, Peter, 90
Strepsiades, 162
strict conditionals, 105
The Structure of Appearances (Goodman), 361
Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic (McTaggart), 316
substitutivity of identicals, 78
superargument strategy, 249
supervaluationism, 90
swamping, 15
symmetry, 5
temporal paradoxes, 185
terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, 4
Theaetetus (Plato), 72, 74, 76–77, 79
Theogony (Hesiod), 3
theory of propositions, 209–10
Thomas, Henry, 254
Through the Looking Glass (Carroll), 358
Thutmose III, 39
The Timaeus (Plato), 62, 174, 311
time: Aristotle on, 121–22; Augustine on, 173–76; flowing and static time, 184–86; as fourth dimension, 41, 121, 143–44; immutability of God and, 178; infinite time, 2, 233–34, 235; Kant on, 288–89; negation and, 31–33; Parmenides on, 279; specious present, 175; temporal paradoxes, 185; theories of, 117–23; time travel, 118–19, 121; timelessness and eternity, 182–84
The Time Machine (Wells), 118
Tolstoy, Leo, 335
Torricelli, Evangelista, 221–22
Tractatus (Wittgenstein), 335, 342
“Traitié de l’espére” (Oresme), 214
transfinite numbers, 317–18, 325
“A Treatise on God as First Principle” (Scotus), 168
“Treatise on the Equilibrium of Liquids” (Pascal), 222
trichotomy law, 328
The Trinity (Augustine), 170
true identity statements, 78
Twain, Mark, 89
1277, condemnation of, 187–90, 191, 196
“Two dogmas of empiricism” (Quine), 358
Tyrannion of Amisos, 88
Unger, Peter, 142
universal propositions, 60–61, 152–53
University of Paris, 203
unnoticed man. See paradox of the veiled figure
“The Unreality of Time” (McTaggart), 184
utilitarianism, 278
vacuums, 221–22, 223, 243, 289
“Vagueness” (Russell), 90
validity, 105
veridical paradoxes, 351–54, 358
vice, 74
vicious circle principle, 331
virtues, 72–73, 74, 96–97, 164
visual paradoxes, 8–9, 22–23, 109
Waldo, C. A., 60
Wang, Hao, 368
war, Hegel on, 310
Way of Ideas, 269–70, 276, 320
Weierstrass, Karl, 318
Wells, H. G., 118
Western philosophy, 93
White, V. Alan, 302
Whitehead, Alfred North, 56, 100, 318, 328–29, 349
“Why I took to Philosophy” (Russell), 320
will, 312
Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1, 7, 113, 334–48
Woolf, Virginia, 52
world map of Anaximander, 12
Xanthippus, 42
Zeller, Eduard, 89
Zeno of Citium, 127
Zeno of Elea, 45–57; arguments, 52, 107, 108, 109, 352; Cantor’s work on paradoxes, 319; debating games, 62; millet seed, 52–54; ordinals in paradoxes, 327; paradox of the arrow, 306–7; paradoxes of motion, 5, 307–8; paradoxes of plurality, 45–48, 142; reaction to, 54–55
Zermello, Ernst, 332
zombie thought experiment, 220