lu family 46
Note: page numbers in italic denote maps or illustrations. n = footnote.
Abbasid caliphate 197
Abdülaziz, Sultan 84
Abdülhamit II, Sultan 33, 40, 62, 63, 65, 68, 84, 93, 94, 95–6, 98, 99, 149, 166, 168, 172, 191, 198
Adana 136
Adapazarı 187
Adrianople, Treaty of (1829) 56 See also Edirne
Aegean Sea 13, 15, 24, 40, 59, 61, 88, 116
Afghanistan 85
Agricultural Bank 108
agriculture 115, 118, 128, 130–4, 182
commercialization 131–3
economic importance 130–1
forced labor 134
Ahmad Jamal 9
Ahmet I, Sultan 96
Ahmet III, Sultan 44, 77, 87, 88, 93–4, 148
Ahmet Jezzar Pasha 47, 49, 105–6
Ahmet Resmi Efendi 77–8
Aintab 152
Aleppo
social/cultural life 160, 162, 168–9
Alexandretta 122
Alexandria 116
Ali, Imam, commemoration of 166
Ali Bey (Egyptian notable) 46
Ali Pasha, Grand Vizier 82
Alp Arslan, Sultan 16
Amasya 136
Anabaptists 8
demography 112–13, 115–16, 117–18
industry/employment 126–7, 135, 183
Ottoman loss of influence 59, 61, 192
Ottoman rule 28, 69, 106, 108, 199
transport systems 121–3
Turcoman occupation 1, 13, 15–17
Anglo-Turkish Convention 127
animals, use for transport 121–2, 125–6
Anne, Empress, of Russia 9
Antioch 189
Arab states (post-dissolution) 61, 197, 199, 201
Arabian peninsula
population/demography 112, 118
Aral Sea 87
architecture, Ottoman influence on Western 10
industry 182
massacres (1895, 1915–16) 61, 69, 174, 186–8, 191, 198, 200
role in Ottoman diplomacy 82–3
festive gifts to 166
fiscal support 28–9
numerical strength 63
provisioning 42
weaponry 30
Asia Minor see Anatolia
Augustus II of Poland 8–9
see also Habsburg Empire; Vienna
Aztecs 3
transport routes 120, 122, 125
Baikal, Lake 15
economies 71
ethnic/religious divisions 69, 189
industry/agriculture 133
Ottoman alliances with 27
Ottoman gains/occupation 19–20, 24, 41
Ottoman loss of territory/influence 2, 38–40, 54–6, 57, 59, 186–7, 190
Ottoman rule 102–3
post-Imperial developments 195–7, 200
see also names of specific states/regions
Balkh 87
Baltic Sea 88–9
bathhouses 160–1
Bayraktar Mustafa Pasha, Grand Vizier 49–50
bedouin 105–6
Beethoven, Ludwig van 9
population/demography 115, 116
transport/industry 121, 125, 129, 131, 135
Bektashi, brotherhood 163, 164
conflicts over 24, 38, 41, 102
demography 115–16
Bellini, Gentile 76
Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 2, 59, 68
birth control 113–14
Bismarck, Otto von 59
commercial significance 83, 116, 120, 127
living conditions 155–6
Ottoman holdings adjoining 3, 13, 15, 21, 24–5, 41
strategical significance/negotiations 5, 60, 61
Bodin, Jean 7
Bombay 84
Bonaparte, Napoleon see Napoleon
The Book of Dede Korkut (anonymous epic) 15
books, production of 170–2
Bosnia 20, 30, 47, 59, 69, 117, 136, 174, 183, 190
Botev, Khristo 176
Brahms, Johannes 9
Britain, Great see United Kingdom
Brubeck, Dave 9
Bucharest, treaty of (1812) 55–6
Bukhara 87
conflicts for possession of 25, 41, 59
ethnic/religious divisions 69, 176–7, 189
post-Ottoman state 71, 118, 190, 196–7
Burgundy 20
Bursa, as Ottoman capital 20
Byron, George Gordon, Lord 10
caliphate, office of 40, 51, 168, 177, 198
end of 61
international recognition 40
as tool of diplomacy 75, 83–5, 96
camels see animals
Canıklı Ali Paşaolu family 46
Cantacuzene, John, 26
capitulation principle 65, 78–9
carpets see textile industries
Catherine the Great, Czarina 40, 41, 89
cavalry 28–9
Celveti brotherhood 163
Cemal Pasha 191
censorship 172
central Asia see India; Moghul Empire
China
political ideology 25–6, 78–9, 199
size/political status 3–4, 11, 75–6
Chios 69
Christians/Christianity
communities within Empire 62
demography 114
households 113
legal/social status 65–6, 132, 143, 177–8
Ottoman attitudes to 5–6
Ottoman displacement of 16
Ottoman recruitment of 18–19, 27, 31
relations with other faiths 175–9
role in Imperial economy 67–8, 132
schools 169
violence (verbal/physical) involving 69, 176, 186–8
American, architecture 10
circumcision 93–4
demography 180–1
living conditions 114
migrations to 116
population 115–16
clothing
laws 44, 66, 67, 144, 145–7, 148–50, 168, 177
manufacture see textile industries
social customs 149–51, 150, 151, 157–60
see also women
coffee 42
role in popular culture 10, 155, 156, 160
commerce see economy; merchants;
Ottoman Empire,
internal/international trade
Committee of Union and Progress 187–8
Constantine, Emperor 4
as Byzantine capital 15, 93, 99
capture by crusaders (1204) 17
Ottoman conquest (1453) 4, 21, 32, 93, 197
see also Istanbul
consumption, and court policy 44
see also textile industries
Crete 190
Crimea
Khanate, relations with Ottomans 21, 27, 40, 83, 84–5, 87, 117
Çaldıran, battle of 21
Çapanolu family 46
Çukorova 133
Dalmatia 38
Damascus 45, 58, 69, 102, 103–6, 129, 191
demography 113
governance 103–5
industry 182–3
strategical importance 103
Danube river 25, 41, 46, 117, 120, 133
Dardanelles 19
Delacroix, Ferdinand 10
devşirme (military levy) 30–1, 32, 99, 144
dhimmi 177
diet
festive 166
peasant 155–6
(early) hazards of 77–8
‘modern’ 79–82
‘pre-modern’ 78–9
Divan (Imperial council) 93, 98
Diyarbekir 116, 120, 122, 129, 156
Dniester river 25
Dulkadirid principality 26
Duşan, Stephen, Serbian monarch 26
‘Eastern Question’ 5, 56, 58–9
economy, Imperial 111–40
advantages for subject peoples 28
international comparisons 71–2, 75
provincial 108
relationship with Western economies 67–8
see also taxation
Edirne 56
‘Event’ (1703) 43
as Ottoman capital 20
alliance with Ottomans 98
conflict with Ottomans 41, 55, 56–8, 64, 102
economy 72
political history 38, 40–1, 46, 47, 55, 58, 58n, 60
trade with Ottomans 42
ekberiyyet 92
Election Law (1908) 191
employment
racial/religious distribution 182–6
see also agriculture; cities; guilds; Ottoman Empire: industry; women
England, see Britain, Great
Enver Pasha 101–2
epidemics, see plague
Eugene, Prince, of Savoy 38
Eyüp Ansari, companion of the Prophet 93
see also manufacturing
famines 114–15
Fatma, daughter of Ahmet III 44
Fazil Mustafa, Grand Vizier 38
fez (article of clothing) 148–50, 160
Fez, sultanate of 88
Flanders 20
Florence 199
Foreign Ministry 81–3
foreigners
as employers/investors 72, 123, 184–5
France
agreements/alliances with Ottomans 21, 41, 78, 79, 80, 85–6
civil wars 69
conflict with Ottomans 20–1, 56, 86, 107 (see also Napoleon)
foreign policy/interests 76, 190, 192
internal society/politics 66, 179
trade with Ottomans 126–7, 128–9
Francis I of France 21, 78, 85–6
fratricide, in Imperial family 91–2
Frederick I ‘The Great’ of Prussia 77–8
French (language), use in diplomacy 81, 82
Fuat Pasha, Grand Vizier 82
Galatasaray School 82
Gallipoli 26
Gazi Hassan Pasha, Grand Admiral 50
alliance with Ottomans 19–20
genocide, Armenian massacres as 187–8
Germany 66
attitude towards modern Turkey 198–9
conflict with Ottomans 20
foreign policy/interests 59, 76
Gérôme, Jean-Léon 10
cross-regional appointments 108
powers/responsibilities 103–5
Greece/Greeks 2
Ancient 177
in armed forces 177
conflicts in/over 56, 59, 61, 69, 81, 189, 200
Orthodox church 47–8, 180, 186, 189
role in Ottoman diplomacy 82–3
ethnic/religious make-up 183–4
governmental opposition 64, 65
Habsburg Empire 9
conflicts with Ottomans 1–2, 5, 21, 24, 38, 59, 76, 85
living conditions 134
Halveti brotherhood 163
Hanafi school of law 105
Hanbal, ibn/Hanbali school 50, 105
Handel, Georg Friedrich 9
Harput 129
Hashemites 61
Hawran valley 122
Haydn, Josef 9
Hijaz railroad 98
Holy Cities see Mecca; Medina; pilgrimages
holy war see jihad
homes see households
elite see vizier/pasha households
physical layout/furnishing 152–7
size/composition 113
Humayun, Moghul Emperor 87–8
Hundred Years War 3
conflicts for possession of 24, 38–40
see also Austria-Hungary; Habsburg Empire
Hüseyin, Imam, commemoration of 166
Hussein, Saddam 200
Ibrahim Pasha, Grand Vizier 8, 44, 148
Ibrahim Pasha (son of Muhammad Ali) 56–8
iltizam (tax farm) see taxation: methods
iftar (celebratory meal) 166
India, Ottoman relations/trade with 87–8, 121
see also Moghul Empire
Industrial Revolution 136
Ottoman relations/trade with 77, 86–7, 121
see also Safevid Empire
Iraq
post-Ottoman state 3, 61, 64, 192, 199, 200, 201
central principles (and exceptions) 6, 31, 91, 98, 168
as a feature of Ottoman identity 2, 6–7, 177, 190–1
festivals 165–8
religious foundations/places of worship 34–5, 162–4
theory of sovereignty 32, 91, 94–9
varieties 5–6, 96 (see also Sufism)
view of non-Islamic world 78, 85, 177
Western attitudes to 67–8
see also mosques; Muslim peoples
Ismail, Khedive, of Egypt 58
architecture 95
demography 45, 113, 114, 180–1, 188
industry/employment 135, 136–9, 182–3
as Ottoman capital 4, 21, 63–4, 102, 191
provision from provinces 42
religious establishments 40, 83–4, 96, 116, 163
transport links 116, 120, 122, 125–6, 131
see also Constantinople
Janissaries 31
military decline 40, 44–5, 162
political/commercial role 45–6, 136–9
rebellion/destruction 49, 63, 64, 127, 139
Jassy, treaty of (1792) 40
Jews (within Empire)
communities 62
costume 44
education 169
households 113
relations with other races/faiths 6, 175, 177, 186
legal/social status 65–6, 132, 143, 177–9
jihad 85
Kadiri brotherhood 163
Kara Mustafa Pasha, Grand Vizier 9
karagöz see shadow puppets
Karaman dynasty 18
Karamanlica (language) 181
Karaosmanolu family 46, 49, 106, 108
Karlowitz, treaty of (1699) 38, 40, 80, 86, 88, 103
Kashgar (Central Asia) 85
Kayseri 181
Khadija, commemoration of 166
Khazak khans 87
Khokand 84
Koprivshtitsa 121
Köprülüfamily 34
Köprülü Mehmet Pasha 43
Kösem (mother of Sultans) 33–4
Küçük Kaynarca, treaty of (1774) 40, 80, 83–4, 87
Kurds 180
Kuwait 200
labor see agriculture; employment; guilds; trade unions; women; workers
Lawrence, T.E. 10
Lazar, Serbian monarch 26
League of Nations 192
Lebanon 3, 61, 69, 135, 192, 197, 201
Lepanto, battle of (1571) 24
life expectancy 112–13
Lombardy 20
Treaty of (1812) 56
Loti, Pierre 10
Louis XV of France 9
Lumière, Auguste/Louis 162
Luther, Martin 8
Macedonia 114
Mahmut I, Sultan 77
Mahmut II, Sultan 33, 56, 63, 64–5, 81–2, 92, 96, 98, 102, 108, 148, 168
Malgara 187
malikane, (tax farm) see taxation: methods
Malta 116
Manisa, Governorship of 91
Mann, Thomas, The Magic Mountain 10
manufacturing see factories; guilds; mechanization; Ottoman Empire: industry; textile industries
Manzikert, battle of 16
Maritza river 120
markets 161
single/multiple 113
massacres see Armenia
see also pilgrimages
Mediterranean Sea
strategic/commercial importance 24
Mehmet II ‘The Conqueror,’ Sultan 4, 8, 20, 21, 25, 27, 30, 32–3, 76, 91, 93
Mehmet V Reşat, Sultan 94
Mehmet VI Vahideddin, Sultan 98
merchants 161
dress/lifestyle 148, 149–50, 155
ethnic/religious divisions 31, 68, 129–30, 184
Mevlevi brotherhood 163
away from Empire 115
into Empire 116
within Empire 116–19, 130, 186–7, 200
military see army
millets (religious communities) 64, 175–6
Ming dynasty 3–4
Ottoman relations with 87–8
Mohács, battle of (1526) 24
Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), The Bourgeois Gentleman 10
Moluccans 24
Mongols, conflict with Ottomans 13, 17, 18, 21, 27, 83
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de 7
Morocco 88–9
mortality, rates/reasons 112–13, 114–15
mosques, construction/design 96, 97
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 9
Escape from the Seraglio 9, 76
Muhammad, the Prophet 78, 93, 99, 164, 165–6, 177
Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt 41, 55, 56–8, 81, 98, 102
Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab 50–1
Muhammad ibn Saud 51
Murat III, Sultan 91
music 181
Ottoman influence on Western 8–9
acceptance of Ottoman rule 190–2
employment 182–3
involvement in trade 129–30
legal privileges 54, 65–6, 68, 143, 177–8
opposition to Ottoman rule 50–1
under Western rule 84, 85, 117
Mustafa III, Sultan 77
Mustafa IV, Sultan 92
Mustafa Pasha, Grand Vizier 9
Mustafa Reşit Pasha, Grand Vizier 82
Mysore 88
Nakshabandi brotherhood 163
Napoleon Bonaparte 80
Asian campaign 106–7
invasion of Egypt 38, 40–1, 55, 88
and end of Empire 188–92
Navarino, battle of (1827) 56
Nejef 96
newspapers see books
Nicopolis, battle of (1396) 20–1
Nile river 120
Nilufer (wife of Orhan) 26
housing/lifestyle 156–7
role in Empire 118–19, 131 (see also Turcoman peoples)
North Africa, Ottoman relations with 88–9
opera 162
opium 128
Orhan, Sultan 26
Osman I, Sultan (founder of dynasty) 17–18
Otranto, occupation of 21
administrative structure 4, 27–8, 32–5, 46–7, 61–5, 99–103 (see also provinces)
centralizing measures 62–5, 102, 108–9
criticisms of (post-dissolution) 188–92, 195–7, 198–9, 201
cultural diversity 142–3, 152, 174, 181
debts 71–2
diplomacy see separate main heading
disintegration (during/after WW1) 3, 5, 60–1, 186, 188–92, 199
economy see separate main heading
as European power 2–3
foreigners’ attitudes to see under Western Europe
geographical extent 2–3, 13, 14, 22–3, 24–5, 39, 54, 60, 104
impact on European culture 7–11
integration of multiple races/faiths 5–6, 18, 69, 176–7, 178–9, 201
internal conflicts 69–71
internal trade 126, 128–30, 131, 135–6
international relations 75–88
international status 3–5, 75–6
international trade 119–21, 126–9, 131, 135
legal system 4, 200 (see also Islam: law)
modern legacy 3, 5, 20, 68–9, 118, 174, 195–201
officials 28, 29, 34, 43, 62, 146–7, 149
origins 13–19
political ideology 5–6, 32, 41–2, 65–8, 78–9, 190–1, 199, 201
popular culture 161–2
population see separate main heading
power structure 33–4, 42–3, 92–3 (see also Sultanate)
public buildings/spaces 95, 95–6, 97, 98–9, 157–62
reasons for decline 41–2, 50, 99–101
reasons for success 17–19, 25–31
religion see separate main heading
role in European politics 2–3, 56, 67–8
royal family see princes; Sultanate; names of rulers
subjects’ contentment with 188–9, 190, 191–2
territorial gains 18–19, 20–5, 41, 102
territorial losses 2–3, 5, 37–41, 54–9, 102, 117
Paissiy, Father 176
relations with Ottoman government 107
Pamuk, Orhan 198
pan-Islamism see Islam, House of
Pashas see viziers Passarowitz, treaty of (1718) 40, 41
Peç 189
Pera 157
Persia see Safevid Empire
Peter the Great, Czar 41, 47, 102
Phanar (Fener) 47–8
pilgrimages 96–8
protection of routes 43, 103, 105
pious foundations see under Islam; religion
plague see disease
Poiret, Paul 10
Poland 20
polygyny see marriage
Pompadour, Madame de 9
density 111–12, 115–16, 123, 128–9
mortality 112–15
movements see migration
port cities
demography/culture 114, 115–16, 135, 157, 162
Portugal, conflicts with Ottomans 21–4
primogeniture 90–1
Ottoman adoption of 92
captivity 92
circumcision 93–4
conflicts between 91–2
role in governance 90–1
central control 102, 105, 107–10
co-operation/negotiation with central government 103–5, 106, 109
degree of autonomy 55, 102, 106–7, 109–10
notable families, rise/role of 46–7, 103, 105–6, 108–9, 200
political structures 46–50, 102–3, 108–9
see also governors
Pruth
Treaty of (1711) 78
Public Debt Administration 72, 134, 185
railways 45, 98, 115, 116, 117–18, 122–6, 123, 124, 125
rebellions (against Ottoman rule) 50–1, 55–6, 64, 70–1, 84, 176, 189–90, 191
Reeves-Ellington, Barbara 176n
and commercial involvement 129–30, 132
conflicts (within Empire) 69–71, 186–8
differentiation by costume 44, 66
diversity within Empire 5–6, 18–19, 142–3, 175
festivals 164–5
liturgies 181
as marker of identity 175
and migrations 117–18
nomenclature 175
power in provinces 64
principle of toleration 5–6, 31, 132
relationships between 175–9
residential/workplace divisions 179–81, 182–6
use of public spaces 157–60
wars of 8
Resen 180
Romanus Diogenus, Byzantine Emperor 16
‘Rose Garden decree’ (1839) 66–7
Rossini, Gioacchino 9
Rufai brotherhood 163
Rumeli, see Balkans
Russia
alliances/agreements with Ottomans 40, 80, 83–4, 87
conflicts with Ottomans 5, 38–40, 41, 49, 55–6, 58–9, 64, 76, 81, 86, 88–9, 102, 117, 126–7, 162
living conditions 134
Sa’di brotherhood 163
Safevid Empire 3, 38, 40, 76, 96
conflict with Ottomans 21, 30, 69
saints, tombs of 163–4
Salonica
capture (1430) 20
demography 114, 115, 116, 179–80
industry/employment 135, 136, 183, 184
inter-racial relationships 178–9
(popular) culture 162, 164, 169
Samarkand 87
San Stefano, treaty of (1878) 58–9
Savoy 21
Scotland 20
Selim I, Sultan 21, 58, 69, 98, 99
Selim II, Sultan 45, 79, 91, 96
Selim III, Sultan 78, 80–1, 88, 102, 106–7
sened-i ittifak 49
Serbia 2, 20, 25, 41, 55–6, 59, 189
Shafii school of law 105
Shah Waliullah of Delhi 50
Sharia see Islam: law Shii Islam 6, 96, 182
Sidon 47
silk
ceremonial wear 165
manufacture/trade 128, 135, 182
Sisman, Bulgarian king 26
Slankamen, battle of 38
Slovenia 38
Sobieski, John, of Poland 1
Special Organization (Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa) 188
sports 162
St Gotthard, battle of 86
storytelling, as popular entertainment 161
Süleyman II ‘The Magnificent,’ Sultan 4, 8, 20, 21–4, 33, 37, 45, 78, 79, 85, 87, 96, 144
Süleyman the Great (of Baghdad) 46, 47
artistic depictions 94–5
costume 145
powers/responsibilities 4, 32–3, 42–4, 64–5, 78, 83–5, 101
principles of succession 25–6, 90–3
Sumatra 84
Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) 61
Syria
post-Ottoman state 3, 61, 64, 192, 201
transport/trade 122, 127, 130, 133
unrest in 69
Szigetvar, siege of 37
Talat Pasha 188
Tanzimat era/reforms 66, 82, 99, 149, 166, 178
tax farms see taxation: methods
taxation 33
exemption from 79
methods 28–30, 34–5, 48–9, 64, 131–2
Tepedelenli Ali Pasha 106
textile industries 116, 128–9, 135, 137, 182–3
Tijaniyya Sufi order 50
timars (fiscal units) 28–9
supercession 29–30
Tipu Sultan of Mysore 88
tobacco
social role 160–1
Tokat 139
Topkapi palace 93, 95, 98–9, 149, 166
Tott, Baron de 50
Toulon 21
Trabzon 21, 118, 121, 155–6, 183
transport, methods of 119–26
overland 121–6
river 120
sea-borne 119–21
see also animals; caravan trade; railways; steamships
treaties 76–7
see also names of specific agreements
see also bedouin; nomads; Turcoman peoples
Tripoli (Lebanon) 113
Tripolis (Greece) 69
Tripolitanian War 59
Turcoman (nomadic) peoples 4, 15–16
inflitration of Byzantine Anatolia 16–18
internal conflicts 18–19
Turkey (modern state) 118, 192, 197–8, 201
application for EU membership 86, 195, 198–9
Turkish (language) 181, 189, 195–6
as stereotypical/derogatory designation 1–2, 8, 9–10, 196–7
Tzympe, Ottoman occupation/territorial significance 19
Ukraine 38
ulema (religious scholars)
clothing 66
diversity 143
educational role 94
participation in festivals 167
religious pronouncements 91, 97, 168
role in Imperial power structure 43, 48, 62, 101, 144
alliances with Ottomans 80, 86, 88
conflict with Ottomans 56
foreign policy/interests 76, 190, 192
trade with Ottomans 126
United States
Civil War 128
Declaration of Independence 66
racial violence 69
Uşak 183
Varna, battle of (1444) 20–1
vassalage, system of 26–8, 47–50
Venice (city-state) 3, 25, 38, 79
conflict with Ottomans 24, 41, 76, 86, 102
1529 siege 24
marriage into royal family 101–2
role in Imperial power structure 34, 43, 46, 48, 62, 92–3, 101
Vrachanski, S. 176
Wagner, Richard 9
Wahhabi movement 50–1, 84, 96–8
Wallachia 20, 27, 28, 41, 47–8, 133–4
war, impact on population 115 see also army; names of conflicts/opponents
weaving see textile industries
anti-Ottoman alliances 20–1, 56
commercial control of Empire 120, 185–6
economies 67–8
global power 59
governmental regimes 38
Ottoman relations with 76–83, 85–6
role in break-up of Empire 61, 188–9, 190, 192
stereotypical view of Empire 1–2, 8, 9–10, 68–9, 76, 99, 175–6, 198–9
Westphalia, Peace of (1648) 79–80
dress 67, 148, 151–2, 153, 154, 161
place in Ottoman society 64, 66–7, 169
political power 26, 33–4, 43, 48, 92, 94
see also marriage
construction 116
industrial 135
migrations 116
see also agriculture; employment; guilds; trade unions; women
workplace see employment
Yemen 51
Yirmisekiz Çelebi, Ambassador 80
Young Turk government 65, 67, 79, 101–2, 172, 184, 187, 190–2
Zahir ul Umar 105–6
Zenta, battle of 38
Zonguldak 116