Index

ablation 68

accommodation of lens 37–37

acuity 56

action potentials 68

active vision 9

activity in brain 81–81

adaptation

to disturbed image 138–138

to image 47

perceptual 143

proprioceptive 143

after-effects

contingent 147, 149

figural 144–144

after-images 57–57

rotary 109

agnosia 168–168

algorithm, computer 80

Alhazen 34

ambiguities in vision 11, 53, 195, 205–8, 227–31, 247–247

perceptual 195

ambiguous objects 9

Ames

Albert 185–185

room 185–185

window 158

Anableps 37–37

analogue computer 82–82

anatomy of eye 36–36

anomalascope 131–131

anomaly 130–130

apparent depth, measurement of 234

aqueous humour 25, 36

architecture 173–5, 177–9, 184–8, 192, 214

area striate 68–70, 75, 76

Aristotle 110

art

cave art 170–170

Chinese art 173–173

Egyptian art 172–172

Japanese art 173–173

Op-Art 200–200

oriental art 173–173

perspectives in 171–171

realities of 170–170

arthropod 25

artificial nets 82–82

astigmatism 145

Atkinson, Janette 164

autokinetic phenomenon 105–105

baby vision, see infant

Barbaro, Damielo 34

bee 134, 137

behaviour 8, 158, 160

chicken 139

monkey 139

see also infant

behaviourism 3

Berkeley, Bishop George 107, 152, 153, 161–161

Biederman, Irving 79–79

binocular cell 62

Blakeman, Colin 138, 217

bleaching of pigments 57, 86

blind spot 58–58

blindness 85

colour 128, 130–130

recovery from 151–151

blinking 44, 75

blue–green colour blindness 130

bottom-up signals 11, 206–8, 227–31, 249, 251–2, 254

Bower, T. G. R. 163

Bradick, Oliver 164

brain activity 4, 67–67

damage to 67

imaging 81–81

simulation 74–74

Brewster, David 190

brightness, seeing 84–84

Brown, G. C. 142

Brunelleschi, Filippo 175

Bruner, Jerome 163

café wall illusion 209–12, 216, 249

camera obscura 34–5, 176, 181

Canaletto, Antonio 177

cartoon 120

causality, illusion of 119–119

cave art 170–170

cell death in lenses 38

cephalopod 53

cerebral cortex 68, 75

Cézanne, Paul 79

Cheseldon, William 153

chicken behaviour 139

child development, see infant

Chinese art 173–173

cinema 116, 118–118

cochlea 37

cognitive psychology 4

colours 55, 71–71

blindness 128, 130–130

complementary 128

constancy 133–133

contrast of 87–87

detection of 77–77

red–green blindness 130

receptors 122, 124

seeing 121–121

subtractive 128–128

triangle 128–128

complementary colours 128

complexity of eyes 25

compound eye 25, 27–8, 32–32

computer algorithm 80

conceptual illusion 196–196

conditioned reflex 3

cones 54–5, 86–86

consciousness 252–252

constancy scaling 184–8, 222–222

contingent after-effects 147, 149

contrast of colour 87–87

copepod 29–29

Copilia 29–30, 32

cornea 36, 37, 44

corneal lens 27

corpus callosum 75

correcting vision 50–50

Craik, Kenneth 4

crystalline lens 37–37

cultural differences in vision 150–150

Curie, Pierre 212

Daphnia 29

dark–light adaptation 57, 85–85

Darwin, Charles 2, 24

decision-taking 5

deduction 246

depth vision 60–6, 177, 185, 192–3, 232–232

cues 164–7, 217–217

flipping 11, 64, 66, 207–8, 210, 231

measuring 232, 234

reversal 64–6, 190–190

Descartes, René 17–18, 37, 52, 151, 195–6, 222–222

deuteranopia 130–130

development of infant, see infant

digital computer 82–82

dim light 28, 57

disparity 61, 64

displaced images 138–138

displacement in time 145–145

distortion 144, 204, 208–12, 231, 247–247

by absence of perspective 232

empathy theories for 214

eye movement theories for 214, 216

feature detector theories for 216–216

good-figure theory for 212, 214

limited acuity theories for 216

perspective 217–217

disturbed image, adaptation to 138–138

dreams 198–198

hypnagogic 199

drugs 74, 199

Duncker, Carl 113

Dürer, Albrecht 177

dynamics 3–3

Egyptian art 172–172

Einstein, Albert 107

electromagnetic radiation 17–17

Emmert’s law 225–6, 231

emotions 244–244

empathy theories for distortion 214

Erisman, T. 142

Euclid 14

Euclidian geometry 137

evolution 2

of eye 24–24

Ewert, P. H. 142

Exner, Selig 29

eye 1–13, 21, 24–24

anatomy 36–36

complexity of 25

compound 25, 27–8, 32–32

evolution of 24–24

movement 44–7, 164–164

recording of 45, 101–101

theories for distortion 214, 216

muscles 44–44

as optical instrument 34–34

passive movement 102, 104–104

pigments 124, 127–127

primitive 26–26

receptor 54–54

scanning 29–29

sensitivity 22, 92–92

simple 25, 32–32

voluntary movement 102, 104–104

eyeglasses 50–50

eye–head movement 100–4, 107, 109, 112

face recognition 74, 164, 166

Fantz, Robert 164–164

Faraday, Michael 253

feature detector 138

theories for distortion 216–216

Fechner’s paradox 88–88

fiction 195, 204, 239–43, 247–247

figural after-effects 144–144

figure–ground switching 9, 11, 249

fish vision 37–37

fixing retinal images 47–47

flicker 116, 118, 249

flipping 205–8, 228–228

depth 11, 64, 66, 207–8, 210, 231

focusing of lens 37–37

on retina 52–52

forgetting how to see 168–168

Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon 18

fovea 44, 55, 98

Freud, Sigmund 5, 199

Frisby, John 235

Gauss, Karl 137

geometric perspective 175–175

geon 80

Gestalt therapy 3–4, 5, 6, 106, 113, 118, 142, 208, 212

Gibson, Eleanor 164–164

Gibson, James J. 9

Giotto 184

Goodale, Mervyn 160

good-figure theory for distortion 212–212

Greek philosophers 1, 14

grey vision 55

Grimes, James 47–47

Gross, Charles 73

grouping of patterns 6

hallucinations 198–198

Harris, John 233

Hebb, Donald 82

Hecht, S. 23

Hein, Alan 143–143

Held, Richard 143–143

Helmholtz, Hermann von 2, 4–5, 42, 69, 102–3, 122, 126, 216

holism 3–3

hollow mask 64, 66, 207–8, 210

homunculus 53, 68, 70

Hooke, Robert 121

horseshoe crab, see Limulus

Hubel, David 75–7, 78

hue discrimination 126–126

Huxley, Aldous 199

Huygens, Christian 14, 16, 18

hypnagogic dreaming 199

hypothesis of perception 9–9

iconoscope 65

illusion 112, 194–243, 246

causality of 119–119

cognitive 197

conceptual 196–196

definition 194–194

destruction of 233–233

of moon 230–230

Muller–Lyer arrows 151, 214, 216, 219–21, 226, 233, 234, 237, 248, 249

perceptual 196–196

perspective 212–212

physical 247–247

Poggendorff 235

Ponzo 218–19, 226, 231, 249

size–weight 197–8, 249

Titchner 158, 160

waterfall effect 109–109

illusion-destruction 233–233

illusory triangle 239–239

image

adaptation to 47, 138–138

displaced 138–138

distortions 144, 204, 208–12, 231, 247–247

disturbed 138–138

stabilizing 47–47

image–retina movement 99–104, 109, 112, 118

imaging the brain 81–81

impossible triangle 235, 238–9, 240, 248, 249

inappropriate constancy-scaling theory 225–225

indirect vision 9

induced movement 113–113

induction 246

infant

boredom 163

development of sight 136–7, 156, 158, 250

permanence of objects 161–161

prediction 162

preferences 163

surprise 162–162

vision 6, 161–161

visual cliff 164–164

inflow theory 102, 104

innate knowledge 136–136

insect 25, 27–27

instinct 136–136

intelligence, machine 75

inverted vision 6, 52–3, 139–43, 145

inverting goggles 139–139

iodopsin 57

iris 37, 39–39

isomorphic brain traces 5

Ittleson, W. H. 226

James–Lange theory 245, 255

Japanese art 173–173

Julesz

bela 62–62

technique 217, 62–62

Kaffka, Kurt 106

Kanizsa

Gaetano 239–239

triangle 239–42, 248, 249

Kepler, Johannes 35, 52, 53

Kohler, Ivo 142, 146–146

Kohler, Wolfgang 4

Land, Edwin 133–133

Land, Michael 29–29

lateral geniculate nucleus 78

law of

qualities 97

refraction 17–17

learned knowledge 136–136

learning how to see 136–9, 153–153

left–right reversal 5, 139, 142–3, 145

lens 14, 24–30, 36, 58

accommodation of 37–37

cell death in 38

change in shape 38–38

corneal 27

crystalline 37–37

cylinder 27, 29

focusing of 37–37

Lettvin, J. Y. 99

light 14–14

dim 28, 57

nature of 18

response to 25

sensitivity 22, 92–92

speed of 17, 20

wavelength of 20–1, 84, 197

light–dark adaptation 57, 85–85

limited acuity theories for distortion 216

limpet 25

Limulus 92–92

Lipps, Theodore 214

Livingstone, Margaret 78

Locke, John 152, 153

luminosity curve 89

Mach, Ernst 105, 206, 209

Mach’s bands 55

machine

intelligence 75

vision 79–80, 83

McCollough, Celeste 147, 149

MacKay, Donald 200–200

magno cell 78

mammal 53

Marr, David 79, 80

Maxwell, James Clark 122

measurement of visual depth 232, 234

mesopic vision 55

Michotte, Albert 119

Mill, John Stuart 161

Milner, David 160

Minsky, Marvin 82

mirror reflection 195, 249

moiré pattern 200, 202, 249

Molyneux, William 152, 153

monkey behaviour 139

moon illusion 230–230

motion parallax 114–15, 227

movement 100–4, 107, 109, 112

detection 98–98

of eye 44–7, 164–164

recording of 45, 101–101

eye–head 100–100

image retina 99–99

induced 113–113

passive eye 102, 104–104

perception of 112–112

phi 118–118

receptors 99–126, 200–200

recording of 45

relativity of 112–112

seeing of 98–98

signals of 116

velocity 99–99

of voluntary eye 102, 104–104

Muller, Johannes 70, 97

Muller–Lyer arrows illusion 151, 214, 216, 219–21, 226, 233, 234, 237, 248, 249

myelin sheath 69

Nautilus 25

Necker cube 188, 205, 227, 249

negative perspective 173–4, 185–185

nerve

cell 68–68

electrical

activity 92–92

conduction 73

impulse speed 70–70

optic fibre 75, 93

sensory 97

nervous system 122

neural net 82–82

Newton, Sir Isaac 14, 18–19, 121, 195–195

NMR 68, 81

noise

activity 92–92

neural 94–94

nuclear magnetic resonance, see NMR

object

changing 11

constancy 162

recognition 161

occipital region 69

occlusion 193

Offray de la Metrie, Julien 253

ommatidium 27–8, 29

Op-Art 200–200

ophthalmoscope 42–42

optic

chiasma 75–75

nerve fibre 75, 93

optical instrument (eye) 34–34

organ of Corti 37

organizing patterns 6

oriental art 173–173

outflow theory 102–102

painting 170–1, 249

Panum, P. L. 62

Papert, Seymour 82

paradox 112, 114–15, 204, 228–30, 235–9, 247–247

perceptual 195

parvo cells 78

passive

eye movement 102, 104–104

vision 2

Pasterson, J. K. 142

pattern

grouping 6

moiré 200, 202, 249

organizing 6

recognition 4, 6, 161

Pavlov, Ivan 3

Penfield, Wilder 198

Penrose, Lionel 235

Penrose, Roger 235, 253–253

perception 55, 158–60, 177–84, 228–30, 245–245

adaptation to 143

consistency of 149

hypothesis 9–9

of movement 112–112

paradigm of 3–3

velocity 112

perceptual

ambiguities 105

illusion 196–196

paradox 195

scaling 172

permanence of objects 161–161

Perrett, David 73

perspective

absence of 232

ambiguities of 171–171

in art 171–171

distortion 217–217

geometric 175–175

illusion 212–212

negative 173–4, 185–185

PET 68, 81, 252

Pfister, M. H. 139

phenomenal phenomena 248–248

classification of 204–204

phi movement 118–118

photographs 184–5, 134

photon 22

photopic vision 55

physics of seeing 23

Piaget, Jean 160, 161–161

pictures 170–1, 249

pigments, eye 124, 127–127

pinhole

camera 34

image 14–14

Pirenne, M. H. 23

Plato 14

Poggendorff illusion 235

pointillism 128

Poisson distribution 23

Ponzo illusion 218–19, 226, 231, 249

Porta, Giovanni Batista della 34

positron emission tomography, see PET

pregnance 3–4, 212–212

primitive eye 26–26

principal colours 123–123

printing 127–127

prism 18, 20

problem solving 3–3

protanopia 130–130

pseudoscope 64–64

Pulfrich pendulum effect 90–90

pupil 42–4, 89

Purkinje

Johannes Evangelista 89

shift 90

qualia 251, 253–253

quantum 22–22

range-finder convergence 60–1, 64

Rayleigh, Lord 131

realities of art 170–170

receptor

colour 122, 124

in eye 54–54

for movement 99–126, 200–200

recognition of

face 74, 164, 166

object 161

pattern 4, 6, 161

recording eye movements 45

red-eye, cause of 42

red–green colour blindness 130

reflex 8

of blinking 44

conditioned 3

innate 3

refraction 17

refractive index 25, 37

Reisen, A. H. 151

relativity of movement 112–112

restoration of sight 151–151

retina

fixing of images 47–47

focusing 52–52

seeing your own 58

retinal rivalry 61–2, 249

Reutersvard, Oscar 235

reversal of vision 64–6, 190–190

rhodopsin 57, 86

right–left reversal 5, 139, 142–3, 145

Riley, Bridget 200–1, 203

robotics 79

rods 54–5, 86

Roemer, Olaus 17

Rogers, Brian 114

Rosenblatt, Frank 82

Rushton, W. A. H. 86

saccades 44, 47–47

Sacks, Oliver 157, 168–168

scanning eye 29–29

Scheiner, C. 52

Schlaer, S. 23

Schumann, F. 239, 241

scotoma 58–60, 249

scotopic vision 55

seeing

brightness 84–84

cause 119–119

colour 121–121

movement 98–98

primitive 98

Sejnowski, Terence 83

semantics 5, 120, 251

sensitivity

of eye 22, 92–92

to light 22, 92–92

sensory nerves 97

servo-control system 40–40

shading 189–189

shadow 189–189

shape constancy 225

Sherrington, Sir Charles 102

side-ways rules 227, 247, 251

sight, restoration of 151–151

signals of movement 116

simple eye 25, 32–32

sine law 17–17

size constancy scaling 184–8, 222–222

size–weight illusion 197–8, 249

Skinner, B.F. 3

Smith, K.V. 145–145

Snell, Willebrod von Roijen 17

spectacles 50–50

spectrum 18, 20, 89, 126–126

speed of light 17, 20

Sperry, R. W. 139

stabilizing image 47–47

stereo projection 115

stereoscope 61, 66, 242

Wheatstone 61

stereoscopic vision 60–6, 138, 163, 217, 232

Stratton, G. M. 139–139

stress 44

striate cortex 68–9, 70

superior colliculus 75

surface cortex 68

symbols 244

syntax 5, 120, 251

telestereoscope 65

television 116, 118–19, 145

texture 191–191

theory

inflow 102, 104

James–Lange 245, 255

Thompson effect 74

Thoules, Robert 223, 225

three-dimensional vision 60–6, 235–235

threshold intensity 95

time displacement 145–6, 148

Titchner illusion 158, 160

top-down knowledge 11, 66, 72, 206, 208, 227–32, 240, 247, 249, 251–2, 254

touch 6, 30, 53, 143, 151, 235

trapezoid window 188

Treisman, Anne 71–71

trilobite 25, 27

tritanopia 130–130

tropic responses 7

upside down vision 5–6, 52–3, 139–42, 145

Valvo, Alberto 157

velocity

measurement 99–99

perception of 112

Vermear, Jan 177

Vinci, Leonardo da 176–176

visible light 21

vision 1–1

active 9

agnosia 168–168

cliff experiment 164–164

correcting 50–50

cultural differences in 150–150

depth 60–6, 177, 185, 192–3, 232–232

fish 37–37

grey 55

indirect 9

infant 6, 161–161

inverted 6, 52–3, 139–43, 145

machine 79–80, 83

mesopic 55

passive 2

photopic 55

postulates 242

psychology of 9

reversal 64–6, 190–190

scotopic 55

upside down 5–6, 52–3, 139–42, 145

vitreous humour 52

voluntary eye movements 102, 104–104

Wallace, Jean 153

wandering light 105–105

waterfall effect 109–109

Watson, John Broadus 3

wavelengths of light 20–1, 84, 197

Weber’s law 94–94

Western Renaissance 175–175

Wheatstone

Sir Charles 61

stereoscope 61

Wiesel, Torstin 75–75

Winograd, Terry 79

Wright, W.D. 126

Yarbus, Alfred 44, 46

yellow, perceptin of 124, 131

Young, Thomas 122–6, 134

Zeki, Semir 134

zonula 38