NOTES

Introduction: The Irish in Australia

1‘Craic everywhere – St Patrick’s Day 2018’, Irish Echo (Sydney), 17 March 2018, <www.irishecho.com>.

2‘Professor Patrick McGorry AO’, Orygen: National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, <www.orygen.org.au/about/our/people/leaders>; ‘A life of faith, care and Mercy’, Irish Echo, 24 October 2010, <www.irishecho.com>.

3Argus (Melbourne), 18 February 1848, p. 2; Port Phillip Gazette and Settler’s Journal (Melbourne), 27 May 1848, p. 1.

4See Cronin & Adair, The Wearing of the Green 2002.

5Even as late as the mid-1990s, a demographer estimated that Australians of Irish descent, at 12.4 per cent of the population, were the second largest ethnic group after Australians of English descent at 45.3 per cent. See Price, ‘The ethnic character of the Australian population’ 2001, pp. 78–85.

6Akenson, Small Differences 1988, pp. 62–66, 214–15.

7Akenson, The Irish Diaspora 1993, pp. 68–69, 261–63.

8O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia 1986, p. 25.

9Proudfoot & Hall, Imperial Spaces 2011, pp. 46–59.

10Delaney, Kenny & MacRaild, ‘Symposium’ 2006, pp. 35–58.

11Oxley, Convict Maids 1996.

12Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation 1994, pp. 6–14.

13Rudé, Protest and Punishment 1978, pp. 31–40, 145.

14The Irish transported in 1846–53 numbered around 2400 women and 5100 men. Shaw, Convicts and the Colonies 1978, p. 368. See also Kavanagh & Snowden, Van Diemen’s Women 2015.

15McClaughlin, Barefoot and Pregnant 1991.

16Donnelly Jr, ‘The construction of the memory of the Famine in Ireland and the Irish diaspora’ 1996, pp. 26–61.

17Proudfoot & Hall, ‘Points of departure’ 2005, pp. 341–78.

18Commission on Emigration and Other Population Problems [1954], pp. 124–25; O’Farrell 1986, pp. 23, 63.

19Grimes, ‘Postwar Irish immigrants’ 1988, pp. 137–59; O’Connor, ‘The Multiple Dimensions of Migrancy, Irishness and Home among Contemporary Irish Immigrants in Melbourne, Australia’ 2005.

20‘More Irish opting for Australian way of life’, RTÉ, 9 July 2013, <www.rte.ie; ‘Destination Australia’, Irish Times (Dublin), 2 June 2018, www.irishtimes.com.

21O’Farrell 1986. Some important subsequent publications include Fitzpatrick 1994; Campbell, Ireland’s New Worlds 2008; Reid, Farewell My Children 2011; Proudfoot & Hall 2011.

22He had summarised many of these arguments earlier in O’Farrell, ‘The Irish and Australian history’ 1978, pp. 17–21.

23O’Farrell 1986, pp. 11–12.

24For other critiques of Irish–Australian history, see Bolton, ‘The Irish in Australian historiography’ 1986, pp. 5–19; Reece, ‘Writing about the Irish in Australia’ 1991, pp. 226–42; Malcolm, ‘10,000 miles away’ 2007, pp. 39–47; Malcolm, ‘After O’Farrell’ 2017.

25Hogan, The Irish in Australia 1887.

26Thompson, ‘Hogan, James Francis (1855–1924)’, ADB.

27Cunneen, ‘Cleary, Patrick Scott (1861–1941)’, ADB.

28Cleary, Australia’s Debt to Irish Nation-Builders 1933, pp. 1, 4–5.

29See, for example, Kiernan, The Irish Exiles in Australia 1954; Adam-Smith, Heart of Exile 1986; Patrick & Patrick, Exiles Undaunted 1989.

30O’Farrell 1986, pp. 23–24. O’Farrell restricted Irish political offenders to those who had taken part in rebellions, whereas other historians defined them more broadly to include ‘social protesters’, which increased their numbers to around 2250. See Rudé 1978, pp. 7–10, 249–50.

31O’Farrell 1986, p. 52.

32McLachlan, ‘Patrick O’Farrell on the Irish in Australia’ 1991, pp. 258–74.

33Lyons & Russell (eds), Australia’s History 2005, pp. 36, 103–104, 141, 193.

34Bashford & Macintyre (eds), The Cambridge History of Australia, vol. 1, 2013, pp. 207–209, 417–18, 430–31, 480, 602, 618–19, 625–26.

35Rickard, Australia 1988, pp. 37, 187. For a more critical approach to the use of ethnic categories, including ‘Irish’, see Teo, ‘Multiculturalism and the problem of multi-cultural histories’ 2003, pp. 142–55.

36Curthoys, ‘History and identity’ 1997, p. 26.

37Hirst, Australian History in 7 Questions 2014, pp. 143–52.

38Ward, The Australian Legend 1966, p. 52. By contrast, a recent study of mateship has little to say about the Irish and, when they are referred to, it is usually as either ‘British’ or ‘Catholic’. See Dyrenfurth, Mateship 2015, pp. 19, 106, 112, 114.

39Clark, A Short History of Australia 1980, p. 75.

40Dixson, The Real Matilda 1994, pp. 155, 157, 162–63, 169.

41Blainey, A History of Victoria 2006, pp. 114, 117, 123, 134.

42Scott, A Short History of Australia 1920, pp. 60–61.

43McKibbin, ‘Britain and Australia’ 2010, pp. 60.4–60.5.

44O’Farrell 1986; McConville, Croppies, Celts and Catholics 1987.

452016 Commonwealth of Australia Census: 2024.0 Census of Population and Housing, Australian Bureau of Statistics, <www.abs.gov.au>.

1 The Irish race

1Age (Melbourne), 23 November 1864, p. 4, cited in Bongiorno, The Sex Lives of Australians 2012, pp. 47–49.

2Cited in Kirkpatrick, ‘Lynch, Francis Ennis (Guy) (1895–1967)’, ADB.

3O’Farrell & O’Farrell (eds), Documents in Australian Catholic History, vol. 1, 1969, p. 73.

4Argus (Melbourne), 18 February 1848, p. 2.

5Topp, ‘English institutions and the Irish race’ 1881, pp. 9–12. See also Hall & Malcolm, ‘English institutions and the Irish race’ 2016, pp. 1–15.

6Correspondent to Patrick O’Farrell, 16 April 1975, O’Farrell papers, National Library of Australia, MS 6265/25/414.

7McDonald, ‘The problem with jokes about Irishmen’ 2011.

8Stocking Jr, Race, Culture and Evolution 1982.

9The literature on settler colonialism and race is extensive but we have been influenced especially by Lake & Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line 2008; Wolfe, Traces of History 2016; Veracini, Settler Colonialism 2010.

10Malik, The Meaning of Race 1996, pp. 80–81; McMahon, ‘Anthropological race psychology’ 2009, pp. 575–96.

11Malik 1996, pp. 91ff.

12Hall, Civilising Subjects 2002, p. 17, citing Hall, ‘The multi-cultural question’ 2001, pp. 209–41.

13Young, Colonial Desire 1995, p. 54.

14See also Banton, ‘The vertical and horizontal dimensions of the word race’ 2010, pp. 127–40.

15Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White 1995.

16Classic works in whiteness studies include Allen, The Invention of the White Race 1994 and 1997; Frankenberg, Displacing Whiteness 1997; Bonnett, White Identities 2000.

17Ignatiev 1995, pp. 99–112.

18See also Garner, Racism in the Irish Experience 2004, p. 100; for additional perspectives, see Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness 1991.

19O’Neill, Famine Irish and the American Racial State 2017, p. 5.

20As summarised by de Nie, The Eternal Paddy 2004, p. 5.

21De Nie 2004, p. 5; Moynihan, ‘Other People’s Diasporas’ 2013, p. 17.

22The literature on this topic is extensive. See as examples: Hayton, ‘From barbarian to burlesque’ 1998, pp. 5–31; Baker, ‘Men to monsters’ 2005, pp. 153–69; Leerssen, Mere Irish and Fíor-Ghael 1996, pp. 32–76; Carroll, ‘Barbarous slaves and civil cannibals’ 2003, pp. 63–80.

23Canny, The Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland 1976, pp. 1–44; Quinn, The Elizabethans and the Irish 1966, pp. 7–13, 62–90.

24Canny, ‘Protestants, planters and apartheid in early modern Ireland’ 1986, pp. 105–15; Canny, Making Ireland British 2001, pp. 420–25, 489–91, 506–34.

25Hickman, ‘Reconstructing deconstructing “race”’ 1998, pp. 288–307; Mac an Ghaill, ‘The Irish in Britain’ 2000 pp. 137–47.

26Garner 2004, p. 115.

27Recent literature on the histories of Indigenous peoples and the catastrophic effects of racial policies in the past is extensive and growing. For an overview, see Broome, Aboriginal Australians 2010.

28O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia 1986, pp. 8, 72–73.

29O’Farrell, ‘Imagination’s stain’ 2002, pp. 11–12.

30Stratton, ‘Borderline anxieties’ 2005, pp. 222–23.

31McGrath, ‘Shamrock Aborigines’ 2010, pp. 57, 62–63.

32Curthoys, ‘White, British and European’ 2009, pp. 3–24.

33Topp, 1881, pp. 14–15, 21.

34There is a substantial literature on the history of 19th-century race science. See Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science 1982; Hannaford, Race 1996.

35Kaplan, ‘White, black and green’ 2004, p. 55.

36Knox, The Races of Men 1850. For an overview of Knox’s life, see Biddiss, ‘The politics of anatomy’ 1976, pp. 245–50.

37Knox 1850, p. 26.

38Knox 1850, p. 39.

39Knox 1850, p. 253–54.

40Knox 1850, p. 217. For modern writers who have discussed Knox’s thinking on the Irish, see Curtis Jr, Apes and Angels 1997; de Nie 2004; Bornstein, The Colors of Zion 2011.

41‘Knox on the Celtic race’ 1868, p. 181.

42Avery, ‘Civilisation’ 1869, p. ccxxxi.

43Avery 1869, p. ccxxxvi.

44Gould, The Mismeasure of Man 1981, pp. 83–88.

45‘Influence of race on disease’, British Medical Journal, vol. 1, 1870, p. 137.

46Banton, What We Now Know About Race and Ethnicity 2015.

47For a recent and wide-ranging study of the Irish and race science, see Carew, The Quest for the Irish Celt 2018.

48Richardson, ‘Beddoe, John (1826–1911)’, ODNB.

49Beddoe, ‘Colour and race’ 1901, pp. 219–50, and The Races of Britain 1885, p. 11.

50Beddoe 1885, p. 10.

51Beddoe, Memories of 80 Years 1910, p. 192.

52Fleure, ‘Haddon, Alfred Cort (1855–1940)’, rev. Rouse, ODNB; Quiggan, Haddon the Headhunter 1942.

53Grattan, ‘On the importance’ 1853, pp. 198–208. See Haddon, History of Anthropology 1910, p. 34 for his summary of Grattan’s work. Grattan gave Haddon his research materials, now among Haddon’s papers in Cambridge University Library. Other material is likely still in the Trinity College, Dublin laboratory, currently being studied by Ciaran Walsh.

54Haddon, ‘Studies in Irish craniology’ 1891–93, pp. 759–67.

55Quiggan 1942.

56Haddon, The Races of Man 1909, pp. 6, 40.

57AC Haddon to E Haddon, 21 July 1890, Haddon collection, University of Cambridge Library [hereafter UCL], 22.

58AC Haddon journal, 8 July 1890, p.15, UCL, 22.

59Several albums of photographs from Haddon’s team are now held in Trinity College, Dublin Library and have been analysed by De Mórdha & Walsh, The Irish Headhunter 2012, See also Carville ‘Resisting vision’ 2010, pp. 158–75; Urry, ‘Making sense of diversity and complexity’ 1998, pp. 201–33.

60There is an extensive literature on race and colonisation. For a recent erudite addition, see Wolfe, 2016.

61On Irish convicts, see O’Farrell 1986, pp. 22–53; Reece, The Origins of Irish Convict Transportation 2001; McMahon, Convicts at Sea 2011, and Floating Prisons 2017.

62Collins, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, vol. 2, 1802, pp. 74–77.

63Cited in O’Farrell & O’Farrell, vol. 1, 1969, p. 73.

64Colonial Times, 25 March 1834, cited in Maxwell-Stewart, ‘“And all my great hardships endured”?’ 2015, p. 70.

65Maxwell-Stewart 2015, p. 70.

66Lang, Reminiscences of My Life and Times 1972, p. 197.

67Irish uptake of various assisted migration schemes is examined in Richards, Britannia’s Children 2004, pp. 135–49, 180–81; Proudfoot & Hall, Imperial Spaces 2011, pp. 80–82; Reid, Farewell My Children 2011, pp. 12–31.

68Argus, 6 June 1891, p. 4.

69Topp 1881, pp. 24–26.

70Lake, ‘“Essentially Teutonic”’ 2010, p. 57.

71Topp 1881, pp. 9–10.

72Bendigo Advertiser, 7 September 1865, p. 3. The women were sent home with their respective husbands, who were charged with keeping them quiet.

73South Australian Register, 16 December 1869, p. 3.

74Kiama Independent, 1 June 1877, p. 4. The case was reported widely throughout the colonies. See, for example, Age, 4 June 1877, p. 2.

75Cited in Hall 2002, pp. 109, 111.

76Cited in Hogan, The Irish People 1899, p. 7.

77Kingsley (ed.), Charles Kingsley, vol. 2, pp. 111–12, cited in Kaplan 2004, p. 54.

78Turner, A History of the Colony of Victoria, vol. 1, 1973, p. 249.

79Bonwick, The Wild White Man and the Blacks of Victoria 1863, p. 32, cited in Damousi, Colonial Voices 2010, p. 23.

80Croly & Wakeman, Miscegenation 1864.

81Croly & Wakeman 1864, p. 120.

82Lemire, ‘Miscegenation’ 2002, pp. 117–21.

83Sydney Morning Herald, 9 May 1864, p. 3. The miscegenation hoax was discussed in the Brisbane Courier Mail, 16 March 1866, p. 4.

84Argus, 4 July 1867, p. 7; Mount Alexander Mail, 18 June 1867, p. 3; Geelong Advertiser, 10 July 1867, p. 10.

85Advocate (Melbourne), 14 May 1881, p. 17, 15 January 1881, p. 7.

86O’Brien, ‘English institutions and the Irish race: A reply’ 1881, pp. 111–14; see also Hall & Malcolm 2016, pp. 14–15.

87McMahon, Grand Opportunity 2008.

88O’Farrell 1986, pp. 178–80; Noone, Hidden Ireland in Victoria 2012, pp. 77–108; Sullivan & Sullivan, ‘The Queensland Irish Association’ 2015, pp. 13–34.

89M Close to AC Haddon, 1 December 1893, UCL, MS 3058. See E Ó Raghallaigh, ‘Hogan, Edmund Ignatius (1831–1917)’, in McGuire & Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biography, vol. 4, 2009, p. 738.

90Hogan 1899, p. 7.

91Western Australian Record, 21 April 1892, p. 3; Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 9 April 1892, p. 6. The Irish-Australian nationalist Dr Nicholas O’Donnell owned a copy of Hogan’s 1899 book, which is now in the O’Donnell Library, St Mary’s Newman Academic Centre, University of Melbourne.

92Garner 2004, p. 69, citing E Butler-Cullingford, Ireland’s Others 2001, pp. 99–110.

93Garner 2004, p. 69.

94Advocate, 28 May 1887, p. 9.

95Nelson, Irish Nationalists and the Making of the Irish Race 2012, pp. 124–25.

96Cited in McCracken, Forgotten Protest 1983, p. 34.

97Banton, Race Relations 1967, p. 8.

2 The Irish and Indigenous Australians: friends or foes?

1B Burke to J Burke, 18 June 1882, cited in Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation 1994, p. 154.

2MacGinley, ‘A Study of Irish Migration to, and Settlement in, Queensland’ 1972, p. 184.

3McDonough (ed.), Was Ireland a Colony? 2005; Kenny, ‘Ireland and the British Empire’ 2004, pp. 1–11.

4Fitzpatrick, ‘Ireland and the empire’ 1999, p. 494.

5Bielenberg, ‘Irish emigration to the British Empire, 1700–1914’ 2000, pp. 215–34.

6Fitzpatrick 1999, pp. 510–12.

7Coolahan, ‘The Irish and others in Irish nineteenth-century textbooks’ 1993, pp. 59–60.

8McGrath, ‘Shamrock Aborigines’ 2010, pp. 55–84; McGrath, ‘Shamrock Aborigines’ 2013, pp. 108–43; Reece, ‘The Irish and the Aborigines’ 2000, pp. 192–204. A recent thesis explores some of these issues. Smart, ‘Excused Only Through the Exigencies of Narrative’ 2017.

9Smith, ‘Lynch, William (Billy) (1839–1913)’, ADB.

10McGinness, Son of Alyandabu 1971, pp. 1–8; Austin, ‘McGinness, Valentine Bynoe (1910–88)’, ADB.

11Ellinghaus, Taking Assimilation to Heart 2006, pp. 153–60.

12Ellinghaus, ‘Absorbing the “Aboriginal problem”’ 2003, pp. 183–207.

13Ellinghaus 2006, pp. 135–39.

14Approved Readers for the Catholic Schools of Australasia 1908, pp. 137–42; Firth & Darlington, ‘Racial stereotypes in the Australian curriculum’ 1993, p. 84.

15Lonergan, Sounds Irish 2004, pp. 26, 31.

16Troy, ‘“Der mary this is fine cuntry is there is in the wourld”’ 1991, pp. 148–80.

17Broome, Aboriginal Australians 2010, pp. 36–68.

18Buckridge, ‘Two Irish poets in colonial Brisbane’ 1991, pp. 16–26; McKay, ‘“A lovely land … by shadows dark untainted”’1994, pp. 148–63.

19Chate, ‘Moore, George Fletcher (1798–1886)’, ADB.

20Cameron, ‘George Fletcher Moore’ 2000, pp. 21–34; Reynolds, Dispossession 1989, pp. 44–46.

21For Denny Day, see O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia 1986, pp. 95–96.

22Tedeschi, Murder at Myall Creek 2016, pp. 76–191; Reece, Aborigines and Colonists 1974, pp. 140–74. For recent assessments of the continuing controversy surrounding the massacre, see Lydon & Ryan (eds), Remembering the Myall Creek Massacre 2018.

23For biographies of Plunkett, see Molony, An Architect of Freedom 1973; Earls, Plunkett’s Legacy 2009.

24Hansord, ‘Eliza Hamilton Dunlop’s “The Aboriginal Mother”’ 2011, pp. 1–12.

25Hogan, The Irish in Australia 1887, p. 314.

26Gifford, ‘Murder and “the execution of the law”’1994, pp. 103–22.

27Fitzgerald, ‘“Blood on the saddle”’ 1984, pp. 7–15.

28Wood, Royal Commission of Enquiry into Alleged Killings and Burning of Bodies of Aborigines in East Kimberley 1927.

29Auty, ‘Patrick Bernard O’Leary and the Forrest River massacres’ 2004, pp. 122–55.

30Durack, Kings in Grass Castles 1974, p. 95.

31Durack 1974, pp. 329–30; see Devlin-Glass, ‘The Irish in grass castles’ 2008, pp. 108–109.

32Bulletin (Sydney), 11 December 1897, p. 27.

33Palmer & McKenna, Somewhere Between Black and White 1978, pp. 1–5.

34Neville, Australia’s Coloured Minority 1947, p. 72.

35B Brock Byrne interviewed by L de Paor, in An Dubh ina Gheal: Assimilation, director P Kehoe, A Saoi Media Production for TG4/BAI television, Dublin, 2015. Our thanks to Val Noone for facilitating our access to this film.

36Mulvaney, ‘Willshire, William Henry (1852–1925)’, ADB.

37Mulvaney, ‘F.J. Gillen’s life and times’ 1997, pp. 1–22.

38F Gillen to B Spencer, 17 September 1899, in Mulvaney, Morphy & Petch (eds), ‘My Dear Spencer’ 1997, pp. 263–64.

39F Gillen to B Spencer, 23 February 1901, in Mulvaney, Morphy & Petch (eds) 1997, p. 319.

40Mulvaney 1997, p. 18.

41Bates, The Passing of the Aborigines 1966; Reece, Daisy Bates 2007, pp. 125–26.

42De Vries, Desert Queen 2008; White, ‘Daisy Bates: Legend and reality’ 1993, pp. 46–65.

43Reece 2007, p. 10.

44West Australian (Perth), 2 December 1905, p. 8.

45Reece 2000, p. 194.

46Cited in Reece 2007, p. 18.

47Cited in Reece 2000, p. 194.

48West Australian, 2 December 1905, p. 8.

49West Australian Record (Perth), 9 December 1905, p. 11.

50West Australian Record, 16 December 1905, p. 11.

51West Australian, 8 February 1910, p. 6.

52Conor, Skin Deep 2016, pp. 226–31.

53Broome, Aboriginal Victorians 2005, pp. 122–25.

54Noone, ‘An Irish rebel in Victoria’ 2007, pp. 112–15.

55Cato, Mister Maloga 1976, pp. 43–44, 47, 71. Our thanks to Val Noone and Wayne Atkinson for alerting us to this reference.

56Haebich, For Their Own Good 1988, p. 102; Bolton, ‘Connolly, Sir James Daniel (1869–1962)’, ADB.

57Wilson, ‘Cahill, William Geoffrey (1854–1931)’, ADB.

58Finnane, ‘The politics of policing powers’ 1987, pp. 93, 101–102; Finnane, Police and Government 1994, p. 118.

59Malezer, ‘O’Leary, Cornelius (1897–1971)’, ADB.

60Franklin, ‘Catholic missions to Aboriginal Australia’ 2016, p. 46.

61Kovesi Killerby, ‘“Never locked up or tied”’ 2000, pp. 124–33.

62West Australian, 25 October 1892, p. 3. See also Devlin-Glass 2008, p. 115.

63O’Grady, Francis of Central Australia 1977, pp. 10–12.

64Carey, ‘Subordination, invisibility and chosen work’ 1998, pp. 254–56.

65Grimshaw, ‘Faith, missionary life and the family’ 2004, pp. 260–80; Carey, ‘Companions in the wilderness’ 1995, pp. 227–48.

66Chant, ‘Hetherington, Isabella (1870–1946)’, ADB; Radi, ‘Long, Margaret Jane (Retta) (1878–1956)’, ADB.

67Robinson, ‘The Aboriginal Embassy, an account of the protests of 1972’ 2013, p. 8.

68G Foley interviewed by L de Paor, in An Dubh ina Gheal: Assimilation 2015.

69‘Patrick Dodson’s speech at the Sydney Aisling Society’, Irish Echo (Sydney), 12–15 April 2001, p. 3; Dodson, ‘Resonance: Irish Australians and Aboriginal Australians’ 2005, pp. 265–76. Our thanks to Val Noone for these references.

70Age (Melbourne), 28 April 2001, p. 27. Our thanks to Val Noone for this reference.

71National Indigenous Television (NITV) news, 27 November 2017, <www.sbs.com.au/nitv/nitv-news/article/2017/10/19/irish-president-acknowledges-role-irish-persecution-aboriginal-people>.

3 The Irish and the Chinese in white Australia

1B Burke to J Burke, 18 June 1882, cited in Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation 1994, p. 154.

2Bulletin (Sydney), 4 July 1896, p. 13.

3Kenny, The American Irish 2000, p. 157.

4For an overview of Chinese-Australian history, see Couchman, ‘Introduction’ 2015, pp. 1–21.

5Rule, ‘Challenging conventions’ 2000, pp. 205–16.

6Campbell, Ireland’s New Worlds 2008, pp. 101–102, 140.

7McCarron, ‘The Global Irish and Chinese’ 2016. Our thanks to Barry McCarron for making his research available to us.

8Markus, Fear and Hatred 1979, pp. 14–34.

9Choi, Chinese Migration 1975, pp. 18, 22, 42; Wang, ‘Chinese immigration 1840s–1890s’ 2001, p. 199.

10Cronin, Colonial Casualties 1982, p. 140; Goodman, Gold Seeking 1994, pp. 20–24.

11Wang 2001, pp. 198–99.

12The classic study is Rolls, Sojourners 1992; for a critique, see Reeves, ‘Sojourners or a new diaspora?’ 2010, pp. 180–82.

13Bendigo Advertiser, 2 September 1857, p. 3.

14Finnane, ‘Law as politics’ 2015, pp. 117–36.

15McCarron 2016, chapter 6, pp. 20–22, 32–33.

16Curthoys, ‘“Men of all nations, except Chinamen”’ 2001, pp. 110–16.

17Price, The Great White Walls Are Built 1974, p. 80.

18Connolly, ‘Miners’ rights’ 1978, pp. 36–37.

19McCarron, 2016, pp. 265–314.

20Morris, ‘Torpy, James (1832–1903)’, ADB.

21Curthoys 2001, pp. 110–11.

22Young Witness and Burrangong Argus, 11 January 1921, p. 2, cited in McCarron 2016, p. 285.

23Owens, ‘Nationalism without words’ 1998, pp. 242–47.

24Dyson, ‘A golden shanty’ (1889), in Ackland (ed.), The Penguin Book of 19th-century Australian Literature 1993, pp. 251–53, 259.

25Bagnall, ‘Rewriting the history of Chinese families in nineteenth-century Australia’ 2011, pp. 65–67.

26Lovejoy, ‘Falling leaves’ 2010, pp. 98–99.

27Young Witness and Burrangong Argus, 11 January 1921, p. 2.

28Bagnall, ‘Golden Shadows on a White Land’ 2007.

29Bagnall, ‘Across the threshold’ 2002, pp. 22–23.

30Choi 1975, p. 30; Markus 1979, p. 68.

31Bagnall 2007, section 2, p. 96; Bagnall 2002, pp. 22–23.

32Bagnall 2007, section 1, p. 50.

33Markus 1979, pp. 258–59.

34Fitzgerald, Big White Lie 2007, pp. xii–xiii; Foord, ‘The three promises’ 2009.

35Holst, ‘Equal before the law?’ 2004, p. 116.

36Family interviews cited in Bagnall 2007, section 2, p. 94.

37Bagnall 2007, section 2, p. 98; Rule, ‘The Chinese camps in colonial Victoria’ 2004, pp. 119–32.

38Rule, ‘Challenging conventions’ 2000, p. 206.

39Bagnall 2007, section 2, p. 114.

40Walker, Anxious Nation 1999, pp. 197–200; see Bakhap’s biography at: <biography.senate.gov.au/thomas-jerome-kingston-bakhap/>.

41Bulletin, 11 November 1899, p. 11.

42Just, Australia 1859, p. 209.

43Dilke, Greater Britain 2005, p. 306.

44Cited in Bagnall 2007, section 2, p. 88.

45Victorian Year Book, 1875, pp. 120–21.

46Victorian Year Book, 1886–87, p. 229.

47Australian Town and Country Journal (Sydney), 16 September 1882, p. 21.

48Price 1974, pp. 189–90; Finnane, ‘“Habeas corpus Mongols”’ 2014, pp. 165–83.

49 Leader(Melbourne), 12 May 1888, p. 26.

50South Australian Weekly Chronicle, 19 May 1888, p. 5.

51‘Ganesha’ [Louis Esson], ‘Round the corner’, Lone Hand, 1 December 1908, in Gelder & Weaver (eds), The Colonial Journals and the Emergence of Australian Literary Culture 2014, pp. 376–77.

52Kuo, Making Chinese Australia 2013, p. 265, citing Chinese Australian Herald (Sydney), 25 March 1898, p. 2.

53For reviews of the play, see Windsor and Richmond Gazette (NSW), 16 October 1914, p. 4; Mudgee Guardian and North-Western Representative (NSW), 22 November 1917, p. 22; Benalla Standard (Victoria), 14 December 1917, p. 4; Shoalhaven News and South Coast District Advertiser (NSW), 30 July 1927, p. 4.

54O’Toole, ‘From Patsy O’Wang to Fu Manchu’ 2009, pp. 40–50; Ou, ‘Ethnic presentations and cutural constructs’ 2013, pp. 480–501.

55Denison, ‘Patsy O’Wang’ 1895, pp. 3, 5, 9, 13–14, 28.

56Windsor and Richmond Gazette, 16 October 1914, p. 4.

57Bagnall 2007, section 2, pp. 80–85.

58Sydney Morning Herald, 29 August 1873, p. 5.

59Illustrated Sydney News, 28 April 1888, p. 6.

60Bulletin, 11 November 1899, p. 11. See also Broinowski, The Yellow Lady 1992.

61Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 17 October 1850, p. 3.

62Sydney Morning Herald, 19 November 1851, p. 2; McCarron 2016, chapter 6, pp. 10–13.

63Freeman’s Journal, 4 December 1851, p. 8.

64Pearl, Brilliant Dan Deniehy 1972, p. 73.

65Goulburn Herald and County of Argyle Advertiser, 1 July 1854, p. 2. See also McCarron, 2006, chapter 6, pp. 27–29; Price 1974, pp. 78–80.

66‘Speech on Mr. Cowper’s Chinese Immigration Bill, April 10th, 1858’, in Martin (ed.), The Life and Speeches of Daniel Henry Deniehy 1998, p. 62.

67Sydney Morning Herald, 3 October 1860, p. 3. Our thanks to Frances Devlin-Glass for references to Daniel Deniehy. See also Curthoys, ‘Race and ethnicity’ 1973, pp. 304–305, for other speeches by Deniehy on the topic of immigration.

68Price 1974, pp. 85–86.

69Lehane, William Bede Dalley 2007, pp. 210, 231–33, 370–72.

70Watters, ‘Contaminated by China’ 2012, pp. 32–38, 43.

71Freeman’s Journal, 18 August 1866, pp. 520–21.

72Ayres, Prince of the Church 2007, pp. 156, 164, 258.

73Bulletin, 8 September 1888, p. 1.

74Kuo 2013, p. 279.

75McCarron 2016, chapter 6, pp. 51–54.

76Anderson, The Poet Militant 1968.

77Bongiorno, ‘Bernard O’Dowd’s socialism’ 1999, p. 109.

78Burgmann, ‘Revolutionaries and racists’ 1980, p. 168; Markus 1979, p. 228.

79Bryan John Murtagh Macrossan, 1958.

80Telegraph (Brisbane), 3 April 1888, p. 4.

81Cited in Bryan 1958, p. 43.

82Cited in Bryan, ‘John Murtagh Macrossan and the genesis of the White Australia Policy’ 1954, p. 899.

83Week (Brisbane), 5 August 1882, p. 12.

84Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness 2002, pp. 73–94; see also Griffiths, ‘The Coolie labour crisis in colonial Queensland’ 2017, pp. 53–78.

85McCarron 2016, chapter 6, pp. 44–45.

86Markus 1979, pp. 200–202.

87Worker (Brisbane), 14 May 1892, p. 1; Markus 1979, p. 209.

88Advocate (Melbourne), 15 February 1908, p. 15.

89On the importance of such self-improvement societies, see Damousi, Colonial Voices 2010, p. 119.

90Connolly, ‘Class, birthplace, loyalty’ 1978, p. 224, notes that the CYMS was the only Irish organisation to support the British during the Boer War.

91Advocate, 13 November 1880, p. 9; Kyneton Observer (Victoria), 7 August 1888, p. 2.

92West Australian Record (Perth), 12 January 1907, p. 12; Hunt, ‘Simons, John Joseph (Jack) (1882–1948)’, ADB.

93Advocate, 19 February 1881, p. 6; Jobson, ‘Palmer, Sir Arthur Hunter (1819–1898)’, ADB.

94Duffy, My Life in Two Hemispheres, vol. 2, 1898, pp. 316–17; Martin, Henry Parkes 1980, pp. 268–69.

95Griffiths, ‘The “necessity” of a socially homogeneous population’ 2015, p. 141.

96Freeman’s Journal, 27 November 1897, p. 13; Catholic Press (Sydney), 26 October 1901, p. 13, 6 August 1903, p. 21.

97Southern Cross (Adelaide), 30 March 1906, p. 10.

98Freeman’s Journal, 27 November 1897, p. 13; McCarron 2016, chapter 6, p. 55.

99Garner, Racism in the Irish Experience 2004, pp. 135–36; MacRaild, ‘“Principle, party and protest”’ 1996, pp. 136–39.

100Griffiths 2015, pp. 140–41. See also Serle, The Rush to Be Rich 1971, p. 217, for protests by the Scots over the use of the word ‘English’ instead of ‘British’.

101Kamp, ‘Formative geographies of belonging in white Australia’ 2010, pp. 411–26.

102O’Collins, Patrick McMahon Glynn 1965, pp. 49, 78, 81–82, 109, 195–96, 246.

103Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), HB Higgins, 6 September 1901, p. 4659; Rickard, H.B. Higgins 1984, pp. 131–35.

104O’Farrell 1986, pp. 241–42; Tobin, ‘The Sea-Divided Gael’ 1969, pp. 253–55.

105Melbourne Tribune, reported in Adelaide Southern Cross, 8 December 1905, p. 5.

106Cited in McCracken, Forgotten Protest 1983, p. 34.

107Osborne, What We Owe to Ireland 1918, p. 17.

108Cited in Nelson, Irish Nationalists and the Making of the Irish Race 2012, p. 148. 109 Freeman’s Journal, 23 October 1919, p. 24.

4 Irish immigration, 1901–39: race, politics and eugenics

1For an article on Irish Americans and whiteness, employing Homi Bhabha’s concept of the ‘other’ being ‘almost the same, but not quite’, see Eagan, ‘“White” if “not quite”’ 2003, pp. 140–55; Bhabha, The Location of Culture 1994, p. 86.

2Jones, ‘Osborne, William Alexander (1873–1967)’, ADB.

3For Osborne’s involvement with eugenics and claims that in the 1930s he was an admirer of National Socialism, see Wyndham, Eugenics in Australia 2003, pp. 128–29, 143, 154, 157.

4Osborne, What We Owe to Ireland 1918, pp. 18–41.

5Osborne 1918, pp. 13–16, 71–74.

6For Osborne’s broader involvement with Australian race science, see Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness 2002, pp. 107–108, 114–15, 130–31, 149, 219.

7O’Neill, Famine Irish and the American Racial State 2017, pp. 1–22.

8Painter, The History of White People 2010, pp. 212–27.

9Painter 2010, pp. 249, 284–89, 320.

10For the longstanding interest in Aryanism shown by Protestant Irish scholars, see Ballantyne, Orientalism and Race 2006, pp. 19, 35–38.

11Anderson 2002, p. 108.

12Anderson 2002, pp. 148–50.

13For Gobineau’s racial theories, see Carlson, The Unfit 2001, pp. 285–88.

14Lyng, Non-Britishers in Australia 1935, pp. v–vii, 3.

15Lyng 1935, p. 2.

16Lyng 1935, pp. 9–11, 18–22.

17Huxley & Haddon, We Europeans 1935, pp. 25–26, 68, 91, 96–97, 184, 267–68.

18For discussions of We Europeans, see Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism 1995, pp. 26–30, 296–310; Bashford, Global Population 2014, pp. 259–61.

19Anderson 2002, pp. 162–63.

20Bolton, ‘Connolly, Sir James Daniel (1869–1962)’, ADB.

21Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration 1995, pp. 7, 11, 13, 17; Richards, Destination Australia 2008, pp. 74–79, 88.

22Fedorowich, ‘The problems of disbandment’ 1996, pp. 100–102, 105–106; Malcolm, The Irish Policeman 2006, pp. 219–45.

23Roe 1995, pp. 18, 32.

24Kleinig, ‘Peripatetic women’ 2013, pp. 129–34.

25Roe 1995, pp. 207, 289 n. 144; Richards 2008, p. 99.

26Borrie, The European Peopling of Australasia 1994, p. 184; Roe 1995, p. 211.

27Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics 1987, pp. 8–9.

28For a discussion of the problems of Irish-Australian immigration statistics, see Akenson, The Irish Diaspora 1993, pp. 98–103.

29Borrie 1994, pp. 184, 189.

30Commission on Emigration and Other Population Problems [1954], pp. 314–17.

31Borrie 1994, p. 195.

32For Irish immigration after 1945, see Grimes, ‘Postwar Irish immigrants’ 1998, pp. 137–59; Chetkovich, ‘The New Irish in Australia’ 2005; O’Connor, ‘The Multiple Dimensions of Migrancy’ 2005; Breen, ‘Emigration in the age of electronic media’ 2015, pp. 198–233.

33Willard, History of the White Australia Policy 1967, p. 125.

34Kain, ‘Preventing “Unsound Minds”’ 2015, pp. 190–98.

35McMinn, ‘Reid, Sir George Houstoun (1845–1918)’, ADB.

36Catholic Press (Sydney), 17 November 1903, p. 16; Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 28 November 1903, pp. 23–24.

37Sydney Morning Herald, 23 November 1903, p. 7; Daily Telegraph (Sydney), 16 November 1903, p. 6.

38Freeman’s Journal, 28 November 1903, p. 23.

39York, Immigration Restriction 1997, p. 2.

40Kain 2015, pp. 195–96, 234–37, 243–45; O’Collins, Patrick McMahon Glynn 1965, pp. 237–45. While minister, Glynn also declined to renew George Reid’s appointment as Australian high commissioner in London.

41York 1997, pp. 2–4.

42For eugenics in Australia, see Garton, ‘Sound minds and healthy bodies’ 1994 pp. 163–81; Watts, ‘Beyond nature and nurture’ 1994, pp. 318–34; Jones, ‘The master potter and the rejected pots’ 1999, pp. 319–42.

43In 1930, a papal encyclical on marriage condemned eugenics and especially its advocacy of artificial contraception and sterilisation. For debates between Catholics and eugenicists in the United States, see Leon, ‘“Hopelessly entangled in Nordic pre-suppositions”’ 2004, pp. 3–49.

44For eugenicist attacks on Catholic Irish working-class immigrants and their families in Britain and the United States, see Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics 1986, pp. 72–76, 132.

45Painter 2010, p. 265.

46Wyndham 2003, p. 253; Garton, ‘Eugenics in Australia and New Zealand’ 2012, pp. 247–48.

47Quoted in Wyndham 2003, pp. 191–96.

48A Hunt, Melbourne, to Captain R Collins, London, 20 June 1906, Department of External Affairs, National Archives of Australia [hereafter NAA], A2910.417/4/2, pp. 119–21.

49Examination of persons under the Immigration Act. Reports by collectors of customs regarding practice in vogue. Guidance to officers, 1911, pp. 11, 14, NAA, A1, 1911/10657.

50York 1997, pp. 16–63.

51Sherington, Australia’s Immigrants 1990, pp. 95–96.

52Sherington 1990, pp. 106–17.

53Tavan, The Long Slow Death of White Australia 2005, pp. 27–28.

54Bashford, ‘Insanity and immigration restriction’ 2013, pp. 23–24.

55York 1997, pp. 13–77.

56Commission on Emigration and Other Population Problems [1954], p. 312; Jones, ‘Captain of all these men of death’ 2001, pp. 127–57.

57Commission on Emigration and Other Population Problems [1954], p. 311; Daly, ‘Death and disease in independent Ireland’ 2010, pp. 229–50.

58Bashford 2013, pp. 24–26; Mac Lellan, ‘Victim or vector?’ 2013, p. 104.

59Finnane, ‘Deporting the Irish envoys’ 2013, pp. 403–25.

60York 1997, pp. 3–4.

61For papers relating to the attempted Walsh and Johnson deportations, see NAA, 1925, A467, SF12/2–28. For Walsh and Pankhurst, see Hogan, ‘Walsh, Thomas (Tom) (1871–1943)’, ADB.

62Richards 2008, pp. 106–10, Andreon, ‘Olive or white?’ 2003, pp. 81–92.

63Sherington 1990, pp. 117–23.

64Martyr, ‘“Having a clean up”?’ 2011, pp. 184–87.

65Wyndham 2003, p. 308.

66It is not clear from the documentation whether O’Connor had served in the British or the Irish army.

67RI O’Connor, Deportations 1920–30, NAA, A1, 1927/19900.

68J Dillon, Memorandum from the assistant secretary, Department of Home Affairs, Canberra, 9 May 1930, NAA, B13, 1930/9443.

69Jones 2001, pp. 1–3.

70Deeny, Tuberculosis in Ireland 1954, pp. 148–50.

71Beddoe, The Races of Britain 1885, pp. 158–59, 246–49; Dormandy, The White Death 1999, pp. 240–42.

72In the mid-19th century, TB sufferers had been encouraged by doctors and travel writers to immigrate to Australia due to its warm climate. But once the contagious nature of TB was discovered in 1882, the colonies became much less welcoming and the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act specifically barred TB sufferers. Powell, ‘Medical promotion and the consumptive immigrant to Australia’ 1973, pp. 449–76.

73J McCarthy, Deportations 1920–30, NAA, B13, 1929/6049.

5 Irish men in Australian popular culture, 1790s–1920s

1Banta, Barbaric Intercourse 2003.

2The literature on cartoons and visual satire is very extensive. For Australia, see Scully and Quartly, ‘Using cartoons as historical evidence’ 2009, pp. 11–26; Kerr, Artists and Cartoonists 1999; Lindesay, The Inked-in Image 1979; Lindesay, The Way We Were 1983; Mahood, The Loaded Line 1973; Morrison & Rowland, In Your Face 2010.

3Curtis Jr, Apes and Angels 1997, pp. xvi–xxii; Cowling, The Artist as Anthropologist 1989; Wechsler, A Human Comedy 1982.

4Bhabha, The Location of Culture 1994, p. 70.

5Soper, ‘From swarthy ape to sympathetic everyman and subversive trickster’ 2005, p. 260.

6Kenny, ‘Race, violence and anti-Irish sentiment’ 2007, pp. 364–78.

7Fabian (ed.), Mr Punch Down Under 1982; Lindsay, Bohemians of the Bulletin 1965; Rolfe, The Journalistic Javelin 1975.

8Mahood, ‘Melbourne Punch and its early artists’ 1969, p. 65; Mahood, ‘Carrington, Francis Thomas Dean (Tom) (1843–1918)’, ADB; Hopkins, Hop of the Bulletin 1929.

9See Durkin’s death notice in Williamstown Chronicle (Victoria), 3 May 1902, p. 4.

10White, Inventing Australia 1981, pp. 85–90; Serle, From Deserts the Prophets Come 1973, p. 58.

11Bagot, Coppin the Great 1965, pp. 174–76, 189–98, 251–65, 323–24, 337–39; Irvin, Gentleman George.

12Russell, Savage or Civilised? 1980, pp. 114–15.

13For a set of Bulletin ‘new chum’ cartoons, see Rolfe 1975, pp. 92–93. See also White 1981, pp. 79–80; Ward, The Australian Legend 1966, pp. 193–97.

14For examples, see Lindesay 1979, pp. 147, 167, 171, 182 (Aboriginal people); pp. 99, 133, 139 (Jews); and pp. 86, 116, 169 (Chinese men).

15Curtis Jr 1997, pp. 29–36.

16See the Isaac Cruikshank and Gillray drawings reproduced in Douglas, Harte & O’Hara, Drawing Conclusions 1998, pp. 10–26.

17Patten, ‘Cruikshank, George (1792–1878)’, ODNB.

18See, for example, George Cruikshank’s ‘Murder of George Crawford and his granddaughter’, in Maxwell, History of the Irish Rebellion 1866, p. 66; de Nie, The Eternal Paddy 2004, pp. 36–70.

19Curtis Jr 1997, pp. 37–45.

20Curtis Jr 1997, pp. 99, 101–102.

21See Lebow, ‘British images of poverty’ 1977, pp. 57–85.

22De Nie 2004, pp. 144–200; Gantt, Irish Terrorism in the Atlantic Community 2010, pp. 23–65; Jenkins, The Fenian Problem 2008, pp. 159–62.

23Punch (London), 8 June 1867.

24Punch, 19 March 1870. See De Nie 2004, pp. 165, 171.

25RP Whitworth’s Australian play, Catching a Conspirator, which proved a great success in 1867, was based on an alleged true incident in which the well-known Irish actor Barry Sullivan was arrested as a suspected Fenian. He proved he was not by reciting long extracts from Shakespeare. McGuire, The Australian Theatre 1948, p. 99.

26Amos, The Fenians in Australia 1988, pp. 45–77; Travers, The Phantom Fenians of New South Wales 1986; Inglis, Australian Colonists 1993, pp. 112–23.

27Hall, ‘“Now him white man”’ 2014, pp. 179–80.

28Melbourne Punch, 28 March 1868, p. 101.

29McGee, The IRB 2005, pp. 66–136.

30See, for example, ‘Hatching Fenianism’, Melbourne Punch, 18 May 1882, pp. 194–95; Hall 2014, pp. 180–83.

31Pearl, The Three Lives of Gavan Duffy 1979, pp. 205–206, 211.

32Serle, The Rush to Be Rich 1971, pp. 238–39.

33See ‘The Redmond Mission: Seed Time and Harvest’, Melbourne Punch, 7 June 1883, pp. 224–25.

34Atkinson, The Europeans in Australia. Volume 3 2014, pp. 228–32; McLachlan, Waiting for the Revolution 1989, pp. 178–82.

35Sydney Morning Herald, 2 March 1885, p. 11; Lehane, William Bede Dalley 2007, pp. 297–323; Wilcox, ‘Australians in the wars in Sudan and South Africa’ 2013, pp. 214–16. See chapter 9 for further discussion of Dalley and the Sudan contingent.

36Rolfe 1979, pp. 34–36; Hopkins 1929, pp. 135–36; Lawson, The Archibald Paradox 1983, pp. 126–72.

37Melbourne Punch, 19 March 1885, p. 111.

38Amos 1988, pp. 286–88.

39The classic study is Duggan, The Stage Irishman 1937.

40Bulletin (Sydney), 13 June 1896, p. 13.

41Bulletin, 14 May 1897, p. 10.

42Earls, ‘Bulls, blunders and bloothers’ 1988, pp. 1–92.

43Edgeworth, An Essay on Irish Bulls 1999, pp. 5–6.

44Boldrewood, whose real name was TA Browne, had a complex Irish family background. For the details, see de Serville, Rolf Boldrewood 2000, pp. 3–17.

45GV Brooke, the Irish Shakespearian actor, always made money out of farces featuring comic Irish characters, but usually lost money on Shakespeare. He left Australia broke in 1861. McGuire 1948, pp. 92–99, 106–108.

46Williams, Australia on the Popular Stage 1983, pp. 156–65; Rees, The Making of Australian Drama 1972, p. 139; McGuire 1948, p. 87.

47Dampier & Walch, Robbery Under Arms 1985, pp. 29, 65, 92, 34.

48Denham, ‘The Kelly Gang’ (1899), pp. 581, 558.

49Lawson 1983, p. 166.

50Finnane, Police and Government 1994, pp. 9–14, 136–37; Haldane, The People’s Force 1986, pp. 78–90.

51Jones, Ned Kelly 1995, pp. 283–84.

52Melbourne Punch, 7 April 1881, p. 138.

53Warwick Argus, 19 October 1895, p. 6.

54Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation 1994, pp. 6–7.

55For the characteristics of Australian humour, see Willey, ‘A hard, dry humour’ 1988, pp. 156–69.

56Kelly, ‘Melodrama’ 1993, pp. 51–61.

57For similarities between Dad and Dave and earlier farces on the Irish Muldoon family, see Williams 1983, p. 93; Nye, The Unembarrassed Muse 1970, pp. 151–52.

58See, for example, the stereotyped Irish characters in Paterson, An Outback Marriage 1906.

59Fotheringham, In Search of Steele Rudd 1995, pp. 14–33.

60In the two collections of stories, there are altogether around 35 individuals or families with distinctively Irish surnames. Rudd, On Our Selection 1899; Rudd, Our New Selection 1903.

61Dennis, The Moods of Ginger Mick 1916. See also Watts (ed.), The World of the Sentimental Bloke 1976, pp. 30–32; Chisholm, The Life and Times of C.J. Dennis 1982, pp. 70–76, 95–97.

62Rickard, Australia 1988, pp. 172, 176–78, 182.

63See chapter 9 for a discussion of the Catholic Irish-born men who served as premiers of some of the Australian colonies during the second half of the 19th century.

64Hall & Malcolm 2016, pp. 1–15.

65Strangio & Costar (eds), The Victorian Premiers 2006, pp. 17–21, 38–41, 77.

66See Pawsey, The Popish Plot 1983.

67For Duffy’s version of events, see Duffy, My Life in Two Hemispheres, vol. 2, 1898, pp. 172–73, 337–41.

68Deakin, The Federal Story 1944, p. 12.

69Melbourne Punch, 24 April 1879, p. 161.

70Melbourne Punch, 22 March 1883, p. 114.

71Kelly, The Fenian Ideal and Irish Nationalism 2006, pp. 2–3.

72Horne, The Education of Young Donald 1967, p. 24.

73For riots by Irish audiences in Hobart in 1834 and Melbourne in 1844, see Colonial Times (Hobart), 11 February 1834, pp. 45–46; McGuire 1948, pp. 80, 102–103.

74Advocate (Melbourne), 18 March 1905, p. 14.

75There were widely publicised Irish riots in New York theatres in 1903 and 1907. Kibler, ‘The stage Irishwoman’ 2005, pp. 5–10; Barrett, The Irish Way 2012, pp. 157–58.

76When a sailor named Muldoon was arrested and fined for drunkenness in South Australia in 1945, the police magistrate wondered if he was a ‘wild Irishman’ because he had resisted arrest. The newspaper report of the case was headed, ‘No picnic for Muldoon’, Recorder (Port Pirie), 28 February 1945, p. 2.

77‘Kodak’ [Ernest O’Farrell], ‘And the singer was Irish’ 1918, pp. 91–93.

78The ape-like Irish featured in a 1920 Norman Lindsay cartoon commenting on Irish nationalist attempts to gain support for their independence struggle from the new League of Nations. See ‘Queer company’, Bulletin, 30 September 1920, cover.

6 Employment: Bridget need not apply

1Irish Echo (Sydney), 3 March 2012, <pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/100123/20160417-0000/www.irishecho.com.au/2012/03/13/perth-builders-no-irish-ad-causes-furore/16667.html>.

2MacRaild, ‘No Irish need apply’ 2013, pp. 296–98.

3Kibler, ‘The stage Irishwoman’ 2005, pp. 5–30.

4Lynch-Brennan, The Irish Bridget 2009; Walter, Outsiders Inside 2001, pp. 54, 63–64, 145.

5Twopeny, Town Life in Australia 1973, p. 51.

6Bulletin (Sydney), 23 June 1883, p. 16.

7Bulletin, 19 October 1889, p. 8.

8Down, ‘Aims and ends; or “Quite Colonial”’ (1878), in Jordan & Pierce (eds), The Poets’ Discovery 1990, pp. 319–20.

9Argus (Melbourne), 22 December 1854, p. 1.

10Jensen ‘“No Irish need apply”’ 2002, pp. 405–29.

11MacRaild 2013, p. 277.

12MacRaild 2013, pp. 269–99.

13Fried, ‘No Irish need deny’ 2016, pp. 829–54.

14MacRaild 2013, p. 271.

15Sydney Morning Herald, 14 June 1862, p. 9; Jensen 2002, p. 407. It is unclear whether the version of the song for sale in Sydney contained the American or the British lyrics.

16Melbourne Punch, 5 November 1857, p. 2.

17Higman did a manual sampling of advertisements in the Sydney Morning Herald (1831–2001) for his research, but did not find any ‘No Irish Need Apply’ ads. Higman, Domestic Service in Australia 2002, p. 63.

18Higman 2002, pp. 109–21.

19Argus, 12 January 1865, p. 1.

20Argus, 2 October 1854, p. 1.

21Sydney Morning Herald, 5 November 1879, p. 12; 1 March 1880, p. 10; 7 June 1880, p. 8.

22Sydney Stock and Station Journal, 8 October 1920, p. 20.

23The following results are based on searches completed in December 2017. As the digitisation of newspapers in Trove continues, more ads will doubtless appear.

24Newspapers researched were: Sydney Morning Herald; Australian (Sydney); Empire (Sydney); Commercial Journal and Advertiser (Sydney); Evening News (Sydney); Age (Melbourne); Argus (Melbourne); Evening Journal (Adelaide); Express and Telegraph (Adelaide); Advertiser (Adelaide); South Australian Register (Adelaide); Brisbane Courier; Courier (Brisbane); West Australian; Bendigo Advertiser; Ballarat Star; Geelong Advertiser; Mount Alexander Mail (Castlemaine); Launceston Advertiser; Cornwall Chronicle (Launceston); Maryborough Chronicle; Rockhampton Bulletin; Inquirer and Commercial News (Perth); Kyneton Observer.

25Cornwall Chronicle (Launceston), 3 February 1838, p. 19.

26West Australian (Perth), 15 May 1908, p. 8.

27Advertiser (Adelaide), 4 January 1916, p. 11.

28MacRaild 2013, pp. 278–79.

29Empire (Sydney), 15 January 1858, p. 4.

30Serle, The Golden Age 1963, pp. 3, 370.

31Hamilton, ‘“Tipperaryifing” the moral atmosphere’ 1982, p. 21; Fitzpatrick, ‘Irish emigration in the later nineteenth century’ 1980, pp. 132–33; Reid, Farewell My Children 2011, pp. 98–102.

32McClaughlin, Barefoot and Pregnant, vol. 1, 1991, pp. 1–23.

33Hamilton 1982, p. 23.

34Argus, 24 January 1850, p. 2; Gothard, Blue China 2001, pp. 41–47.

35Argus, 1 July 1854, p. 1; Rutledge, ‘Montefiore, Jacob Levi (1819–1885)’, ADB.

36Higman 2002, p. 48; Gothard, ‘Wives or workers?’ 2001, pp. 147–48; Hamilton, ‘Domestic dilemmas’ 1993, pp. 83–85.

37Hamilton 1982, pp. 20, 22.

38Twopeny 1973, pp. 49–62; Russell, A Wish for Distinction 1994, pp. 167–88.

39Sydney Morning Herald, 17 November 1920, p. 20.

40Jupp, The English in Australia 2004, pp. 58–60, 119–20.

41Cited in Meredith & Oxley, ‘Contracting convicts’ 2005, p. 61; Oxley, ‘Packing her (economic) bags’ 1994, p. 64.

42McConville, ‘Emigrant Irish and Suburban Catholics’ 1984, p. 100.

43‘Stawell Cemetery Register’, p. 593, transcribed by M King and held by Stawell Historical Society. For the Scallon and Kinsella brothers, see Murray & White, The Golden Years of Stawell 1983, p. 142.

44Cited in MacGinley, ‘The Irish in Queensland’ 1972, p. 111.

45Bendigo Advertiser, 1 April, 1859, p. 3.

46Bendigo Advertiser, 2 April 1859, p. 3

47Pawsey, The Demon of Discord 1982.

48MacRaild 2013, p. 291, citing Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), 6 September 1841.

49Australasian Chronicle (Sydney), 19 November 1839, p. 4; Sydney Monitor and Commercial Advertiser, 22 November 1839, p. 3; 3 January 1840, p. 3; 10 January 1840, p. 4; Sydney Herald, 3 January 1840, p. 3; 6 January 1840, p. 2.

50Sydney Morning Herald, 27 May 1850, p. 3.

51Adelaide Times, 18 December 1855, p. 1.

52North Australian (Brisbane), 12 December 1863, p. 3.

53The case was widely reported: see Leader (Melbourne), 30 April 1870, p. 20.

54Bulletin, 26 May 1883, p. 16.

55Hopkins, Hop of the Bulletin 1929, pp. 68–74.

56Melbourne Punch, 20 September 1883, p. 114.

57MacRaild 2013, pp. 291–92.

58Hobarton Guardian, or, True Friend of Tasmania, 24 February 1849, p. 2. For other examples, see Argus, 4 July 1849, p. 2; Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 8 August 1857, p. 3.

59Age (Melbourne), 1 May 1857, p. 6.

60Catholic Press (Sydney), 22 April 1899, p. 7.

61Newspapers researched were: Sydney Morning Herald (1842–); Daily Telegraph (1883–); Empire (1850–1879); Evening News (1869–1922); Australian Town and Country (1870–1907); Australian Star (1887–1909); Telegraph (1872–1947); Brisbane Courier (1864–1933); Courier (1861–1864); Queenslander (1866–1839); Express and Telegraph (1867–1922); Advertiser (1889–1931); Evening Journal (1869–1912); South Australian Register (1839–1900); South Australian Advertiser (1869–1912); Register (1901–1929); Mercury (1860–); Age (1854–); Argus (1848– 1957); Herald (1861–1990); West Australian (1879–); Daily News (1882–1950).

62No regional or rural newspaper used the term before 1860 and none in South Australia or Western Australia had more than one use of the term between 1840 and 1919, so these states have been excluded.

63Daily Observer (Tamworth); Tamworth Observer; Northern Star (Lismore); Maitland Mercury: Illawarra Mercury (Wollongong); Kiama Independent and Shoalhaven Advertiser; Goulburn Herald; Newcastle Chronicle; Wagga Wagga Advertiser; Clarence and Richmond River (Grafton); Riverine Grazier (Hay); Braidwood Dispatcher; Goulburn Evening Penny; Newcastle Morning Herald; Barrier Miner (Broken Hill); Maitland Weekly; Mudgee Guardian; Richmond River Herald (Lismore).

64Darling Downs Gazette (Toowoomba); Morning Bulletin (Rockhampton); Queenslander (Ipswich); Western Star (Roma).

65Geelong Advertiser; Albury Banner; Gippsland Times; Ballarat Star; Hamilton Spectator; Ballarat Courier; Bendigo Advertiser; Bendigo Independent.

66Launceston Examiner; Cornwall Chronicle (Launceston).

67Moran, Viewless Winds 1939, pp. 158–59.

68Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 27 June 1868, p. 7.

69See, for example, ‘Wages and patriotism’, Bulletin, 10 August 1889, p. 12; ‘The casus belli’, Bulletin, 21 November 1891, p. 14.

70‘What they will soon be if they go’, Melbourne Punch, 5 March 1885, p. 100. This particular cartoon appears from its style to have come from Puck (1877– 1918), a New York satirical weekly. For examples of Puck’s simianised Irish characters, see Curtis Jr, Apes and Angels 1997, pp. 61–67.

71Kenny, ‘Race, violence and anti-Irish sentiment’ 2007, pp. 366–67.

72MacRaild 2013, p. 283.

73Luddy, ‘Women and work’ 2000, pp. 44–56.

74Higman 2002, p. 29.

75Hall, ‘Irishness, gender and “An up-country township”’ 2005, pp. 81–97.

76Haskins & Maynard, ‘Sex, race and power’ 2005, pp. 191–216.

77MacGinley 1972, p. 188.

78Advocate (Melbourne), 6 October 1883, p. 11.

79Age, 5 February 1870, p. 1.

80Evening Journal (Adelaide), 31 July 1877, p. 1.

81West Australian (Perth), 9 October 1895, p. 5.

82Express and Telegraph (Adelaide), 18 February 1910, p. 2.

83Argus, 12 January 1865, p. 1.

7 Crime and the Irish: from vagrancy to the gallows

1See, for example, Macintyre, A Concise History of Australia 1999, which ignores the Irish at Eureka, jumping from Irish convicts in 1804 to Ned Kelly and then to Mannix and the 1916–17 conscription plebiscites.

2See, for example, Hocking, The Rebel Chorus 2007; Moore, Death or Liberty 2010. For a more critical assessment, see Moore, ‘An “indelible Hibernian mark”?’ 1998, pp. 1–8.

3Clark, A Short History of Australia 1980, p. 87. For Clark’s concept of Irish Catholicism as a backward ‘counterpoint’ to progressive British Protestantism and Enlightenment rationalism, see Berryman, ‘The concept of civilization in Manning Clark’s “History of Australia”’ 2017, pp. 82–98.

4Akenson, Small Differences 1988, p. 60.

5Hirst, Australian History in 7 Questions 2014, pp. 125–27, 27–58.

6Wood, Violence and Crime in Nineteenth-century England 2004, p. 33.

7O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia 1986, pp. 52–53, 36.

8McMahon, Homicide in Pre-Famine and Famine Ireland 2013, pp. 14–15.

9O’Donnell, ‘Lethal violence in Ireland’ 2005, Table 1, p. 677. For a useful summary of recent research, see Finnane & O’Donnell, ‘Crime and punishment’ 2017, pp. 363–82.

10McMahon 2013, p. 165.

11Swift, ‘Heroes or villains?’ 1997, p. 421. Thanks go to Roger Swift for providing a copy of this article.

12Swift 1997, p. 410; Swift, ‘Historians and the Irish’ 2000, p. 34.

13Swift 1997, pp. 402–403.

14Neal, ‘Lancashire, the Famine Irish and the poor laws’ 1995, pp. 36–40.

15Jones, Crime, Protest, Community and Police in Nineteenth-century Britain 1982, pp. 166, 178–83, 198–99; Rose, ‘Rogues and Vagabonds’ 1988, pp. 5–8; Robson, The Convict Settlers of Australia 1965, p. 70.

16Cited in Wood 2004, pp. 92–93.

17Swift 1997, pp. 405–407.

18Belchem, Irish, Catholic and Scouse 2007, pp. 82–85; Neal, ‘A criminal profile of the Liverpool Irish’ 1991, pp. 161–99; Lowe, The Irish in Mid-Victorian Lancashire 1989, pp. 102–103.

19Akenson, The Irish Diaspora 1993, pp. 118–19.

20O’Farrell 1986, p. 169.

21Hall & Malcolm, ‘English institutions and the Irish race’ 2016, pp. 1–15.

22Topp, ‘A few more words on the Irish question’ 1881, pp. 210–11, footnote.

23Topp 1881, pp. 210–11, footnote.

24Topp 1881, pp. 210–11.

25Cited in Topp 1881, p. 211, footnote.

26Wilson, The Beat 2006, pp. 54–56, 123.

27Victorian Year Book, 1879–80, p. 257.

28Victorian Year Book, 1879–80, pp. 254, 261.

29Victorian Year Book, 1879–80, p. 254.

30Victorian Year Book, 1879–80, pp. 251, 253, 19, 255.

31In 1898, for instance, 55 per cent of total Catholic arrests were for drunkenness, compared to 50 per cent of Protestant arrests. Victorian Year Book, 1895–98, pp. 1033–1034.

32Laughlin & Hall (eds), Handbook to Victoria 1914, pp. 240–41.

33Victorian Year Book, 1885–86, p. 578.

34Morgan, ‘Irish women in Port Phillip and Victoria, 1840–60’ 1989, pp. 240–44.

35Central Register of Female Prisoners, vol. 1 (1855–61), nos 1–750, Public Record Office Victoria [hereafter PROV], VPRS 516–P1 Microfiche.

36Campbell, ‘Irish women in nineteenth-century Australia’ 1991, pp. 25–38.

37Richards & Herraman, ‘“If she was to be hard up she would sooner be hard up in a strange land than where she would be known”’ 1998, p. 86.

38See also McClaughlin, ‘“I was nowhere else”’ 1998, pp. 142–62; McClaughlin, ‘Vulnerable Irish women in mid- to late-nineteenth-century Australia’ 1996, pp. 157–65.

39Victorian Year Book, 1895–98, pp. 1052–53.

40Coghlan, The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1894, vol. 2, 1896, p. 583.

41Coghlan, vol. 2, 1896, pp. 583, 587.

42Hicks, ‘Coghlan, Sir Timothy Augustine (1855–1926)’, ADB.

43Hayter too had warned against relying on religious affiliation as a means of classifying offenders. Coghlan, vol. 2, 1896, p. 587; Victorian Year Book, 1875, p. 108.

44Coghlan, vol. 2, 1896, p. 588.

45Coghlan, vol. 2, 1896, p. 586.

46Francis, Migrant Crime in Australia 1981, pp. 62, 172, Table 3.

47See, for example, King, ‘Ethnicity, prejudice and justice’ 2013, pp. 390–414; Weaver, ‘Moral order and repression in Upper Canada’ 1986, pp. 176–207.

48Finnane, ‘The Irish and crime in the late nineteenth century’ 1989, pp. 93, 94.

49Topp 1881, pp. 210–11, footnote. See Lynn & Armstrong, From Pentonville to Pentridge 1996, pp. 204–205.

50Victorian Year Book, 1892, p. 203.

51The classic study of capital punishment in England is Gatrell, The Hanging Tree 1994.

52Douglas & Laster, ‘A matter of life and death’ 1991, p. 155.

53McClaughlin 1998, pp. 152–54.

54Laster, ‘Arbitrary chivalry’ 1994, p. 168.

55Between 1842 and 1967 in Victoria, 606 people were sentenced to death, but only 30.5 per cent of them were eventually executed. Those sentenced included 45 women, of whom five were executed. Laster 1994, pp. 167–71.

56For executions of Indigenous Australians in Victoria, see Douglas & Laster 1991, pp. 152–53.

57Argus (Melbourne), 17 March 1877, p. 4.

58Lynn & Armstrong 1996, pp. 202–206.

59Lynn & Armstrong 1996, pp. 202–206.

60Douglas & Laster 1991, pp. 146, 149, 156.

61For Irish bushrangers, see West, Bushranging and the Policing of Rural Banditry in New South Wales 2009, pp. 78, 214.

62The two men had been unsuccessfully defended by Irish barrister Redmond Barry, who represented several other Indigenous clients during the 1840s. Davies, ‘Aborigines, murder and the criminal law in early Port Phillip’ 1987, pp. 315–20; Galbally, Redmond Barry 1995, pp. 46–47, 52–57.

63Melbourne Times, 14 May 1842, p. 3, 2 July 1842, p. 3.

64Ovens and Murray Advertiser (Beechworth), 26 March 1859, p. 3, 27 June 1859, p. 3.

65For documents relating to the case, see Edward Feeney, executed 14 May 1872, Capital Cases Files [hereafter CCF], PROV, VPRS 0264 - P/0000, Box 7.

66Argus, 18 April 1872, p. 4; Age (Melbourne), 18 April 1872, p. 3.

67Argus, 6 March 1872, pp. 5–6, 7 March 1872, p. 6.

68Castieau, ‘The Difficulties of My Position’ 2004, pp. 168, 174–75, 177, 181–82.

69Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 23 August 1870, p. 7.

70James Cusick [also Cusack], executed 30 August 1870, CCF, PROV, VPRS 0264 - P/0000, Box 6; Argus, 17 August 1870, p. 6, 31 August 1870, p. 7.

71Richard Heraghty, reprieved 9 June 1878, CCF, PROV, VPRS 0264 – P/0008; Melbourne Punch, 20 June 1878, p. 241.

72Argus, 10 June 1878, p. 2.

73Douglas & Laster 1991, pp. 145–46.

74Geelong Advertiser and Intelligence, 24 April 1855, p. 2.

75Francis Brennigan [also Brannigan or Brannagan], prisoner no.2326, Central Register for Male Prisoners, vol. 4, 1855, PROV, VPRS 515-P0000.

76Age, 28 March 1857, p. 4; Barry, ‘Price, John Giles (1808–1857)’, ADB.

77Argus, 2 April 1857, p. 4, 1 May 1857, p. 5; Age, 29 April 1857, p. 5. A letter to the Argus described ex-convict Thomas Williams, who was one of those executed for Price’s murder, as a Catholic Irish man; he was certainly a Catholic, but the Age identified him as having been born in Manchester.

78The most detailed analysis of the trials is offered in Barry, The Life and Death of John Price 1964, pp. 104–23.

79Age, 21 April 1857, p. 3. JK Lavater, a Swiss clergyman, published an influential book on physiognomy in the late 1770s.

80Stephen suffered due to his defence of some of the prisoners accused of killing Price, as an attempt was made to have him disbarred. See ‘Stephen, George Milner (1812–1894)’, ADB.

81Age, 21 March 1857, p. 3; Argus, 21 April 1857, p. 5.

82Bendigo Advertiser, 22 April 1857, p. 2.

83Age, 21 March 1857, p. 3; Argus, 21 April 1857, p. 5.

84Argus, 28 April 1857, p. 4.

85Barry 1964, p. 120.

86Such recommendations were rare. Douglas and Laster, in their statistical analysis of executions in Victoria, found juries recommended mercy in only 3.4 per cent of capital cases, but, unlike the cases of Brennigan and Smith, such recommendations were associated with ‘a significantly higher likelihood of commutation’. Douglas & Laster 1991, p. 149.

87Argus, 29 April 1857, p. 7.

88Argus, 30 April 1857, p. 6.

89Douglas & Laster 1991, pp. 148, 150–51, 156.

90Ronayne, First Fleet to Federation 2003.

91Argus, 24 February 1877, p. 4.

92Argus, 24 February 1877, p. 4.

93Thomas Hogan, executed 9 June 1879, CCF, PROV, VPRS 0264 - P/0000, Box 9.

94Ovens and Murray Advertiser, 22 January 1879, p. 8, 8 May 1879, p. 3, 10 June 1879, p. 3, 17 June 1879, p. 3.

95Hamilton Spectator, 26 February 1891, p. 3.

96For the poor working conditions and prospects of aging rural labourers, about a quarter of whom were Irish, in Victoria during the 1870s and 1880s, see Fahey, ‘“Abusing the horses and exploiting the labourer”’ 1993, pp. 109–10.

97Advocate (Melbourne), 28 February 1891, p. 20; Ballarat Star, 21 April 1891, p. 2; Argus, 21 April 1891, p. 6.

98Hamilton Spectator, 26 February 1891, p. 3, 28 February 1891, p. 4.

99Cornelius Bourke, executed 20 April 1891, CCF, PROV, 0264 - P/0000-000017.

100Hamilton Spectator, 12 March 1891, p. 4; Age, 7 April 1891, p. 4; Advocate, 14 March 1891, p. 20, 11 April 1891, p. 19, 25 April 1891, p. 14.

8 Madness and the Irish

1O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia 1986, pp. 169–70.

2Garton, Medicine and Madness 1988, pp. 18, 23, 38. See also the Australian Psychiatric Care website, <www.ahpi.esrc.unimelb.edu.au/index.html>.

3Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Historical Population Statistics [hereafter ABS, AHPS], Table 8.1: Population (a), sex and country of birth, NSW census years 1846–1891, 3105.0.65.001.

4NSW Inspector-General of the Insane [hereafter NSW IGI], Report, 1881, Table 9, p. 4; 1882, p. 8; 1885, p. 9, Inspector-General of the Insane Reports, 1881–1910, Mitchell Library, Sydney, Q362.2/N.

5Malcolm, ‘Irish immigrants in a colonial asylum’ 2012, p. 128.

6NSW IGI, Report, 1881, Table 9, p. 4; 1891, Table 9, p. 7; 1910, Table 9, p. 15.

7NSW IGI, Report, 1887, p. 10; 1891, pp. 2–3.

8Manning, ‘Address in psychological medicine’ 1889, pp. 151–52.

9Manning 1889, Table IV, n.p.; ABS, AHPS, Tables 8.1–8.6: Population (a), sex and country of birth, 1891 censuses, 3105.0.65.001.

10NSW IGI, Report, 1881, Tables 8 and 9, p. 4; 1910, Tables 8 and 9, p. 15. It should be noted that some of the Irish-born in this table could have been Protestant, but the majority would have been Catholic.

11NSW IGI, Report, 1881, Tables 8 and 9, p. 4; 1910, Tables 8 and 9, p. 15. The NSW inspector-general’s annual reports give figures for French, German and Chinese inmates, as well as for those from ‘Other Countries’. But the numbers are relatively small in all cases. The French, for example, most of whom were likely to have been Catholic, made up a mere 0.7 per cent of NSW inmates in 1881 and 0.4 per cent in 1910.

12Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics 1987, pp. 26, 421.

13For an international overview, see Malcolm, ‘Mental health and migration’ 2012, pp. 15–38.

14Brennan, Irish Insanity 2014, p. 35.

15Penrose, ‘Mental disease and crime’ 1939, pp. 4–7, 11.

16Brennan 2014, pp. 28–35; Healy, ‘Irish psychiatry in the twentieth century’ 1996, pp. 268–69.

17Pietikainen, Madness 2015, pp. 155–56.

18For discussions of additional explanations, see Malcolm, ‘Mental health and migration’ 2012, pp. 21–26; Brennan 2014, pp. 89–92.

19The best general history remains Finnane, Insanity and the Insane in Post-Famine Ireland 1981.

20Prior, ‘Dangerous lunacy’ 2003, pp. 525–53.

21Cox, Negotiating Insanity in the Southeast of Ireland 2012, pp. 74–87.

22Malcolm, ‘“Ireland’s crowded madhouses”’ 2003, pp. 324–26.

23Malcolm, ‘“The house of strident shadows”’ 1999, pp. 177–91; Brennan 2014, pp. 79–85.

24For Canada and New Zealand, see Wright & Themeles, ‘Migration, madness and the Celtic fringe’ 2012, pp. 39–54; Van Der Krogt, ‘Irish Catholicism, criminality and mental illness in New Zealand’ 2016, pp. 90–121; McCarthy, ‘Transnational ties to home’ 2012, pp. 149–66.

25Fox, ‘Irish immigrants, pauperism and insanity in 1854 Massachusetts’ 1991, pp. 315–36.

26Pollock, ‘A statistical study of the foreign-born insane in New York state hospitals’ 1913, pp. 10–27; Malzberg, ‘Mental disease among Irish-born and white natives of Irish parentage in New York state’ 1963, pp. 12–42.

27Bracken et al., ‘Mental health and ethnicity’ 1998, pp. 103–105; Scally, ‘“The very pests of society”’ 2004, pp. 77–81.

28Fox 1991, pp. 330–31.

29Bhavsar & Bhugra, ‘Bethlem’s Irish’ 2009, pp. 189–90.

30Bhavsar & Bhugra 2009, p. 194.

31Gallman, Receiving Erin’s Children 2000, pp. 28–32, 65–73, 90–102.

32Cox, Marland & York, ‘Emaciated, exhausted and excited’ 2012, p. 501.

33For similar attitudes, see Malcolm, ‘“A most terrible looking object”’ 2003, pp. 127–31.

34Cited in Cox, Marland & York 2012, pp. 506, 515, 517.

35For the English lunacy system, see Bartlett, The Poor Law of Lunacy 1999.

36For discussions of committal procedures in NSW and Victoria, see Garton, ‘Policing the dangerous lunatic’ 1987, pp. 74–87; Coleborne, ‘Passage to the asylum’ 2003, pp. 129–48.

37NSW Dangerous Lunatics Act 1843, 7 Vic. No. 14.

38NSW Lunacy Act 1867, 31 Vic. No. 19, ss. 1–4.

39Sinclair, ‘Presidential address’ 1909, pp. 219–20.

40See, for Victoria, Lunacy Statute 1867, 31 Vic. No. 309, ss. 4–5, 7–9; for Queensland, Insanity Act 1884, 48 Vic. No. 8, ss. 23–25.

41NSW Lunacy Act 1878, 42 Vic. No. 7, ss. 4–6; NSW Lunacy Act 1898, 62 Vic. No. 45, ss. 4–6.

42Wilson, The Beat 2006, pp. 124–25.

43Coleborne 2003, pp. 135–37; Wilson 2006, pp. 125–26.

44For Irish influence on the police, see Finnane, Police and Government 1994, pp. 9–14, 29–30, 136–37.

45Haldane, The People’s Force 1986, pp. 81–84.

46Malcolm, ‘“What would people say if I became a policeman?”’ 2003, pp. 100–101.

47Brennan identifies a ‘high tendency to institutionalise’ as developing in 19th-century Ireland and enduring throughout much of the 20th century. Brennan 2014, p. 118.

48As well as many attendants, a number of asylum doctors were also Irish-born. See Malcolm, ‘Irish immigrants in a colonial asylum’ 2012, pp. 146–47, n. 40.

49Burdett, Hospitals and Asylums of the World, vol. 1, 1891, p. 311.

50Argus (Melbourne), 22 July 1876, p. 4.

51Malcolm, ‘Irish immigrants in a colonial asylum’ 2012, pp. 142–44.

52Argus, 29 July 1876, p. 4.

53Cited in Monk, Attending Madness 2008, p. 170, n. 3.

54Monk 2008, p. 153. French was still working at Yarra Bend nearly 25 years later in 1884.

55The patient records required under NSW law to be kept by asylums are set out in detail in the appendices to the NSW Lunacy Act 1898, 62 Vic. No. 45, schedules 1–19.

56For the problems of asylums in Victoria, see Crowther, ‘Administration and the asylum in Victoria’ 2003, pp. 85–95.

57For a classic study of asylum inmate autobiographies, see Porter, A Social History of Madness 1986. For families’ interactions with asylums, see Coleborne, ‘“His brain was wrong, his mind astray”’ 2006, pp. 45–65.

58NSW IGI Report, 1881, Table 9, p. 4.

59Manning 1889, Table IV, n.p.

60Manning 1889, Table IV, n.p. Manning believed that the large category of ‘Others’ in his table was unreliable, having been inflated due to poor record-keeping in Victoria and Tasmania.

61NSW IGI, Report, 1881, Table 9, p. 29.

62Winifred Sharkey, 1878–81, State Records NSW, Gladesville Hospital for the Insane, Admissions and Case Books [hereafter SRNSW, Gladesville], NRS 5031/4/8163, folio 17, no. 3382; Catherine Dobson, 1878, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8163, folio 157, no. 3452.

63Connolly, Priests and People in Pre-Famine Ireland 1982, pp. 100–20.

64The word ‘friends’ as frequently used in the medical notes seems to have usually meant relatives who were not parents or spouses.

65Hannah McCarthy, 1878–83, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8163, folio 217, no. 3482.

66Joanna Herlihy, 1887–1910, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8176, folio 284, no. 6177.

67For Manning’s views on madness and Indigenous Australians and for his efforts to bar Chinese immigrants, see Murray, ‘Settling the Mind’ 2012, pp. 68–118, 144–63.

68Coleborne, Insanity, Identity and Empire 2015, pp. 143–44.

69Johanna Flynn, 1887–89, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8177, folio 3, no. 6197.

70For the use of physiognomy by doctors at Melbourne’s Kew Asylum, see Day, ‘Magnificence, Misery and Madness’ 1998, pp. 218–22.

71James Ryan, 1878, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8163, folio 277, no. 3512.

72Thomas Cahill, 1887–88, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8177, folio 33, no. 6227.

73John Larkin, 1887, SRNSW, Gladesville, NRS 5031/4/8176, folio 274, no. 6167.

74Garton 1988, p. 187.

75O’Brien, Poverty’s Prison 1988, pp. 51–52.

76Garton 1988, pp. 103, 118.

77Garton 1988, p. 104.

78Malcolm, ‘Irish immigrants in a colonial asylum’ 2012, pp. 130–31.

79Cage, Poverty Abounding 1992, pp. 14–15.

80McCalman, ‘To die without friends’ 2009, pp. 173–76.

81Margaret Cuthbert, 1897, Public Record Office Victoria, Yarra Bend Asylum, Case Books, VA2839, VPRS 7400/12/9. For similar cases of friendless Irish women committed to NSW and Queensland asylums, see McClaughlin, ‘“I was nowhere else”’ 1998, pp. 159–61.

82Manning, The Causation of Insanity 1880, pp. 2–3.

83McCarthy, ‘Transnational ties to home’ 2012, p. 155; Fitzpatrick, ‘Emigration, 1801–70’ 1989, p. 616.

9 Colonial politics: Daniel O’Connell’s ‘Tail’ and the Catholic Irish premiers

1Moore, ‘An “indelible Hibernian mark”?’ 1998, pp. 1–8.

2Pakenham, The Year of Liberty 1969; Malcolm, ‘A new age or just the same old cycle of extirpation?’ 2013, pp. 151–66; Kelly, ‘“We were all to be massacred”’ 2003, pp. 110–41.

3Whitaker, Unfinished Revolution 1994; O’Donnell, ‘“Desperate and diabolical”’ 1996, pp. 360–72.

4For O’Connell’s life, see Geoghegan, King Dan 2008; Geoghegan, Liberator 2010.

5MacDonagh, Daniel O’Connell 1989, p. 119; Owens, ‘Nationalism without words’ 1998, pp. 242–47.

6For varying assessments of O’Connell, see McCartney (ed.), The World of Daniel O’Connell 1980.

7Earls, ‘“The opportunity of being useful”’ 2008, pp. 170–82.

8King, Richard Bourke 1971, pp. 139–243.

9Sydney Herald, 11 January 1836, p. 2. The paper became the Sydney Morning Herald in 1841.

10For other examples of the term the ‘O’Connell Tail’, see True Colonist (Hobart), 18 September 1835, p. 5; Sydney Monitor, 30 January 1836, p. 2; Sydney Herald, 11 February 1836, p. 2; and Courier (Hobart), 16 October 1840, p. 4.

11Henry Parkes’s newspaper attacked government parliamentary nominees in 1854 for their ‘slavish subserviency’, comparing them to ‘Daniel O’Connell’s tail’. Empire (Sydney), 7 November 1854, p. 4.

12Macintyre, The Liberator 1965, pp. 154–59.

13Sydney Gazette, 5 September 1840, p. 2.

14Sydney Gazette, 17 October 1840, p. 2. The ‘St Bartholomew Massacre’ referred to the killing of large numbers of Protestants by Catholics in Paris and other parts of France in 1572.

15Sydney Morning Herald, 2 October 1844, p. 2.

16Morning Chronicle (Sydney), 30 November 1844, p. 2.

17MacDonagh, The Sharing of the Green 1996, pp. 81–82.

18O’Farrell, ‘The image of O’Connell in Australia’ 1980, pp. 112–24.

19Kiernan, ‘Irish in Australian politics’ 2001, pp. 474–78.

20Campion, Australian Catholics 1987, pp. 27–35; Hall, ‘Defending the faith’ 2014, pp. 207–23.

21Campion 1987, pp. 34–35; Freudenberg, A Certain Grandeur 1978, p. 24.

22Franklin, Nolan & Gilchrist (eds), The Real Archbishop Mannix from the Sources 2015, pp. 159–68.

23James, ‘“From beyond the sea”’ 2015, pp. 81–109.

24For an account of Ireland in 1860–1925 written specifically for Australian readers, see MacDonagh 1996, pp. 89–159.

25Amos, The Fenians in Australia 1988; Harris, The Prince and the Assassin 2017; Fennell & King, John Devoy’s ‘Catalpa’ Expedition 2006.

26Jackson, Home Rule 2003.

27Kingston, The Oxford History of Australia, Volume 3 1988, pp. 237–308.

28The word ‘premier’ is used throughout to describe the chief ministers of colonial, as well as state, governments. In the early decades, other terms were employed, but ‘premier’ provides consistency and so avoids confusion.

29Some premiers served multiple terms in office, but the numbers given in Tables 1 and 2 are for individuals not governments. Self-government commenced in Victoria in 1855, in NSW, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, in Queensland in 1859 and in Western Australia in 1890.

30Tables 1 and 2 of colonial premiers, 1855–1900, are both based on entries in the Australian Dictionary of Biography and lists of premiers in Australians: The Guide and Index 1987, pp. 44–47.

31McClaughlin, ‘Irish-Protestant settlement’ 2001, pp. 463–65.

32McClaughlin, ‘Protestant Irish in Australia’ 2007, pp. 88–98.

33Kiernan, ‘Irish in Australian politics: Irish Protestants’ 2001, p. 478.

34Prentis, The Scots in Australia 2008, p. 125; Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics 1987, pp. 8–9.

35For CC Kingston, premier of South Australia (1893–99), see Glass, Charles Cameron Kingston 1997.

36MacDonagh, ‘The Irish in Victoria in the nineteenth century’ 2001, pp. 467–71; Coughlan, ‘The coming of the Irish to Victoria’ 1965, pp. 68–86.

37MacDonagh, ‘The Irish in Victoria’ 1971, pp. 85–92.

38McCaffrey, ‘Irish-American politics’ 1985, p. 175.

39Duffy, My Life in Two Hemispheres, vol. 2, 1898, p. 169.

40Hogan, The Sectarian Strand 1987, pp. 102–103; ‘Garryowen’ [E Finn], The Chronicles of Early Melbourne, vol. 2, 1888, pp. 680–87. We saw in chapter 6 that ‘No Irish Need Apply’ newspaper advertisements reached a peak in Melbourne during the 1850s, which suggests that anti-Irish and anti-Catholic sentiment was still strong in the city throughout the 1850s.

41Pawsey, The Popish Plot 1983.

42Hall & Malcolm, ‘English institutions and the Irish race’ 2016, pp. 10–13.

43Travers, The Phantom Fenians of New South Wales 1986; Inglis, Australian Colonists 1993, pp. 112–23.

44Brett, The Enigma of Mr Deakin 2017, pp. 27, 81–83, 164.

45For O’Shanassy’s career, see Pole, ‘O’Shanassy, John (1818–83)’, in McGuire & Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biography, vol. 7, 2009, pp. 933–34.

46Deakin, The Crisis in Victorian Politics 1957, p. 64.

47Age (Melbourne), 5 March 1860, p. 4.

48Macintyre, Colonial Liberalism 1991, pp. 129–31.

49Morrison, David Syme 2014, pp. 48, 71–72.

50Bryan O’Loghlen was sometimes caricatured as an Irish farmer: not a ‘peasant’, but a fat prosperous-looking farmer with an equally fat pig. In some cartoons O’Loghlen was the pig. See, for example, Melbourne Punch, 22 March 1883, p. 114, 15 December 1881, p. 235.

51For Michael, Colman and Bryan O’Loghlen, see their entries by Geoghegan in McGuire & Quinn (eds), Dictionary of Irish Biography, vol. 7, 2009, pp. 649–52. Bryan O’Loghlen inherited the title in 1877 on his older brother Colman’s death.

52Duffy, vol. 2, 1898, p. 133.

53Duffy, vol. 2, 1898, pp. 172–73; Macintyre 1991, p. 130.

54Knowlton, ‘The enigma of Charles Gavan Duffy’ 1996, pp. 189–208.

55Doyle, ‘Sir Charles Gavan Duffy’s land act, 1862’ 1986, pp. 145–55.

56Serle, The Golden Age 1963, p. 250. For more positive assessments of Duffy, see Noone, ‘An Irish rebel in Victoria’ 2007, pp. 108–17; Kiernan, ‘Charles Gavan Duffy and “The art of living”’ 1989, pp. 137–54.

57Serle, The Rush to Be Rich 1971, p. 242.

58Duffy, Young Ireland 1884, pp. 127–30.

59Australasian (Melbourne), 22 July 1871, p. 20.

60Melbourne Punch, 27 July 1871, p. 5, 23 May 1872, p. 4.

61Scalmer, On the Stump 2017, pp. 106–20.

62Melbourne Punch, 23 May 1872, p. 4, 30 May 1872, p. 5.

63Duffy, vol. 2, 1898, p. 384; Pearl, The Three Lives of Gavan Duffy 1979, pp. 212–31.

64Serle 1971, p. 17.

65Deakin 1957, pp. 15, 55–57, 63, 78–80. Bent’s father had been an English convict, while his mother was a free Irish immigrant.

66Glass, Tommy Bent 1993, pp. 44–73.

67Melbourne Punch, 3 April 1879, p. 138.

68Hall & Malcolm 2016, pp. 11–12.

69Morgan, Melbourne Before Mannix 2012, p. 27.

70Serle 1971, pp. 17, 238.

71Leader (Melbourne), 21 October 1882, p. 27.

72Macintyre 1991, pp. 166–67.

73Ingham, ‘O’Shanassy, Sir John (1818–1883)’, ADB.

74Strangio, Neither Power nor Glory 2012, pp. 106–108, 120.

75Strangio 2012, pp. 162–73, 181–203.

76James Martin, NSW premier (1863–65, 1866–68 and 1870–72) and chief justice (1873–86), was born into a County Cork Catholic family in 1820, but during his rise to high colonial office he converted to Protestantism. Grainger, Martin of Martin Place 1970.

77Cahill, ‘Jennings, Sir Patrick Alfred (1831–1897)’, ADB; Evening News (Sydney), 8 January 1887, p. 5.

78Kingston, A History of New South Wales 2006, pp. 69–73.

79Hamilton, ‘Irish‐Catholics of New South Wales and the Labor Party’ 1958, p. 256.

80Australasian Pastoralists’ Review, 16 August 1897, pp. 298–99; Protestant Standard (Sydney), 15 January 1887, p. 4; Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 15 January 1887, pp. 10, 12.

81Walker, ‘Youth on trial’ 1986, pp. 28–41; Bavin-Mizzi, Ravished 1995, pp. 157–70; Bellanta, Larrikins 2012, pp. 86–105.

82Daily Telegraph (Sydney), 6 January 1887, p. 6.

83Sydney Mail and New South Wales Advertiser, 8 January 1887, p. 63.

84Cited in Ayres, Prince of the Church 2007, pp. 156–57.

85Freeman’s Journal, 8 January 1887, p. 16, 15 January 1887, p. 13; Age, 8 January 1887, p. 9.

86Davitt, Life and Progress in Australasia 1898, pp. 433–34. For Dalley’s comments, see Sydney Morning Herald, 6 January 1887, p. 4.

87Inglis, The Rehearsal 1985; Reynolds, Unnecessary Wars 2016, pp. 48–58.

88Cited in Lehane, William Bede Dalley 2007, p. 301.

89Dalley may not have known it, but there were at least 20 Orangeman among the contingent. Inglis 1985, pp. 90–91, 147.

90Hogan 1887, pp. 303–305.

91Froude, Oceana 1886, p. 173.

92Inglis 1985, pp. 85, 152–53.

93Lehane 2007, pp. 303, 310.

94Inglis 1985, pp. 68–70, 118, 140–41, 151–53.

95For a survey of the Queensland Irish community, see MacGinley, ‘The Irish in Queensland’ 1991, pp. 103–19.

96Gill, ‘Byrnes, Thomas Joseph (1860–1898)’, ADB; St Ledger, Thomas Joseph Byrnes 1902.

97Davitt 1898, pp. 252–55.

98Murphy, ‘Queensland’ 1975, pp. 130–65, 218–19, 222–23; McMullin, The Light on the Hill 1991, pp. 1–7, 23–29.

99Worker (Brisbane), 29 February 1896, p. 2.

100Davitt 1898, p. 303.

101Woolcock, Rights of Passage 1986, pp. 316–17.

102O’Farrell, The Catholic Church and Community in Australia 1977, pp. 234, 244, 274, 306–308.

103Worker, 29 February 1896, pp. 2–3.

104TJ Byrnes is identified as a conservative, although political labels were in transition in Queensland during the 1890s; he was certainly anti-labour. Murphy 1975, p. 140.

105Warwick Argus, 4 April 1896, p. 2; Warwick Examiner and Times, 8 April 1896, p. 3.

106Brisbane Courier, 13 March 1896, pp. 5–6; Telegraph (Brisbane), 21 March 1896, p. 3.

107Telegraph, 4 March 1896, p. 4; Brisbane Courier, 15 January 1896, p. 4, 18 February 1896, p. 6.

10 Catholic Irish Australians in the political arena after 1900: from sectarianism to the split

1For simplicity and clarity, the terms ALP and Labor Party will be used throughout, although the labour parties of the 1890s and the early federal party initially used a variety of different names.

2Malcolm & Hall, ‘Catholic Irish Australia and the labor movement’ 2018, pp. 149–67.

3Camm & McQuilton (eds), Australians: A Historical Atlas 1987, pp. 147–48.

4Hamilton, ‘Irish‐Catholics of New South Wales and the Labor Party’ 1958, p. 265. For Victoria, see Bongiorno, The People’s Party 1996, pp. 164–87.

5Ford, Cardinal Moran and the A.L.P 1966, pp. 97–103, 257–58, 274.

6Redmond, Through the New Commonwealth [1906], pp. 16–17; O’Brien, Parnell and His Party 1968, pp. 140–43.

7O’Brien 1968, pp. 126–33.

8More research is required to substantiate Kiernan’s analysis. Kiernan, ‘Home rule for Ireland and the formation of the Australian Labor Party’ 1992, p. 9.

9Brett, ‘Class, religion and the foundation of the Australian party system’ 2002, pp. 39–56.

10Census of the Commonwealth of Australia, 30 June 1933, vol. 2, pp. 1927–28.

11McConville, ‘Emigrant Irish and Suburban Catholics’ 1984, pp. 108 (a) and (b), 116–23, 134–38.

12Hogan, ‘The Sydney style’, pp. 39–46.

13O’Farrell, The Catholic Church and Community in Australia 1977, p. 288.

14See Australian Dictionary of Biography; Australians: The Guide and Index 1987, pp. 44–47.

15Crisp, The Australian Federal Labour Party 1955, p. 316.

16See the entries on these eight 1904–49 prime ministers in the Australian Dictionary of Biography.

17The maternal grandparents of JC Watson, Australia’s first Labor prime minister in 1904, were Irish. The seven other prime ministers in Table 2 all had either one or both parents born in Ireland.

18Hogan, The Sectarian Strand 1987, pp. 138–45, 170–71.

19Rickard, Class and Politics 1976, pp. 199–202, 249–50.

20Ayres, Prince of the Church 2007, pp. 197–204; Ford 1966, pp. 202–18, 235–36.

21Irving, ‘Making the federal Commonwealth’ 2013, p. 259.

22O’Farrell 1977, pp. 265–66; Field, The Forgotten War 1995, pp. 44–46, 68–69, 210–11 n. 168.

23McHugh, ‘Not in front of the altar’ 2009, pp. 42.1–42.22.

24Hogan 1987, p. 193.

25O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia 1986, pp. 241–51.

26Davis, Arthur Griffith and Non-violent Sinn Fein 1974, pp. 23–24, 74–79; Maume, The Long Gestation 1999, pp. 48–59.

27Foster, Vivid Faces 2014, pp. xv–xxiii.

28Broome, ‘Dill Macky, William Marcus (1849–1913)’, ADB.

29Ford 1966, pp. 258–60. For the animosity between Moran and Dill Macky in Sydney, see Cunningham, The Price of a Wife? 2013.

30Hamilton, ‘Catholic interests and the Labor Party’ 1959, pp. 62–73.

31Kildea, Tearing the Fabric 2002, pp. 35–36, 57–63, 249–50; Hogan 1987, pp. 182–85.

32Stewart, The Ulster Crisis 1967.

33Newton, Hell-bent 2014, pp. 61, 282.

34Hennessey, Dividing Ireland 1998, pp. 86–97.

35Vaughan & Fitzpatrick (eds), Irish Historical Statistics 1978, p. 81; Vamplew (ed.), Australians: Historical Statistics 1987, pp. 27, 40.

36Fitzpatrick, ‘Militarism in Ireland’ 1996, p. 388.

37Fitzpatrick 1996, p. 388; Vamplew (ed.) 1987, p. 412.

38Kildea, ANZACS and Ireland 2007, pp. 82–88; Irish Anzacs Project, database, University of NSW, <hal.arts.unsw.edu.au>.

39Census of the Commonwealth of Australia taken on 2 and 3 April 1911 pp. 753, 757, 772.

40Robson, ‘The origin and character of the first A.I.F’ 1973, pp. 740–41, 748.

41Spiers, The Army and Society 1980, pp. 50–51, 297–98.

42JD Jageurs to M Jageurs, 20 February 1915, in O’Neill, ‘Michael Davitt and John Davitt Jageurs’ 2006, pp. 50–52.

43Advocate (Melbourne), 16 September 1916, p. 16.

44Marwick, The Deluge 1991, pp. 219–21.

45Stewart, Edward Carson 1981, pp. 96–100; Bowman, ‘The Ulster Volunteer Force’ 2006, pp. 247–58.

46Travers, ‘The priest in politics’ 1983, pp. 162–63.

47McKernan, The Australian Churches at War 1980, p. 112.

48Advocate, 5 June 1915, p. 22.

49Watchman (Sydney), 3 June 1915, p. 5.

50Worker (Brisbane), 27 May 1916, p. 1.

51Australian Worker (Sydney), 4 May 1916, p. 3.

52Beaumont, Broken Nation 2013, pp. 219–31.

53Marwick 1991, pp. 101–102, 116–25.

54McKibbin, ‘Conscription in the First World War’ 2016, pp. 169–86.

55Bew, ‘The politics of war’ 2008, pp. 102–103; aan de Wiel, The Catholic Church in Ireland 2003, pp. 114–27, 203–55.

56The 1916–17 votes were plebiscites, not referendums, as they were not aimed at amending the Constitution, but at the time and in many later histories they have frequently been referred to as referendums. See Kildea, ‘Killing conscription’ 2016, pp. 162–63.

57Archer, ‘Stopping war and stopping conscription’ 2014, pp. 43–67.

58Beaumont 2013, pp. 184–216, 315–63; Vamplew (ed.) 1987, p. 414.

59Goot, ‘The results of the 1916 and 1917 conscription referendums re-examined’ 2016, pp. 111–46.

60Kildea, ‘Paranoia and prejudice’ 2007, pp. 155–66.

61Inglis, ‘Conscription in peace and war’ 1968, pp. 34–45.

62Hughes cited in Fitzhardinge, William Morris Hughes, vol. 2, 1979, pp. 215, 276.

63Cusack, With an Olive Branch and a Shillelagh 2004, pp. 86–93, 106–109; Inglis 1968, pp. 30–31; Walker, Anxious Nation 1999, pp. 197–200.

64Noone, ‘Class factors in the radicalisation of Archbishop Daniel Mannix’ 2014, pp. 189–204.

65Advocate, 3 February 1917, pp. 12–13.

66Bollard, ‘Economic conscription and Irish discontent’ 2015, pp. 139–56.

67Freeman’s Journal (Sydney), 8 November 1917, p. 27.

68Franklin, Nolan & Gilchrist, The Real Archbishop Mannix from the Sources 2015, pp. 32–33.

69Aan de Wiel 2013, pp. 203–40.

70Franklin, Nolan & Gilchrist 2015, p. 33.

71Catholic Press (Sydney), 21 June 1917, p. 20; Advocate, 11 November 1916, p. 17.

72Holroyd, ‘Parker, Frank Critchley (1862–1944)’, ADB.

73Australian Statesman and Mining Standard (Melbourne), 26 October 1916, p. 260.

74Australian Statesman and Mining Standard, 15 February 1917, p. 97

75For distribution of Parker’s pamphlets in Western Australia, see Tribune (Melbourne), 26 July 1917, p. 3, and in NSW and South Australia, see Southern Cross (Adelaide), 6 April 1917, p. 9.

76Holroyd, ‘Parker, Frank Critchley (1862–1944)’, ADB.

77Australian Statesman and Mining Standard, 8 March 1917, insert.

78Melbourne Punch, 4 May 1916, p. 5.

79Bulletin (Sydney), 18 April 1918, cover. Thanks to Stephanie James for alerting us to this cartoon.

80Catholic Press, 25 April 1918, p. 21.

81Doyle, ‘Allegations of disloyalty at Koroit during World War I’ 2000, pp. 165–76.

82Proudfoot & Hall, ‘Points of departure’ 2005, pp. 341–78.

83Hall, ‘“God sent me here to raise a society”’ 2015, pp. 319–39.

84Goot 2016, pp. 123–25, 133–34.

85Australian Electoral Commission, Australian Referendums 2000. Note that, as informal votes have not been included in Table 3, the figures do not add up to 100 per cent.

86Gilbert, ‘The conscription referenda’ 1969, pp. 54–72; Murphy, ‘Religion, race and conscription in World War I’ 1974, pp. 155–63.

87Franklin, Nolan & Gilchrist 2015, pp. 93–97.

88Lang, I Remember 1956, p. 81.

89Fraser cited in Megalogenis, Australia’s Second Chance 2015, pp. 171, 174–75.

90Warhurst, ‘Catholics in Australian politics since 1950’ 2009, pp. 262–63.

91McConville, Croppies, Celts and Catholics 1987, pp. 108–17.

92Santamaria, Daniel Mannix 1984, p. 91.

93Cronin & Adair, The Wearing of the Green 2002, pp. 116–18; Age (Melbourne), 22 March 1918, p. 17; Argus (Melbourne), 19 March 1918, p. 5.

94Rivett, Australian Citizen 1965, pp. 62, 64–68, 70–71.

95O’Farrell, ‘The Irish Republican Brotherhood in Australia’ 1983, p. 183.

96Collins, ‘“A one-battalioned mind”’ 2013.

97O’Farrell, ‘Dreaming of distant revolution’ 2005, pp. 62–85; O’Farrell 1986, pp. 254–60, 273–78.

98For the INA, see the documents deposited by Albert Dryer with the Irish Bureau of Military History, Dublin, W.S. 957 and W.S. 1526, <bureauofmilitaryhistory.ie>.

99Reid, ‘The history of the INA’, <irishassociation.org.au/the-history-of-the-ina/>.

100Bielenberg, ‘Fatalities in the Irish revolution’ 2017, pp. 758–59.

101Leeson, ‘The Royal Irish Constabulary, Black and Tans and Auxiliaries’ 2017, pp. 371–84.

102Kildea 2002, pp. 232–33.

103Age, 14 December 1920, p. 7.

104Townshend, The Republic 2013, pp. 218–19.

105Advocate, 24 January 1920, p. 4; Cronin & Adair 2002, pp. 120–26.

106Griffin, John Wren 2004, pp. 240–45; Niall, Mannix 2015, pp. 146–48.

107Kwan, ‘The St Patrick’s Day procession, Melbourne, 1920’ 2007, pp. 145–54; Kwan, ‘The Australian flag’ 1994, pp. 280–303.

108Kildea, ‘Ireland Will Be Free’, forthcoming 2018.

109Kildea, ‘“A veritable hurricane of sectarianism”’ 2015, pp. 363–382; Kildea 2002, pp. 204–205, 208–13, 211, 254.

110Northern Champion (Taree, NSW), 5 August 1922, p. 4. Warwick Daily News, 12 October 1922, p. 4.

111Fitzpatrick, ‘Exporting brotherhood’ 2005, p. 310.

112 Davis,Orangeism in Tasmania 2010, p. 68.

113Kildea 2002, p. 229.

114Hogan 1987, pp. 191–94; Kildea 2002, pp. 242–45; Moore, ‘Sectarianism in NSW’ 1987, pp. 3–15.

115Hopkinson, Green Against Green 1988, pp. 6–46.

116J O’Flaherty, Adelaide, to K Barry and L Kearns, 19 January 1925, Kathleen Barry Maloney papers, University College Dublin [hereafter UCD] Archives, P94/56.

117Niall 2015, pp. 182–84.

118O’Farrell 1986, pp. 276–77; Hall, ‘Irish republican women on tour’, forthcoming 2019.

119Dutton, ‘The Commonwealth Investigation Branch’ 1998, p. 163.

120O’Farrell 1986, p. 293.

121Finnane, ‘Deporting the Irish envoys’ 2013, pp. 409, 415–16.

122Kildea 2002, pp. 247–49.

123Whitaker, ‘Linda Kearns and Kathleen Barry’ 2016, pp. 208–11.

124Murphy, ‘Imprisonment during the Civil War’ 2017, p. 736.

125Hall, forthcoming 2019.

126Ó Duigneáin, Linda Kearns 2002, p. 95.

127Sun (Sydney), 24 February 1925, p. 9.

128K Barry Maloney to J Maloney, 26 February 1925, Maloney papers, UCD Archives, P94/127; Hall, forthcoming 2019.

129Roe, Australia, Britain and Migration 1995, pp. 17, 211.

130Whitaker, ‘Irish War of Independence veterans in Australia’ 1996, pp. 413–20.

131Foster, ‘Locating the “Lost Legion”’ 2017, pp. 744–47.

132Santamaria 1984, pp. 248–49.

133Lee & Kennedy, ‘The credentials controversy’ 2006/7, pp. 57–81.

134Niall 2015, p. 330; Santamaria 1984, pp. 219–20.

135Warhurst, ‘Catholics, communism and the Australian party system’ 1979, pp. 222–42.

136Crisp 1955, pp. 312, 316, 327; Murray, The Split 1970, pp. 26, 66.

137Scalmer, ‘Crisis to crisis’ 2001, pp. 90–100.

138Duncan, Crusade or Conspiracy? 2001, pp. 57–107; Ormonde, The Movement 1972; Mathews, Of Labour and Liberty 2017, pp. 227–96.

139BA Santamaria to D Mannix, 11 December 1952, in Morgan (ed.), B.A. Santamaria: Your Most Obedient Servant 2007, pp. 74–75.

140Murray 1970, pp. 334–42.

141Duncan 2001, pp. 388–90; Strangio, Neither Power nor Glory 2012, pp. 212, 232. 142 O’Farrell 1977, pp. 397–403.

Epilogue: Irish Australia in the 21st century

1Delaney, The Irish in Post-War Britain 2007, pp. 1–11.

2Grimes, ‘Irish immigration after 1945’ 2001, pp. 480–83.

3For unpublished studies of late 20th-century Irish immigrants in Western Australia and Melbourne, see Chetkovich, ‘The New Irish in Australia’ 2005; and O’Connor, ‘The Multiple Dimensions of Migrancy, Irishness and Home among Contemporary Irish Immigrants in Melbourne, Australia’ 2005.

4Grimes 2001, pp. 480–83.

5Noone, ‘People not money’ 2000, pp. 128–35.

6O’Farrell, The Irish in Australia, 3rd ed., 2000, p. 312.

7O’Connor, ‘Rediscovering Irish migration to Australia’ 2012, pp. 35–36.

8Aileen Garry interviewed by Seamus O’Hanlon, 30 May–4 June 2012, for the Australian Generations Oral History Project, National Library of Australia [hereafter NLA], ORAL TRC 6300/61.

9See, for example, online interview with Limerick-born Bishop David Cremin by Siobhán McHugh, 24 and 31 March 2014, for the Irish National Association Centenary Oral History Project, NLA, ORAL TRC 6570/18, <nla. gov.au/nla.obj-220503090/listen>.

10For Irish women recruited during the 20th century into Australian religious orders, such as the Sisters of Mercy and the Josephites, see MacGinley, A Dynamic of Hope 2002, pp. 291–92; Doyle, Mercy, Mater and Me 2010; and also ‘Sister Brenda Browne and the “49ers”’, in Reid, Not Just Ned 2011.

11Walker, ‘Memories of a 1950s Irish leftie in St Kilda, Melbourne’ 2016, Tinteán, <tintean.org.au>.

12Molloy, ‘Tradition, memory and the culture of Irish-Australian identity’ 2016, pp. 47–64; Mollenhauer, ‘Competitive Irish dancing’ 2015, pp. 35–54.

13Walker 2016.

14Collins, ‘“A one-battalioned mind”’ 2013.

15Noone, Hidden Ireland 2012, p. 150.

16Noone, ‘Sunburnt Gaelic’ 2012, p. 172.

17Malcolm & Bull, ‘Irish studies in Australia’ 2013, pp. 29–44.

18Breen, ‘Emigration in the age of electronic media’ 2015, pp. 198–233; Ballantyne & Burke, ‘People live in their heads a lot’ 2017, pp. 10–24.

19The term ‘Anglo-Celtic’ appears to have been first used by the Irish-Australian journalist and NSW politician, Edward W O’Sullivan (1846–1910). See Mansfield, Australian Democrat 1965, p. 263.

20Evans, Moore, Saunders & Jamison, 1901 1997, pp. 15, 40, 156.

21Dixson, The Imaginary Australian 1999, pp. 33–35, 93–94.

22Curthoys, ‘History and identity’ 1997, pp. 23–24.

23Hage, White Nation 2000, pp. 57, 19.

24Hage 2000, pp. 198–204.

25O’Farrell, ‘Double jeopardy’ 2005, <press-files.anu.edu.au>. For a similar view, see Teo, ‘Multiculturalism and the problem of multi-cultural histories’ 2003, p. 144.

26Daily Mail (London), 3 June 2015, <www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3107579>.

27Grahame Morris’s mention of failed potato growing is presumably a reference to the Great Famine of the late 1840s, which was due to a crop disease, not to any lack of skill on the part of Irish farmers. The ‘mutant lawn weed’ is presumably the shamrock, but this is not Ireland’s ‘national symbol’ – that symbol is the harp. As for ‘th’, it is pronounced in Hiberno-English, although some localised dialects reflecting Irish-language pronunciation render it as ‘t’. Rather than highlighting Irish stupidity, Morris was simply demonstrating his own ignorance and prejudice. See Bourke, ‘The Visitation of God’ 1993, pp. 129–58; Morris, Our Own Devices 2005, pp. 14–15, 73–75, 199; Dolan (ed.), A Dictionary of Hiberno-English 1999, p. 269.

28Brisbane Times, 12 March 2018, <www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/border-force-has-been-targeting-the-wrong-foreigners-20180312-p4z414.html>.

29For favourable reviews, see Australian (Sydney), 5 April 2014, <www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/review/david-hunts-girt-delivers-our-history-with-humour/news-story/9b74f40096dcfbb748e8b8c08fb66a13?sv=2ac82286155b8704857254dcdbbc00a9>; Sydney Morning Herald, 20 October 2016, <www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/true-girt-review-david-hunts-satirical-look-at-australian-history-20161020-gs6mug.html>.

30Hunt, Girt 2013, pp. 147, 149, 178–79.

31Hunt, True Girt 2016, pp. 427, 360 note 10, 399 note 18, 259, 357, 308. It seems only fair to inform readers that one of the authors (Malcolm) of this book is the descendant of an Irish Famine orphan.