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1. Burch turned ninety years old in 2019. To learn about his distinguished career, see the John B. Burch Malacology Fund, LSA Museum of Zoology, https://lsa.umich.edu/ummz/mollusks/burch-malacology-fund.html.
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1. Graves JL et al., Desiccation, flight, glycogen, and postponed senescence in Drosophila melanogaster, Physiological Zoology 65, no. 2 (1992): 268–286. This paper was among the ninety most-cited papers in the ninety-year history of Physiological and Biochemical Zoology and its precursor Physiological Zoology. Garland T, Canfield AL, and Bronoel M, Editorial on PBZ’s ninetieth year and top 90 papers in PBZ, 1927–2017, Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 90, no. 2 (2017).
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9. See my discussion of the history of African Americans’ education in science in Graves JL, African Americans in evolutionary science: Where we have been, and what’s next, Evolution: Education and Outreach, October 22, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12052-019-0110-5.
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13. Graves JL, The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 107–127.
14. Fleming JT, Three forces that shaped African American history, Diverse Issues in Higher Education 32, no. 1 (2015), 321.
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17. Lewontin RC, The apportionment of human diversity, in Evolutionary Biology, ed. T Dobzhansky, MK Hecht, and WC Steere (New York: Springer, 1972), 381–398, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_14.
18. Lewontin, The apportionment of human diversity, Table 2.
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20. See, for example, Lewontin, RC, Biological determinism as a social weapon, in Biology as a Social Weapon, ed. Ann Arbor chapter of Science for the People (Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing, 1977); Levins R and Lewontin RC, The Dialectical Biologist (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985).
21. Online companion to the documentary series Race: The Power of an Illusion, California Newsreel, Othering and Belonging Institute, UC Berkeley Library, and American Cultures Center at UC Berkeley, www.racepowerofanillusion.org.
22. Interview with Joseph Graves (2002), Race: The Power of an Illusion, www.racepowerofanillusion.org/interviews/interview-joseph-graves-jr-2002.
23. Watson’s endorsement is quoted on the Films Media Group sales page for Race: The Power of an Illusion, www.films.com/ecTitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=25104.
24. American Masters, “Decoding Watson,” season 33, episode 1, PBS, premiere January 2, 2019, www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/decoding-watson-documentary/16977.
25. Graves JL, interview about James Watson, Anderson Cooper 360, CNN, aired October 19, 2007.
26. Graves JL, James Watson’s racism is a product of his time—but that doesn’t excuse it, CNN Opinion, January 16, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/01/15/opinions/james-watson-not-alone-in-racist-thinking-graves/index.html.
27. Edwards AWF, Human genetic diversity: Lewontin’s fallacy, Bioessays 25, no. 8 (2003): 798–801, https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.10315, PMID: 12879450.
28. Leroi AM, A family tree in every gene, New York Times, March 14, 2005, www.nytimes.com/2005/03/14/opinion/a-family-tree-in-every-gene.html.
29. Graves JL, What we know and what we don’t know: Human genetic variation and the social construction of race, in Is Race Real? (web forum), Social Science Research Council, 2005, http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org.
30. Edwards, Human genetic diversity.
31. I think my best explanation of this concept can be found in Graves JL, Biological theories of race beyond the millennium, in Reconsidering Race: Social Science Perspectives on Racial Categories in the Age of Genomics, ed. K Suzuki and DA Von Vacano (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).
32. Wikipedia, s.v. John Maynard Smith, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith, last edited on 24 January 2022.
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37. Piel, “The most bogus ideas,” 4.
38. Dobzhansky T, Morgan and his school in the 1930s, in The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology, ed. E Mayr and WB Provine (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998).
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41. Dobzhansky, Morgan and his school in the 1930s, 446–447.
42. See the discussions in Garland T and Rose MR, eds., Experimental Evolution: Concepts, Methods, and Applications of Selection Experiments (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
43. Graves, The Emperor’s New Clothes, 2005, 144–151.
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46. See About BEACON, BEACON: An NSF Center for the Study of Evolution in Action, www3.beacon-center.org/welcome.
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3. See, for example, Urschitz J et al., A serial analysis of gene expression in sun-damaged human skin, Journal of Investigative Dermatology 119, no. 1 (2002): 3–13, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.01829.x; Poulin J-F et al., Disentangling neural cell diversity using single-cell transcriptomics, Nature Neuroscience 19, no. 9 (2016): 1131–1141, https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4366, PMID: 27571192.
4. See my discussion of this in Graves JL and Goodman A, Racism, Not Race: Answers to Frequently Asked Questions (New York: Columbia University Press, 2021).
5. See, for example, Rubenfeld J, Affirmative action, Yale Law Journal 107 (1997): 427–472.
6. Herrnstein R and Murray CR, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994). Page citations in the text are to this edition.
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8. I would go on to explain this in Graves JL, The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001).
9. Graves JL and Place T, Race and IQ revisited: Figures never lie, but often liars figure, SAGE Race Relations Abstracts 20, no. 2 (1995): 4–50.
10. Omoto K and Saitou N, Genetic origins of the Japanese: A partial support for the dual structure hypothesis, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102, no. 4 (1997): 437–446, https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199704)102:4<437::AID-AJPA1>3.0.CO;2-P.
11. Kim JJ et al., Use of autosomal loci for clustering individuals and populations of East Asian origin, Human Genetics 117, no. 6 (2005): 511–519, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-005-1334-8.
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13. Lynn R, IQ of Mongolians, Mankind Quarterly 47, no. 3 (2007): 91–97.
14. See, for example, Graves JL, Race, genomics, and IQ: Slight return, in Intelligence Quotient: Testing, Role of Genetics and the Environment and Social Outcomes, ed. J. Kush (Hauppauge, NY: Nova Scientific Publishers, 2013), 69–86.
15. Fan L et al., The human brainnetome atlas: A new brain atlas based on connectional architecture, Cerebral Cortex 26, no. 8 (2016): 3508–3526, https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw157.
16. Robbins TW et al., Behavioural and neurochemical effects of early social deprivation in the rat, Journal of Psychopharmacology 10 (1996): 39–47; Hall FS, Social deprivation of neonatal, adolescent, and adult rats has distinct neurochemical and behavioral consequences, Critical Reviews in Neurobiology 12 (1998): 129–162; Healy SD and Tovée MJ, Environmental enrichment and impoverishment: Neurophysiological effects, in Attitudes to Animals: Views in Animal Welfare, ed. FL Dolins (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
17. Needleman HL, ed., Human Lead Exposure (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999).
18. Graves JL, Great is their sin: Biological determinism in the age of genomics, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 661, no. 1 (2015): 24–50, https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716215586558.
19. Barcelona de Mendoza V et al., Perceived racial discrimination and DNA methylation among African American women in the InterGEN Study, Biological Research for Nursing 20, no. 2 (2018): 145–152, https://doi.org/10.1177/1099800417748759.
20. Pai S, Woman who called Michelle Obama “ape in heels” arrested for defrauding FEMA of $18K, Buzzshared, https://buzz.shared.com/woman-who-called-michelle-obama-ape-in-heels-arrested-for-defrauding-fema-of-18-k.
21. Bowles S and Nelson V, The “inheritance of IQ” and the intergenerational transmission of economic inequality, Review of Economics and Statistics 56, no. 1 (1974): 39–51.
22. Rushton JP, Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1995).
23. Parkash R, Lambhod C, and Singh D, Thermal developmental plasticity affects body size and water conservation of Drosophila nepalensis from the Western Himalayas, Bulletin of Entomological Research 104, no. 4 (2014): 504–516, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007485314000340.
24. McEwen BS, In pursuit of resilience: Stress, epigenetics, and brain plasticity, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1373, no. 1 (2016): 56–64, https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13020.
25. Wallace IJ, Hainline C, and Lieberman DE, Sports and the human brain: An evolutionary perspective, Handbook of Clinical Neurology 158 (2018): 3–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63954-7.00001-X.
26. Henrich J, The WEIRDest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2020).
27. Henrich, The WEIRDest People in the World, Figure P.1.
28. Buringh E and Van Zanden JL, Charting the “rise of the West”: Manuscripts and printed books in Europe, a long-term perspective from the sixth through eighteenth centuries, Journal of Economic History 69, no. 2 (2009): 409–445.
29. Galton F, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1892).
30. Graves JL and Johnson A, The pseudoscience of psychometry and The Bell Curve, in Myth and Realities: African Americans and the Measurement of Human Difference, special issue of Journal of Negro Education 64, no. 3 (1995): 277–294.
31. Race and intelligence debate: Phillipe [sic] Rushton v. Joseph Graves, YouTube video, www.youtube.com/watch?v=_eRtjgKlt8s&t=7s.
32. Graves JL, The misuse of life history theory: J. P. Rushton and the pseudoscience of racial hierarchy, in Race and Intelligence: Separating Science from Myth, ed. J Fish (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002), 57–94; Graves JL, What a tangled web he weaves: Race, reproductive strategies, and Rushton’s life history theory, Anthropological Theory 2, no. 2 (2002): 131–154.
1. KC and the Sunshine Band, Get Down Tonight (Live) 1977, Yahoo video, https://video.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?fr=yhs-symantec-ext_onb&hsimp=yhs-ext_onb&hspart=symantec&p=kc+sunshine+band+get+down+tonight#id=1&vid=c81dd330704837e3cc5cda41a1ac4f72&action=click.
2. In memory: Warren Graves, Westfield Senior High School, Class of 1975, www.westfieldhigh75.com/class_profile.cfm?member_id=2883462.
3. Graves JL, The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001).
4. Brace C, Region does not mean “race”—reality versus convention in forensic anthropology, Journal of Forensic Sciences 40, no. 2 (1995): 171–175.
5. Reynolds LT and Lieberman L, eds., Race and Other Misadventures: Essays in Honor of Ashley Montagu in His Ninetieth Year (Dix Hills, NY: General Hall, 1996).
6. Chase A, The Legacy of Malthus: The Social Costs of the New Scientific Racism (Champaign-Urbana, IL: Illini Books, 1980).
7. Reilly MT et al., Genetic studies of alcohol dependence in the context of the addiction cycle, Neuropharmacology 122 (2017): 3–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.01.017, PMID: 28118990, PMCID: PMC623330; Hart AB and Kranzler HR, Alcohol dependence genetics: Lessons learned from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and post-GWAS analyses, Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 39, no. 8 (2015): 1312–1327, https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.12792, PMID: 26110981, PMCID: PMC4515198.
8. Neese RM, Good Reasons for Bad Feelings: Insights from the Frontier of Evolutionary Psychiatry (New York: Dutton Books, 2019).
9. Nesse RM and Berridge KC, Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective, Science 278, no. 5335 (1997): 63–66, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5335.63, PMID: 9311928.
10. Wolffgramm J and Heyne A, Social behavior, dominance, and social deprivation of rats determine drug choice, Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 38, no. 2 (1991): 389–399, https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-3057(91)90297-f, PMID: 2057508.
11. Kraemer GW and McKinney WT, Social separation increases alcohol consumption in rhesus monkeys, Psychopharmacology 86, nos. 1–2 (1985): 182–189, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00431706, PMID: 3927354.
12. Jargin SV, On the causes of alcoholism in the former Soviet Union, Alcohol and Alcoholism 45, no. 1 (2010): 104–105, https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agp082, PMID: 19951961.
13. Murphy A et al., Social factors associated with alcohol consumption in the former Soviet Union: A systematic review, Alcohol and Alcoholism 47, no. 6 (2012): 711–718, https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/ags077, PMID: 22813540.
14. Hagnell O et al., Predictors of alcoholism in the Lundby Study: III. Social risk factors for alcoholism, European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences 235, no. 4 (1986): 197–199, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00379973, PMID: 3486125.
15. Beauvais F, American Indians and alcohol, Alcohol Health and Research World 22, no. 4 (1998): 253–259, PMID: 15706751, PMCID: PMC6761887; Amodeo M et al., Coping with stressful events: Influence of parental alcoholism and race in a community sample of women, Health and Social Work 32, no. 4 (2007): 247–257, https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/32.4.247, PMID: 18038726.
16. Hagen EH et al., Ecology and neurobiology of toxin avoidance and the paradox of drug reward, Neuroscience 160, no. 1 (2009): 69–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.01.077, PMID: 19233250.
17. I discuss this problem in detail in Graves JL, Looking at the world through “race”-colored glasses: The fallacy of ascertainment bias in biomedical research and practice, in Mapping “Race”: Critical Approaches to Health Disparities Research, ed. L Gomez and N Lopez (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013).
18. Eggers C et al., HIV-1-associated neurocognitive disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment, Journal of Neurology 264, no. 8 (2017): 1715–1727, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-017-8503-2.
19. Potocnik F, Successful treatment of hypersexuality in AIDS dementia with cyproterone acetate, South African Medical Journal 81, no. 8 (1992): 433–434, PMID: 1533065.
20. Gossett T, Race: The History of an Idea in America (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1963).
21. This comedic interlude took place on the track “Winter in America” from the 2009 album Jazz Master Series: Gil Scott-Heron.
22. Dikötter F, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
23. Snowden FM, Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970).
24. Gal Gadot defends Cleopatra casting after “whitewashing” controversy, BBC News, December 22, 2020, www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-55409187.
25. Bennett C, Cleopatra V Tryphaena and the genealogy of the later Ptolemies, Ancient Society 28 (1997): 39–66.
26. Graves JL, Afrocentrism, in Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, 2nd ed. (Farmington Hills, MI: Gale-Cengage Learning, 2013).
27. Burstein S, The Reign of Cleopatra (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004).
28. Keel T, Divine Variations: How Christian Thought Became Racial Science (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2018).
29. Adams R, University College London apologises for role in promoting eugenics, Guardian, January 7, 2021, www.theguardian.com/education/2021/jan/07/university-college-london-apologises-for-role-in-promoting-eugenics.
30. The reviews were Goodman A, JAMA 287, no. 1 (2002): 115–116, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.287.1.115; Levin M, Quarterly Review of Biology 76, no. 4 (2001), https://doi.org/10.1086/420545; Rowe DC, Heredity 87 (2001): 254–255; and Loehlin J, Intelligence 30 (2002): 213.
31. Graves JL, Smashing Agassiz’s boulder, Peabody Lecture, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography, YouTube video, November 16, 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ss2AZSNGPRg.
32. Reich D, Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (New York: Pantheon, 2018).
1. Forde D, The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of South-Western Nigeria (New York: Routledge, 2017); Yang F and Hu A, Mapping Chinese folk religion in mainland China and Taiwan, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 51, no. 3 (2012): 505–521, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2012.01660.x.
2. Flood G, An Introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
3. Mayr E, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982).
4. Eiseley L, Darwin’s Century: Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It (New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1958).
5. Desmond A and Moore J, Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist (New York: Norton, 1991), 477–481.
6. Numbers RL, The creationists, in God and Evolution, ed. MK Cunningham (London: Routledge, 2007).
7. Brown IV, The higher criticism comes to America, 1880–1900, Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society (1943–1961) 38, no. 4 (1960): 193–212.
8. Hodge C, Systematic Theology, 3 vols. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1940; originally published in 1873).
9. See my discussions of the philosophical issues associated with themes in this acclaimed TV series in Graves JL, Naturalizing Supernatural, in Supernatural and Philosophy: Metaphysics and Monsters… for Idjits, ed. G Foresman, Blackwell Philosophy and Pop Culture Series (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell, 2013); Graves JL, Naturalizing Supernatural: Revisited, in Time Lords and Tribbles, Winchesters and Muggles, ed. I Menichiello and P Booth (Blurb Press, 2017).
10. Haught JF, God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2008).
11. Brown, The higher criticism comes to America.
12. Friedman RE, Who Wrote the Bible? (New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997).
13. Edelman D, Proving Yahweh killed his wife (Zechariah 5:5–11), Biblical Interpretation 11, no. 3 (2003): 335–344, https://doi.org/10.1163/156851503322566769.
14. For example, see the excellent essays in Haught, God After Darwin.
15. Dawkins R, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: Norton, 1986).
16. Kant I, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. NK Smith (New York: Humanities Press, 1950).
17. Episcopal Church of America, House of Bishops pastoral letter on the sin of racism, 1994, https://episcopalarchives.org/church-awakens/exhibits/show/awakening/sin-of-racism.
18. Graves JL, The genetics of race (Part 1) (podcast), Language of God, episode 48, BioLogos, https://biologos.org/podcast-episodes/joseph-graves-the-genetics-of-race-part-1/; Graves JL, The genetics of race (Part 2) (podcast), Language of God, episode 49, BioLogos, https://biologos.org/podcast-episodes/joseph-graves-the-genetics-of-race-part-2/.
19. See About us, BioLogos, https://biologos.org/about-us#our-history.
20. Belluck P, Board for Kansas deletes evolution from the curriculum, New York Times, August 12, 1999, www.nytimes.com/1999/08/12/us/board-for-kansas-deletes-evolution-from-curriculum.html.
21. Rosin H, Kansas board targets Darwin, Washington Post, August 8, 1999, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/aug99/creation08.htm.
22. Berkman M and Plutzer E, Evolution, Creationism, and the Battle to Control America’s Classrooms (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
23. The Arizona Ecumenical Council is now known as the Arizona Faith Network; Arizona Faith Network, About us, www.arizonafaithnetwork.org/about-us.
24. See Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 US 97 (1968); McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, 529 F Supp 1255 (ED Ark 1982.)
25. The 1998 controversy is alluded to in an article posted on the Discovery Institute’s website: Discovery Institute, Evolution feud back in schools: State science education standards aim for dialogue on differing life theories, November 3, 2004, www.discovery.org/a/2405. The Discovery Institute is a creationist think tank that attempts to undermine evolution using a strategy it calls Teach the Controversy.
26. Jones RP, White Too Long: The Legacy of White Supremacy in American Christianity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2020).
27. Schaffner BF, Macwilliams M, and Nteta T, Understanding white polarization in the 2016 vote for president: The sobering role of racism and sexism, Political Science Quarterly 133, no. 1 (2018): 9–34, https://doi.org/10.1002/polq.12737.
28. Wikipedia, s.v. Kent Hovind, accessed December 1, 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Hovind#Debates.
29. A good review of Kenneth Ham’s and other views on special creationism can be found in Pennock RT, Creationism and intelligent design, Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4 (2003): 143–163.
30. Herron JC and Freeman S, Evolutionary Analysis, 5th ed. (New York: Pearson, 2014), 65.
31. Michael JS, An “American Humboldt”? Memorializing Philadelphia physician and race supremacist Samuel George Morton, Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 87, no. 2 (2020): 279–312, www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/pennhistory.87.2.0279.
32. Meikle E, Louisiana HCR 74 amended and adopted, National Center for Science Education, May 8, 2001, ncse.ngo/louisiana-hcr-74-amended-and-adopted.
33. Graves JL and Bailey G, Evolution, religion, and race: Critical thinking and the public good, Forum on Public Policy: A Journal of the Oxford Round Table, www.thefreelibrary.com/Evolution%2C+religion%2C+and+race%3A+critical+thinking+and+the+public+good.-a0218606495.
34. Bailey G et al., Religiously expressed fatalism and the perceived need for science and scientific process to empower agency, Science in Society 2, no. 3 (2011): 55–88.
35. Mead LS et al., Factors influencing minority student decisions to consider a career in evolutionary biology, Evolution: Education and Outreach 8 (2015): 6, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12052-015-0034-7.
36. Graves, The genetics of race (Part 1); Graves, The genetics of race (Part 2).
1. Harris A, The State Must Provide: Why America’s Colleges Have Always Been Unequal—and How to Set Them Right (New York: HarperCollins, 2021).
2. Garcia S, Gaps in college spending shortchange students of color, Center for American Progress, April 5, 2018, https://cdn.americanprogress.org/content/uploads/2018/04/03090823/Gaps-in-College-Spending-brief.pdf.
3. See Graves JL, Making Sense of Biology (blog), EvoS, Evolutionary Studies Consortium, https://evostudies.org/author/jgraves.
4. Haynes SR, Noah’s Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
5. Gnuse RK, Seven gay texts: Biblical passages used to condemn homosexuality, Biblical Theology Bulletin 45, no. 2 (2015): 68–87.
6. See discussions of this in Friedman RE, Who Wrote the Bible? (New York: HarperSanFranciso, 1997); Borg MJ, Evolution of the Word: The New Testament in the Order the Books Were Written (New York: HarperOne, 2012).
7. Wolf AP, Incest Avoidance and the Incest Taboos: Two Aspects of Human Nature (Stanford: Stanford Briefs, 2014).
8. Gnuse, Seven gay texts, 76.
9. Detwinya A, The apostle Paul on homosexuality: A critical analysis, Human Behavior, Development and Society 22, no. 2 (2021): 48–59.
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21. Lively CM, A review of Red Queen models for the persistence of obligate sexual reproduction, Journal of Heredity, supplement, 101, no. S1 (2010): S13–S20, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esq010, PMID: 20421322.
22. Todd EV et al., Stress, novel sex genes, and epigenetic reprogramming orchestrate socially controlled sex change, Science Advances 5, no. 7 (2019): eaaw7006, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw7006.
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26. Skaletsky H et al., The male-specific region of the human Y chromosome is a mosaic of discrete sequence classes, Nature 423, no. 6942 (2003): 825–837, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01722, PMID: 12815422.
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30. Pryzgoda J and Chrisler JC, Definitions of gender and sex: The subtleties of meaning, Sex Roles 43, nos. 7–8 (2000): 553–569.
31. Murray CM, Human Diversity: The Biology of Gender, Race, and Class (New York: Twelve, 2020).
32. Baron-Cohen S, The Essential Difference: Male and Female Brains and the Truth About Autism (New York: Basic Books, 2003).
33. McEwen BS and Milner TA, Understanding the broad influence of sex hormones and sex differences in the brain, Journal of Neuroscience Research 95, nos. 1–2 (2017): 24–39, https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.23809.
34. Graves JL, The Race Myth: Why We Pretend Race Exists in America (New York: Dutton Books, 2005), 203–207.
35. Lehtonen J and Parker GA, Gamete competition, gamete limitation, and the evolution of the two sexes, Molecular Human Reproduction 20, no. 12 (2014): 1161–1168, https://doi.org/10.1093/molehr/gau068, PMID: 25323972.
36. Nozaki H et al., New “missing link” genus of the colonial volvocine green algae gives insights into the evolution of oogamy, BMC Evolutionary Biology 14, no. 1 (2014): 37, https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-14-37.
37. Shultz AH, Sex differences in the pelves of primates, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7 (1949): 401–424.
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39. Trevathan W, Evolutionary obstetrics, in Evolutionary Medicine, ed. W Trevathan, EO Smith, and JJ McKenna (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
40. Desmond A and Moore J, Darwin: The Life of a Tormented Evolutionist (New York: Norton, 1991), 355.
41. An excellent discussion of this topic can be found in Rose MR and Mueller LD, Evolution and Ecology of the Organism (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2006).
42. Sax L, How common is intersex? A response to Anne Fausto-Sterling, Journal of Sex Research 39, no. 3 (2002): 174–178, https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490209552139, PMID: 12476264.
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44. Colapinto J, As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl (New York: HarperCollins, 2000).
45. Roughgarden J, Evolution’s Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
46. Garcia-Falgueras A and Swaab DF, A sex difference in the hypothalamic uncinate nucleus: Relationship to gender identity, Brain 131, no. 12 (2008): 3132–3146, https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn276.
47. Savic I and Lindström P, PET and MRI show differences in cerebral asymmetry and functional connectivity between homo- and heterosexual subjects, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 27 (2008): 9403–9408, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0801566105.
48. Hamer DH et al., A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation, Science 261, no. 5119 (1993): 321–327, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.8332896.
49. Pillard RC and Weinrich JD, Evidence of familial nature of male homosexuality, Archives of General Psychiatry 43 (1986): 808–812; Bailey JM and Pillard RC, A genetic study of male sexual orientation, Archives of General Psychiatry 48 (1991): 1089–1096.
50. Drucker DJ, Marking sexuality from 0–6: The Kinsey Scale in online culture, Sexuality and Culture 16 (2012): 241–264.
51. Ganna A et al., Large-scale GWAS reveals insights into the genetic architecture of same-sex sexual behavior, Science 365, no. 6456 (2019): eaat7693, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat7693; Sanders AR et al., Genome-wide association study of male sexual orientation, Scientific Reports 7, no. 1 (2017): 16950, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15736-4.
52. Jordan B, Clap de fin pour le “gène de l’homosexualité”—chroniques génomiques [End of the road for the “homosexuality gene”], Medecine/sciences (Paris) 36, no. 2 (2020): 181–184, https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/2020013.
53. Browne K, Brown G, and Nash CJ, Geography and sexuality II: Homonormativity and heteroactivism, Progress in Human Geography 45, no. 5 (2021): 1320–1328, https://doi.org/10.1177/03091325211016087.
54. LGBTQ in the Church, Episcopal Church, www.episcopalchurch.org/who-we-are/lgbtq, accessed May 20, 2021.
55. Winston K, Episcopal church won’t back down on gay rights despite censure, Huffington Post, January 15, 2016, www.huffpost.com/entry/anglican-communion-episcopal-church_n_56992fe2e4b0b4eb759e331f.
56. Forestiere A, America’s war on Black trans women, Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review, September 23, 2020, https://harvardcrcl.org/americas-war-on-black-trans-women.
1. Haddock SHD and Dunn CW, Practical Computing for Biologists (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2011).
2. Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering (JSNN), https://jsnn.ncat.uncg.edu.
3. Rai MK et al., Silver nanoparticles: The powerful nanoweapon against multidrug-resistant bacteria, Journal of Applied Microbiology 112, no. 5 (2012): 841–852, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05253.x.
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5. For the many accomplishments of the BEACON Center, see www.beacon-center.org.
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