1. “Clendenin, W. Va., Klan Growing,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 40 (January 30, 1924): 6.
2. Wyn Craig Wade, Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987).
3. “The Mary Phagan Case,” Columbus Ledger, May 9, 1913, 4.
4. “Mary Phagan—A Warning,” Macon Daily Telegraph, May 7, 1913, 4.
5. See Leonard Dinnerstein, The Leo Frank Case, rev. ed. (1966; Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008) and Steve Oney, And the Dead Shall Rise: The Murder of Mary Phagan and the Lynching of Leo Frank (New York: Vintage, 2003). For an excellent discussion of the long-standing fascination with the Leo Frank case in film, see Matthew Bernstein, Screening a Lynching: The Leo Frank Case on Film and Television (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009).
6. Franklyn Bliss Snyder, “The Ballad of Mary Phagan,” Journal of American Folklore 31 (1918): 264–266; Douglas O. Linder, “Famous Trials: The Leo Frank Trial (1913),” accessed August 15, 2010, http://www.law.umkc.edu/ faculty/projects/trials/frank/frankballad.html.
7. Snyder, “The Ballad of Mary Phagan.”
8. “Mashed and Disfigured Body of Leo M. Frank, Pursued by a Clamoring Mob, Is Taken to Atlanta,” Columbus Enquirer-Sun, August 17, 1915, 1.
9. Mary White Ovington, “Mary Phagan Speaks,” Lexington Herald, September 12, 1915, 6.
10. “An Atrocious Horror,” Kansas City Times, August 17, 1915, 1.
11. Nancy MacLean, “The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism,” Journal of American History 78 (December 1991): 920.
12. Wade, Fiery Cross, 123.
13. Ibid., 125.
14. 14. Chester L. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis (Jefferson, N.C.: Mc-Farland & Co., 1999), 53.
15. The Klan, then, received inspiration from other fraternal orders. For commentary on the place of religion in fraternity, see Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 54–65, 71–80. For a complication of Carnes’s argument and description of a religious fraternity, see Amy Koehlinger, “‘Let Us Live for Those Who Love Us’: Faith, Family, and the Contours of Manhood among the Knights of Columbus in Late Nineteenth-Century Connecticut,” Journal of Social History 38, no. 2 (Winter 2004): 455–468. For the relationship between the Klan and fraternities, see Glenn Zuber, “‘Onward Christian Klansmen’: War, Religious Conflict, and the Rise of the Second Ku Klux Klan, 1912–1928” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 2004).
16. Wade, The Fiery Cross, 142.
17. For an account and analysis of the Leo Frank trial, see MacLean, “The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered,” 917–948. Wyn Craig Wade argues that the death of Mary Phagan and the organization of the Knights of Mary Phagan are directly related to the birth of the Klan. See Wade, Fiery Cross, 144–145.
18. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan, 55. “Burning crosses had never been a part of the Reconstruction Ku-Klux. They had come from the exotic imagination of Thomas Dixon, whose fictional Klansmen had felt so much tangible pride in their Scottish ancestry, they revived the use of burning crosses as signal fires from one clan to another.” See Wade, Fiery Cross, 146.
19. See Leonard Dinnerstein, Anti-Semitism in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 58; Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985), 127–157; Wade, Fiery Cross, 148–149.
20. Kathleen Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 17.
21. The 1920s Klan readily admitted that the organization was for white supremacy as well as American freedoms and Protestant Christianity. See Exalted Cyclops of Monroe Klan Number 4, Louisiana, “Klan a Patriotic, Benevolent, Fraternal Organization of Christian Americans,” Imperial Night-Hawk, April 9, 1924, 2.
22. Wade, Fiery Cross, 33.
23. Ibid., 33–34.
24. Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 1–2.
25. Ibid., 7.
26. The Invisible Empire included all the states that had Klan activity.
Dens were groups of Klansmen within a county, Province. The Province was overseen by a Grand Giant and his four assisting Goblins. The congressional district, Dominion, was headed by a Grand Titan and six Furies. A state, Realm, was governed by a Grand Dragon and his eight Hydras. In charge of all the states that composed the Invisible Empire was the commander, the Grand Wizard. Klansmen basically had their own terminology for anything imaginable, including days, months, seasons, and code words to communicate secretly with other Klansmen. Individual Klansmen were known as Ghouls. Wade, Fiery Cross, 38–39. See also Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan, 65–66, for a discussion of Klan terms and usage.
27. Wade, Fiery Cross, 72. Two African American men from Georgia were killed for voting Republican after the Klan had warned against voting. Wade’s work, like most other works on the Klan, describes the violence of the Klan’s actions in excruciating detail. The impact of Klan violence on victims encompasses the history, and the Klan becomes monstrous hate-filled Knights. Whether they are monstrous or not, there needs to be a more nuanced understanding of their actions and intents alongside the apparent violence.
28. Newton, The Invisible Empire, 7.
29. Wade, Fiery Cross, 65.
30. Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan, 58.
31. Wade, Fiery Cross, 253.
32. See Shawn Lay, ed., The Invisible Empire in the West: Toward a New Historical Appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992) and Leonard J. Moore, Citizen Klansman: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991) for the debunking of stereotypes of Klansmen and claims that Klansmen were ordinary citizens who embraced populism as a method of reform.
33. Nancy MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 8.
34. In “The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism,” Stanley Cohen argues that it is better to see the Klan as a populist movement rather than a nativist one because newer studies of the 1920s Klan deemphasize the place of race within the movement. See Stanley Cohen, “Ordinary White Protestants: The KKK of the 1920s,” Journal of Social History 28, no. 1 (Autumn 1994): 155–165. According to David Horowitz, revisions in Klan scholarship “acknowledged Klan racism; hostility to immigrants, Catholics, and Jews; and the movement’s obsession with white Protestant cultural hegemony. But rather than viewing the 1920s KKK as an aberrant form of extremism, the revisionist histories described a mainstream social movement that drew support from a wide cross-section [sic] of the nation’s white Protestants” (72). Again, populism motivated the order rather than nativism or extremism. See David A. Horowitz, “The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited,” Society 35, no. 6 (September/October 1998): 71–77.
35. Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (Chicago: Elephant Paperbacks, 1992), xv.
36. I mark the end of the second revival of the Klan at 1930 because membership had plummeted into the thousands. For some scholars the decline began in 1925, when Indiana Klan leader D. C. Stephenson was found guilty of the rape and second-degree murder of Madge Oberholtzer. The Klan played a fascinating role in the 1928 Democratic convention, in which members helped defeat the nomination of Al Smith. The Kourier Magazine continued to print Klan positions, opinions, and news until 1936. Please see the conclusion for a further discussion of the end of the 1920s Klan.
37. The historical lineage of the Klan is much more complicated after the 1920s. In the 1930s and 1940s, various Klans took a stand against “dreaded” Communism to protect America. By the 1950s there were a variety of different Klan organizations still attempting to defend the American way of life. In the 1960s multiple Klans emerged to counter the civil rights movement. These Klans were characterized by violence and racial hatred. Klansmen were ready to defend America again by taking a stand against the civil rights movement. In his Invisible Empire, Michael Newton noted that the 1960s marked a turning point for the Klan because the organization was no longer mainstream and would become increasingly more marginalized. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Klan emerged again under the skillful hands of David Duke, who “spun” the Klan’s racist message into a racialist message: the Klan loved their white race rather than hated other races. This Klan accepted Catholics and established an explicit link between the Klan and Neo-Nazis. In recent years, it is hard to distinguish between the Klan and other hate groups because of the blending of their racialized ideologies and the popularity of Christian Identity, a racial faith which literally draws the world as good and evil, white and black. See Newton, The Invisible Empire.
38. Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 2.
39. Ibid., 10.
40. My work furthers the work of Leonard Moore and Shawn Lay, who sought to highlight the difference between the 1920s Klan and the other Klan movements with empathy, and suggests that religion is not only an essential component of the 1920s Klan but also the larger hate movement in the United States. See Lay, The Invisible Empire in the West, and Moore, Citizen Klansman.
41. The major exceptions being Kathleen Blee’s Women of the Klan and Rory McVeigh, The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics, Social Movements, Protest, and Contention (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009).
42. It is important to note that engagement with the 1920s Klan usually errs on the side of not believing what members say or write. This is highly problematic because this can lead to simplistic portraits of those involved in hate movements, especially the Klan, and means that we are in dire need of more complex and possibly more empathetic approaches.
43. For the beginnings of “status anxiety” approach, see John Moffatt Mecklin, The Ku Klux Klan: The Study of an American Mind (1924; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1963). For a historiographical discussion of this approach, see Leonard J. Moore, “Historical Interpretations of the 1920s Klan: The Traditional View and Recent Revisions,” in The Invisible Empire in the West: Toward a New Historical Appraisal of the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s, ed. Shawn Lay (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 17–38, especially 18–22.
44. Moore, “Historical Interpretations of the 1920s Klan,” 22.
45. See MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry, 114–124.
46. For discussions of the Klan’s hatred and violence, see David Chalmers, Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan, 3d ed. (1956; Durham: Duke University Press, 1987); William Loren Katz, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan Impact on History (Washington, D.C.: Open Hand Publishing, 1986); Wade, Fiery Cross; Newton, The Invisible Empire; and Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan. In addition, Philip Jenkins tackles the Klan as a fascist organization in the 1930s. See Philip Jenkins, Hoods and Shirts: The Extreme Right in Pennsylvania, 1925–1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
47. In a review of Newton’s work, Glenn Zuber argues that Newton’s attention to the Klan’s violence is key, but he proposes to label the Klan as terrorists to bring their violence to the forefront. See Glenn Zuber, review of Invisible Empire, Journal of Southern Religion 5 (2002), http://jsr.fsu.edu/2002/ Reviews/Zuber.htm.
48. Moore, Citizen Klansman, 23.
49. See Lay, The Invisible Empire in the West, and Moore, Citizen Klansman. Of course, one might ask why Klansmen and Klanswomen decided to present their white supremacy blatantly in regalia, newspapers, and political actions when other American citizens did not.
50. Other studies of the Klan examine the nativism, nationalism, racism, and gender of the order. In many historical accounts, racism was the motivating factor for men and women to join the order. The foreign, including African American enfranchisement during Reconstruction and the “Catholic invasion” of the 1920s, menaced so-called American values. The Klan reacted to dangers lurking in the American landscape. To defend against those dangers, the order vigorously restated its social boundaries and articulated concern regarding the purity of the white race. The commitment to whiteness required strict racial boundaries.
Many accounts of the contemporary hate movement also center upon racism. James Ridgeway and Nick Ryan usually identified racism as the central facet of these organizations without reference to how racism came to predominate these groups. In their work, Betty A. Dobratz and Stephanie Shanks-Meile purported that race was the essential concern for the white separatist movement. This attachment to race can be understood in three ways: as racialist (love of one’s race), racist (defense of one’s race), and supremacist (race hatred). Dobratz and Shanks-Meile propose that this racism is economic: some whites feel that they are disadvantaged economically because of their skin color. This analysis, unfortunately, accepts race as a naturalized category rather than approaching race as a discourse. See the following journalistic accounts: James Ridgeway, Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads and the Rise of New White Culture (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1995), and Nick Ryan, Into a World of Hate: A Journey among the Extreme Right (New York: Routledge, 2004). For more on the white separatist movement, see Betty A. Dobratz and Stephanie Shanks-Meile, “White Power, White Pride!”: The White Separatist Movement in the United States (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).
For a particular discussion of gender in the 1920s Klan, see Blee, Women of the Klan, and MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry.
51. For denominations involved in the Klan, see Moore, Citizen Klansman. For supposed ties to fundamentalism, see Wade, Fiery Cross. For the relationship of ministers and local congregations to Klan, see MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry, and Robert Allen Goldberg, Hooded Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Colorado (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the WKKK and Protestantism and women in the Klan in the 1920s, see Blee, Women of the Klan.
52. Several scholars have understood hate movements, and the Klan in particular, as proponents of so-called false religion. In her New White Nationalism, Carol Swain argued that these movements employed a false religion, which could not be affiliated with Christianity, and her solution for all hate groups was to introduce them to evangelical Christianity. In his One Aryan Nation under God (2001), Jerome Walters also noted that “real” Christianity could be the solution to Christian Identity’s “twisting of scriptures.” Moreover, religious historian Philip Jenkins noted in a review essay on new scholarship on hate groups that “it seems grossly unfair to stress the ‘Christianity’ of any hare-brained [sic] rightist militant who asserts he is fighting in the name of God or Jesus.” These accounts of hate groups, especially Jenkins’s assertion, demonstrate the utter lack of attention paid to how religion functions for these groups. Scholars like Swain, Walters, Hamm, and Jenkins assumed that the religious expressions of hate groups, including the Klan, were not legitimate because they were not representative of “true” Christianity. Robert Orsi has suggested that religion at best is ambiguous, and it can be employed in ways that are beneficial and detrimental, and thus arguments about good and bad religion miss the fluidity of religion as a system. See Carol Swain, The New White Nationalism in America: Its Challenge to Integration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Jerome Walters, One Aryan Nation under God: Exposing the New Racial Extremists (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2000); Robert Orsi, Between Heaven and Earth: The Religious Worlds People Make and the Scholars Who Study Them (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 187; Philip Jenkins, “The Other Terrorists,” Books and Culture (November/December 2003): 8.
53. See, in particular, Walters, One Aryan Nation under God.
54. See Sydney Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), 916–917.
55. Martin Marty, Righteous Empire: The Protestant Experience in America, Two Centuries of American Life (New York: Dial Press, 1970), 211.
56. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, xv.
57. “Editorial Brevities,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 34 (November 19, 1924): 7.
58. See James Aho, This Thing of Darkness: A Sociology of the Enemy (Seattle: University of Washington Press), 1994.
59. The Imperial Night-Hawk was a weekly published in Atlanta, Georgia.
60. See “Editorial Brevities,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 34 (November 19, 1924): 7. The accuracy of this figure is hard to determine, but the specificity and modesty of the number make the circulation seem more plausible.
61. “Editorial Brevities,” 7; emphasis added.
62. “Dawn Circulation Climbs to 50,000 as Fight for Americanism Stirs Nation Wide Interest,” Dawn 1, no. 25 (April 7, 1923): 6.
63. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 125. Scarry writes that it is possible for “the incontestable reality of the physical body to now become an attribute of an issue that at that moment has no independent reality of its own.” Scarry, of course, is talking about in the realm of torture. However, bodies become issues or beliefs in both her unmaking and making of sections of her text. The alteration of bodies, circumcision, flagellation, or dress present ideals and beliefs. Thus, we can examine how bodies “exhibit” beliefs to understand how those beliefs impact the believer. Moreover, Scarry presents the cultural and symbolic weight upon bodies, which only disappears in death. Our cultures mold us from facial expressions to accents to what is acceptable to believe. This happens through comportment as well as words.
64. See James W. Carey, Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 13–36.
65. See David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989); Cultures of Print: Essays in the History of the Book (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996); and Hugh Amory and David D. Hall, eds., The Colonial Book in the Atlantic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
66. See David Paul Nord, Communities of Journalism: A History of American Newspapers and Their Readers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 2–14, and Faith in Reading: Religious Publishing and the Birth of Mass Media (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
67. Candy Gunther Brown, The Word in the World: Evangelical Writing, Publishing, and Reading in America, 1789–1880 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
68. “Brand ‘Searchlight’ Statements False,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 22 (August 29, 1923): 4.
69. “Klansmen Should Support Newspapers Which Battle for Klan Principles,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 6 (May 9, 1923): 7.
70. “Wisconsin Pastor Proclaims Klan as Staunch Defender of Protestantism,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 7 (May 16, 1923): 6.
71. Shawn Lay and Leonard Moore have both illuminated the importance of moving past demonization of subjects, and Jeffrey Kaplan has pointed out the importance of understanding far-right groups in their own contexts. See Lay, The Invisible Empire in the West; Moore, Citizen Klansmen; and Jeffrey Kaplan, Radical Religion in America: Millenarian Movements from the Far Right to the Children of Noah (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1997). David Chidester’s approach to convey humanity rather than moralizing about subjects is also useful. See Chidester, Suicide and Salvation: An Interpretation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), xi–xv, 1–46. Also, see Chidester’s response to Stephen Prothero’s “Bracketing Belief.” Chidester, “Moralizing Noise,” Harvard Divinity Bulletin 32, no. 3 (Summer 2004), http://www.hds.harvard.edu/ news/bulletin/articles/orsi_et_al.html.
72. The question of empathy in ethnography is problematized by these groups, which society considers deplorable. Kathleen Blee is the foremost scholar on the ethics of studying deplorable people. See Blee’s Women of the Klan; Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); “Studying the Enemy,” in Our Studies, Ourselves: Sociologists’ Lives and Work, ed. Barry Glassner and Rosanna Hertz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 13–23; “Fieldworkers’ Privilege? The Perils of Privilege,” Law and Social Inquiry 24 (Fall 1999): 993–997; “White-Knuckle Research: Emotional Dynamics in Fieldwork with Racist Activists,” Qualitative Sociology 21, no. 4 (1998): 381–399; and “Evidence, Empathy, and Ethics: Lessons from Oral Histories of the Klan,” Journal of American History 80, no. 2 (September 1993): 596–606.
73. Lived religion is often applied to the religion of nonelites to show what is missing from the “official” story. However, lived religion should also be applied to elite sources as well, because the insights of how Klan leaders hoped to practice religion and enforce it on members shows their ideal vision of how the world was supposed to be and their dedication to this preservation. See David Hall, ed., Lived Religion in America toward a History of Practice (Prince ton: Princeton University Press, 1997), viii–ix.
74. See ibid.
75. See James Clifford, “Introduction: Partial Truths,” in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 1–26, and Orsi, Between Heaven and Earth, 2–3.
76. Blee, “White-Knuckle Research,” 388.
77. Michael Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), x.
78. Ann Burlein, Lift High the Cross: Where White Supremacy and the Christian Right Converge (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002), xvi–xvii.
79. See Karen McCarthy Brown, Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn, rev. ed. (1991; Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
80. See Michael Barkun, Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
81. The discussion of past and present when discussing history and ethnography and the complicated relationship between the two comes directly from Amy Koehlinger. She deserves the credit for my use of such terminology and helping me think through how to do both.
1. H. W. Evans, “A Message from the Imperial Wizard,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 3 (February 1925): 2.
2. “Altoona, Pa., Klans Help Santa,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 41 (January 9, 1924): 6.
3. Henry P. Fry, The Modern Ku Klux Klan (Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1922; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 90, found in Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
4. Ibid., 91.
5. Ibid., 6.
6. Ibid., 8.
7. Ibid., 26–27.
8. W. C. Witcher, The Unveiling of the Ku Klux Klan, rev. ed. (Fort Worth, TX: W. C. Witcher, 1922), 32.
9. Ibid., 33.
10. Ibid., 34.
11. 11. William Simmons, Official Message of the Emperor of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, to the Initial Session of the Imperial Klonvokation (Atlanta: Webb & Vary Print, 1922), 7–8, in the D. C. Stephenson Collection, M264, b.4, f.8, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
12. Ibid., 8.
13. For more on Colonel Simmons, see Wyn Craig Wade, Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), 140–147.
14. Simmons, Official Message, 8.
15. Evans, “A Message from the Imperial Wizard,” 2.
16. Robert Moats Miller, “A Note on the Relationship between the Protestant Churches and the Revived Ku Klux Klan,” Journal of Southern History 22, no. 3 (August 1956): 355–368. Robert Allen Goldberg demonstrates in his study of Colorado Klans that despite the attempt of national Protestant conventions to legislate relationships with the Klan, local churches were still affiliated with the order. See Goldberg, Hooded Empire, 187–188.
17. H. W. Evans, “The Klan Spiritual,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 30 (October 22, 1924): 3. This speech was originally given at the Second Imperial Klonvokation, Kansas City, Missouri, September 23–26, 1924. It is unclear as to when the speech was exactly given.
18. Evans, “The Klan Spiritual,” 2.
19. Ibid.
20. It should be noted that the term “Protestantism” used in this text is not meant to suggest a monolithic Protestantism. I am attempting to describe the Klan’s own version of Protestantism that countered other forms of Protestantism during the 1920s rather than Protestantism writ large. For more analysis of other white Protestants in the 1920s, see Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, especially 26–30; Lynn Dumenil, The Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill & Wang, 1995), 169–200; and Barry Hankins, Jesus and Gin: Evangelicalism, The Roaring Twenties and Today’s Culture Wars (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
21. “A Message from the Imperial Wizard,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 3 (February 1925): 2.
22. “Jesus the Protestant,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 3 (February 1925): 2.
23. Ibid., 4.
24. “Protestantism,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 7 (June 1925): 2.
25. Ibid., 3.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid., 2.
28. “Jesus the Protestant,” 4.
29. Ibid., 5.
30. Exalted Cyclops of the Order, “Principles and Purposes of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan,” Papers Read at the Meeting of the Grand Dragons, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, at Their First Meeting Held at Asheville, North Carolina, July 1923, Anti-Movements in America, ed. Gerald N. Grob (New York: Arno Press, 1977), 125.
31. Peter R. D’Agostino, Rome in America: Transnational Catholic Ideology from the Risorgimento to Fascism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 314.
32. Ray Allen Billington, “The Burning of the Charlestown Convent,” New England Quarterly 10, no. 1 (March 1937): 4.
33. David Brion Davis, “Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 47, no. 2 (September 1960): 205–224.
34. Jay Dolan blames much of the discrimination against Catholics in this time period on immigration. See Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Double Day, 1985), 201–203.
35. Dolan argued that this process of imagination was a way for nativists to express their forbidden desires of violence, sexual perversion, and possibly sadism, in that nativist literature presented these desires to combat them. See Dolan, The American Catholic Experience, 221.
36. Mark S. Massa, Anti-Catholicism in America: The Last Acceptable Prejudice (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 2003), 29–30.
37. Ibid., 33–34. For more on the end of the 1920s Klan, please see the conclusion.
38. Evans, “The Klan Spiritual,” 2.
39. Ibid., 6.
40. “Constructive Christianity,” Imperial Night-Hawk, 2, no. 31 (October 29, 1924): 3.
41. “Knowing the Catholic Method,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 3 (February 1925): 9.
42. Dolan writes, “While this opposition was fundamental to the processes of making meaning and creating conceptual order, it was so subtle and shifting that it had to be reasserted or recreated constantly. Indeed, the difference between the two categories existed largely in such reassertion” (23). Reassertion of their differences from both Protestants and Catholics presented a method to claim separate identities. See Frances E. Dolan, Whores of Babylon: Catholicism, Gender, and Seventeenth-Century Print Culture (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005).
43. “Constructive Christianity,” 6.
44. According to Jenny Franchot, “Anti-Catholicism operated as an imaginative category of discourse though which antebellum American writers of popular and elite fictional and historical texts indirectly voiced the tensions and limitations of mainstream Protestant culture” (xvii). Franchot’s model for the nineteenth century can easily be applied to the attempts of the Klan to define themselves in opposition to Roman Catholicism. The Klan employed anti-Catholicism to craft a Protestant image for their order. Franchot further suggested that antebellum anti-Catholicism helped craft a Protestant national identity, which is useful in thinking about how the Klan saw Catholics both as a threat to faith and nation. See Jenny Franchot, Roads to Rome: The Antebellum Protestant Encounter with Catholicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
45. W. C. Wright, “A Klansman’s Criterion of Character,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 45 (February 6, 1924): 2
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. “Klankraft” is basically the practice of Klan ideals in one’s life.
50. “The True Spirit of American Klansmen,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 7 (May 16, 1923): 7.
51. Wright, “A Klansman’s Criterion,” 2.
52. Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 7 (May 16, 1923): 4.
53. “Altoona, Pa., Klans Help Santa,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 41 (January 9, 1924): 6.
54. “Sordid Story of Girls’ Shame Causes Klan at Shreveport to Pan Protestant Refuge,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 6 (May 9, 1923): 2.
55. “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles and Outlines Klan Activities,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 43 (January 23, 1924): 2.
56. Proceedings of the Second Imperial Klonvokation Held in Kansas City, Missouri (N.p.: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1924), 166. A Klonvokation was an annual meeting.
57. For Lisbon Klan’s donations, see “Klan Komment,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 39 (December 26, 1923): 5. For other Klans’ charity during Christmas, see also “Wichita, Kansas, Klan No. 6 Delivers Hundreds of Christmas Baskets,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 43 (January 23, 1924): 8; “Little Rock Klan Plays Santa Klaus Breaking All Records of the City,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 41 (January 9, 1924): 3; “Bozeman, Mont., Klan Hears Grand Dragon,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 46 (February 14, 1924): 5. For Klan hospitals, see “Dallas Klan Dedicates $85,000 Home for the Benefit of Orphan Babies,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 27 (October 3, 1923): 5, and “New Klan Hospital Will Be Memorial to Martyr Who Gave Life for the Cause,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 18 (August 1, 1923): 6. For martyr’s education fund, see “Klansmen Asked to Aid Widow and Babies of Man Who Died for the Cause,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 24 (September 12, 1923): 2–3. For Klan’s service for “Negro Church,” see “Klan Helps to Build Church for Negroes,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 30 (October 24, 1923): 5.
For Klan giving, see “Should Scrutinize Charity Allotments,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 6 (May 9, 1923): 4.
58. “Klansmen, Stop and Take Stock: Build for the Year 1924,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 20 (January 2, 1924): 5.
59. “Klannish Co-operation,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 41 (January 9, 1924): 4.
60. Rev. W. H. Stephens, “The Fiery Cross,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 21 (August 22, 1923): 3.
61. Proceedings of the Second Imperial Klonvokation, 45.
62. “Christian Citizenship: The Gospel according to the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 37 (December 12, 1923): 3.
63. W. C. Wright, “The Twelfth Chapter of Romans As a Klansman’s Law of Life,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 49 (March 5, 1924): 2.
64. Wade, Fiery Cross, 33–34. Wyn Wade described the Reconstruction uniform in detail. Elaine Parsons has written that the Reconstruction robes need to be understood as spectacle. She looks at the theatrical roots of this Klan and the symbolic import of the robes. For more on the Reconstruction robes, see Elaine Frantz Parsons, “Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan,” Journal of American History 92, no. 3 (December 2005): 811–836.
65. William Simmons, The Klan Unmasked (Atlanta: W. E. Thompson, 1924), 87.
66. Ibid., 88.
67. Ibid., 91.
68. See “New Robe Plant Speeds Up Production As Thousands Request Regalia,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 24 (September 12, 1923): 8, and “Regalia Factory and Printing Plant Will Save Much Money for Klans of Nation,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 16 (July 18, 1923): 5.
69. “Louisiana Klansman Outlines the Aims, Purposes and Principles of His Order,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 9 (May 30, 1923): 6.
70. “Louisiana Klansman,” 33.
71. Exalted Cyclops of Texas, “The Seven Symbols of the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 39 (December 26, 1923): 7. “Empire Invisible” is a play off “Invisible Empire,” their term of Klandom. “Empire Invisible” refers to the celestial realm.
72. “Who Are These in White Robes?” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 7 (June 1925): 18.
73. Ibid., 19. The passage from Revelation is 7:13–15, as quoted in the Kourier: “And one of the elders answered, saying unto me, ‘What are these which are arrayed in white robes and whence came they?’ And I said unto him, ‘Sir, thou knowest.’ And he said unto me: ‘These are they which came out of great tribulation, and have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. Therefore are they before the throne of God, and serve him day and night in His temple, and He that sitteth on the throne shall dwell among them” (18–19).
74. James Hardin Smith, “What Would Jesus Say?” Dawn 1, no. 8 (December 16, 1922): 5.
75. Scarry, The Body in Pain, 125.
76. Exalted Cyclops, “The Seven Symbols of the Klan,” 7.
77. “Mis-use of Regalia Is Reported,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 39 (December 26, 1923): 5.
78. “The Law of Secrecy Must Be Obeyed; Klansmen, Keep Your Visors Down!” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 9 (May 30, 1923): 3.
79. “Elwood, Ind., Klan Aids Revival,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 46 (February 14, 1924): 5.
80. “Klansmen of Louisiana Stand Firm before Catholic Boycott,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 3 (April 1, 1923): 5.
81. “Louisiana Klansman Outlines the Aims, Purposes and Principles of His Order,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 9 (May 30, 1923): 6.
82. “Go to Church Sunday,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 3 (April 1, 1923): 5.
83. Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 5 (May 2, 1923): 6.
84. “Louisiana Klansman,” 6.
85. Great Titan of the Realm of Texas, “How the Klan Can Be Made a True Civic Asset in Every Progressive Community,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 23 (September 5, 1923): 6.
86. Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 29 (October 17, 1923): 6.
87. “The ‘Man on the Fence’ Becomes Uncomfortable,” Dawn 1, no. 50 (October 13, 1923), 11.
88. Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 27 (October 3, 1923): 4.
89. “The ‘Man on the Fence,’” 11.
90. Mrs. J. W. Northrup, “The Little Red School House Is One of the Most Sacred of American Institutions,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 23 (August 22, 1923), 3.
91. Rev. W. C. Wright, “The Twelfth Chapter of Romans as a Klansman’s Law of Life,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 49 (March 5, 1924): 2.
92. Ibid., 2–3.
93. Ibid., 7.
94. Ibid.
95. “The Gathering of the Klans,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 28 (October 8, 1924): 2.
96. W. C. Wright, Religious and Patriotic Ideals of the Ku Klux Klan (Waco, TX: W. C. Wright, 1926), 17.
97. “Constructive Christianity,” 3.
98. Miller, “A Note on the Relationship,” 357–360.
99. Northwestern Christian Advocate 70 (May 24, 1922), 581, quoted in Miller, “A Note on the Relationship,” 358.
100. “Klan Aids Churches,” 4.
101. “History Shows Secret Societies Have Advanced Christianity and Liberty,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 7 (May 16, 1923): 3.
102. “Elwood, Ind., Klan Aids Revival,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 46 (February 14, 1924): 5.
103. “God in the Klan,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 3 (February 1927): 18.
1. Daisy Douglas Barr, “The Soul of America,” Knights of the Ku Klux Klan: Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons at Their First Annual Meeting Held at Asheville, North Carolina, July 1923, Anti-Movements in America (reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1977), 135.
2. “To the Citizens of Wayne County,” Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County Collection, box 1, folder 5, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
3. For Carolyn Marvin and David W. Ingle, the flag is an important emblem of nationalism, and they argue that patriotism could be considered a religious system on its own. They argue that the soldier carries a flag, which shows his willingness to die, much like Jesus carried the cross to demonstrate the same willingness (770). What is striking about their analysis is how they use Christian symbology to show the “religious” nature of patriotism. I argue that American patriotism is actually indebted to Christianity for its development. The Klan’s reliance on cross and flag as patriotic exemplifies this. See Carolyn Marvin and David W. Ingle, “Blood Sacrifice and the Nation: Revisiting Civil Religion,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 64, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 767–780.
4. W. C. Wright, The Religious and Patriotic Ideals of the Ku Klux Klan (Waco, TX: W. C. Wright, 1926), 33.
5. Ibid.
6. “Patriotism,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 8 (July 1926): 14–15.
7. Barr, “The Soul of America,” 135.
8. John Higham, in his seminal Strangers in a Strange Land, noted that nativism should be defined as a particular form of nationalism. Nativism “translates them [cultural antipathies and judgments] into a zeal to destroy the enemies of a distinctively American way of life” (4). Nativists, then, show great loyalty to their ideal of the nation and feel the need to combat enemies of said nation. The Klan, in many ways, is a nativist movement. However, I am more concerned with how Klansmen voiced their loyalties and render their enemies rather than exploring their nativism, which has been documented by several Klan scholars without understanding how they employ it. For more on nativism, see John Higham, Strangers in a Strange Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925, rev. ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2004).
9. My understandings of nationalism are indebted to both the work of Benedict Anderson and Anthony Marx. In Imagined Communities, Anderson emphasizes the relationship between nationalism and print culture to foster a sense of imagined community. In Faith in Nation, Marx contradicts previous renderings of nationalism wed to Enlightenment principles and argues that European nationalism might instead be bound to tactics of religious exclusion to define who belongs to nation. See Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 1991) and Anthony Marx, Faith in Nation: Exclusionary Origins of Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
10. “Texas Klansman Outlines Principles upon Which the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Is Founded,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 2 (April 4, 1923): 5.
11. “The Seven Symbols of the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 39 (December 26, 1923): 6.
12. “The Symbol of the Fiery Cross,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 45 (February 6, 1924): 8.
13. “The Seven Symbols of the Klan,” 6.
14. Simmons, The Klan Unmasked, 33.
15. “The Fable of the Eagle and the Buzzards,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 4 (April 25, 1923): 3.
16. “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 43 (January 23, 1924): 2.
17. H. W. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” in The Proceeding of the Second Imperial Klonvokation Held in Kansas City, Missouri (N.p.: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1924), 141.
18. “The Practice of Klanishness” (Atlanta: William J. Simmons, 1918), 4.
19. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 141.
20. Ibid., 144–145.
21. For more recent commentary on Cosmopolitanism and its relationship to patriotism, see Martha Nussbaum, “Patriotism and Cosmopolitanism,” Bos ton Review (1994), http://www.soci.niu.edu/~phildept/Kapitan/nussbaum1.html (accessed January 15, 2006).
22. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 145.
23. Ibid., 148–149.
24. “The Klan a Nation Builder,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 4 (March 1925): 8.
25. H. W. Evans, “The Destiny of the Klan: Our Mission of Militant Patriotism,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 9 (August 1926): 6.
26. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 150.
27. Ibid., 141.
28. In her recent work, Tracy Fessenden argues that the Puritans “bequeathed to subsequent generations the desire to record America’s origins not as religiously or racially plural but instead as white and Protestant” (32). I would argue that the Klan is just one manifestation of this desire, and Klansmen erase the presence of Native Americans and Catholics in their renderings of American history to show the centrality of white Protestants for the development of nation. See Tracy Fessenden, Culture and Redemption: Religion, the Secular, and American Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), especially 16–33.
29. “The Menace of Modern Immigration,” n.d., 30–31, Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County, M0407, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
30. “The Meaning of 100% Americanism,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 5 (April 30, 1924): 2.
31. Ibid., 3.
32. “Grapes and Wild Grapes,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 4 (March 1925): 28–29. Interestingly, Anthony Marx also reflected on the importance of the Saint Bartholomew’s Massacre in 1572, which was a significant event in the French religious wars. Marx, however, argues that Bartholomew should be the patron saint of nationalism because he was martyred, and this reflects the violence and intolerance in the formation of nationalism. I am not sure the author was alluding to a similar understanding of nationalism but rather suggesting that religious wars might occur in America. See Marx, Faith in Nation, 204–206.
33. “The Spirit of the Fathers,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 3 (February 1927): 12–13.
34. “Abraham Lincoln—Hiram Wesley Evans: A Character Analogy,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 11 (October 1926): 6.
35. “A Famous One Hundred Percent American of Colonial Days,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 27 (October 1, 1924): 3.
36. “America for Americans,” in Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Bramble Bush Government, n.d., 1, Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County, M0407, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
37. “The Need of the Ku Klux Klan,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 5 (April 1926): 11.
38. “The American Public School,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 6 (May 1926): 11.
39. “The Little Red School House Is One of the Most Sacred American Institutions,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 21 (August 22, 1923): 3.
40. For information on the Klan and legal battles on public education, see Glenn Zuber, “Onward Christian Klansmen! War, Religious Conflict, and the Rise of the Second Ku Klux Klan, 1912–1928” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 2004), especially 316–359.
41. “The American Public School,” 11.
42. Ibid., 12–13.
43. “Has the State the Right to Educate Her Children?” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 7 (June 1926): 25–26.
44. “American Citizens Must Awake to Needs of Public School,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 6 (May 9, 1923): 5.
45. “A Great Need,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 3 (February 1927): 8.
46. Robert Orsi, Between Heaven and Earth: The Religious Worlds People Make and the Scholars Who Study Them (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 77. While Orsi is pointing out in particular how Catholics envisioned their children as bearers of the faith, I believe that his understanding of children also highlights the importance of children for the Klan to pass on not only Protestantism but also patriotism in their version of America. Orsi continued, “Children signal the vulnerability and contingency of a particular religious world and religion itself. . . . This is why discussions of children’s lives are fraught with such great fear, sometimes sorrow, and sometimes ferocity among adults.” Children become the objects by which religion (and I would argue nationalism) is made real for adults, and thus perceived threats to children are manifested as threats to a fragile worldview.
47. “Program Concerning Public School Problem Outlined by Imperial Wizard,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 46 (February 14, 1924): 3.
48. “Seeking Aid for Public Schools,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 14 (July 2, 1924): 2.
49. Ibid., 2–3.
50. “Reading the Bible in Our Schools,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 4 (March 1927): 31.
51. Tracy Fessenden writes about the so-called “Bible wars” in the mid-nineteenth century and the defense of the Bible in public schools. For Fessenden, Catholic objections to the “Protestant character of public schooling” allowed for “Protestant detractors . . . to show that Catholicism was the enemy of the gospel and that the destruction of popery was therefore a sacred duty of all, implicitly Protestant, Americans” (68). What is interesting is that the Klan appeals for protection of the Bible in public schools mimics this early historical incident. See Tracy Fessenden, Culture and Redemption: Religion, the Secular, and American Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).
52. “Patriotism,” 15.
53. “Reading the Bible in Our Schools,” 31.
54. “Program Concerning Public School Problem,” 2.
55. J. S. Fleming, What Is Ku Kluxism? Let Americans Answer—Aliens Only Muddy the Waters (Goodwater, Ala.: J. S. Fleming, 1923).
56. “Parochial Schools versus the American Public Schools,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 8 (July 1926): 16.
57. Ibid., 18–20.
58. Ibid., 20.
59. T. L. Bouscaren, “Talks of Americanism, Talk 4: Complete Education,” Our Sunday Visitor 7, no. 46 (March 2, 1924): 1.
60. See David A. Horowitz, “The Normality of Extremism: The Ku Klux Klan Revisited,” Society 35, no. 6 (September–October 1998): 71–78.
61. Anonymous, Fifty Reasons Why I Am a Klansman, n.d., Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County, M0407, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
62. Simmons, Official Message of Imperial Wizard, 12.
63. “Principles and Purposes of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan,” 133; emphasis added.
64. “Eyes of the Nation Are on Knights of the Ku Klux Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 39 (December 26, 1923): 4.
1. “Louisiana Klansman Outlines the Aims, Purposes and Principles of His Order,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 9 (May 30, 1923): 8.
2. Mrs. P. B. Whaley, “An American Mother’s Prayer,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 5 (May 2, 1923): 7.
3. “The ‘Man on the Fence’ Becomes Uncomfortable,” Dawn 1, no. 50 (October 13, 1923): 11.
4. Ibid. According to the April 7, 1923, issue of the Dawn, the circulation had grown to 50,000. The editors noted that “such growth is unprecedented in the class publication field.” See “Dawn Circulation Climbs to 50,000 as Fight for Americanism Stirs Nation Wide Interest” 1, no. 24 (April 7, 1923): 6.
5. “Louisiana Klansman,” 7.
6. The Klan, then, received inspiration from other fraternal orders. For commentary on the place of religion in fraternity, see Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 54–65, 71–80. For a complication of Carnes’s argument and description of a religious fraternity, see Amy Koehlinger, “‘Let Us Live for Those Who Love Us’: Faith, Family, and the Contours of Manhood among the Knights of Columbus in Late Nineteenth-Century Connecticut,” Journal of Social History 38, no. 2 (Winter 2004): 455–468. For the relationship between the Klan and fraternities, see Glenn Zuber, “‘Onward Christian Klansmen’: War, Religious Conflict, and The Rise of the Second Ku Klux Klan, 1912–1928,” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 2004).
7. Wyn Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), 142.
8. For denominations involved in the Klan, see Leonard J. Moore, Citizen Klansman: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991). For supposed ties to fundamentalism, see Craig, Fiery Cross. For the relationship of ministers and local congregations to Klan, see Nancy MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Ku Klux Klan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), and Robert Allen Goldberg, Hooded Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Colorado (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981). For the Women of the KKK and Protestantism or women in the Klan in the 1920s, see Kathleen Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
9. “Louisiana Klansman,” 6.
10. “Go to Church Sunday,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 3 (April 1, 1923): 5.
11. Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 5 (May 2, 1923): 6.
12. “Louisiana Klansman,” 6.
13. Great Titan of the Realm of Texas, “How the Klan Can Be Made a True Civic Asset in Every Progressive Community,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 23 (September 5, 1923): 6.
14. Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 29 (October 17, 1923): 6.
15. “What Is Tolerance?” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 2 (January 1925): 32.
16. Mark C. Carnes, Secret Ritual and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), especially 2–14.
17. Ibid., 2.
18. Interestingly, the Knights of Columbus used the example of Christian knighthood to proclaim their place in “an unbroken lineage of valiant Christian knights” (461). For analysis of the Knights of Columbus and their rendering of knighthood, see Amy Koehlinger, “‘Let Us Live for Those Who Love Us’: Faith, Family, and the Contours of Manhood among the Knights of Columbus in Late Nineteenth-Century Connecticut,” Journal of Social History 38, no. 2 (Winter 2004): 455–468.
19. Robert J. Higgs, God in the Stadium: Sports and Religion in America (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995), 4.
20. Ann Braude deftly contradicts this dominant portrayal of feminization by demonstrating that women have always been “numerically dominant” in America’s religious spaces (87). Ann Braude, “Women’s History Is American Religious History,” in Retelling U.S. Religious History, ed. Thomas A. Tweed (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 87–107.
21. For more on the Men and Religion Forward movement, see Gail Bederman, “The Women Have Had Charge of the Church Work Long Enough”: The Men and Religion Forward Movement of 1911–1912 and the Masculinization of Middle-Class Protestantism,” American Quarterly 41, no. 3 (September 1989): 432–465.
22. Stephen Prothero, American Jesus: How the Son of God Became a National Icon (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 2003), 94.
23. Ibid., 95.
24. W. C. Wright, “A Klansman’s Criterion of Character,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 45 (February 6, 1924): 2.
25. G.W.W., “God Wants Men,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 10 (October 1925): 4.
26. Ibid., 5.
27. Ibid., 4–5.
28. Wright, “A Klansman’s Criterion of Character,” 6.
29. H. W. Evans, “The Klan Spiritual,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 30 (October 22, 1924): 6.
30. Janet Moore Lindman, “Acting the Manly Christian: White Evangelical Masculinity in Revolutionary Virginia,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 57, no. 2 (April 2000): 393–416.
31. Evans, “The Klan Spiritual,” 7.
32. Sherwood Eddy, “The Ku Klux Klan, II,” Christian Century 39, no. 33 (August 17, 1922): 1023.
33. For examples of Klan condemnations by the Christian Century, see Alva W. Taylor, “The Ku Klux Klan,” Christian Century 39, no. 27 (July 6, 1922): 850–851; Sherwood Eddy, “The Ku Klux Klan,” Christian Century 39, no. 32 (August 10, 1922): 993–995; Eddy, “The Ku Klux Klan, II,” 1021–1023; Richard A. Schermerhorn, “Ku Klux Klan,” letter to the editor, Christian Century 39, no. 38 (September 21, 1922): 1165; “Condemnation of the Ku Klux Movement,” Christian Century 39, no. 40 (October 5, 1922): 1213; “Churches and the Ku Klux Klan,” Christian Century 40, no. 3 (January 18, 1923): 69; “Ku Klux Klan and Theological Conservatism,” Christian Century 40, no. 19 (May 10, 1923): 579–580; Frederick A. Dunning, “Ku Klux Fulfills the Scripture,” Christian Century 41, no. 38 (September 18, 1924): 1205–1207.
34. In the mid-nineteenth century, there were attempts to masculinize Christianity, and by the early twentieth century, movements like the Men and Religion Forward movement (1911–1912) sought to bring more men into the churches. What motivated these men was a concern over the effeminacy of the church and their understanding of the masculinity of Christ. Similar to the Men and Religion Forward movement and remasculinization attempts of Bruce Barton, the Klan sought to banish the feminine image of Jesus and present the rugged carpenter that Jesus “really” was. Both the Klan and the Christian Century represent this desire for the masculine Christ to provide a model for men and boys alike. Stephen Prothero analyzes these attempts to remasculinize Jesus and shows how Jesus became the battleground for competing religious ideologies. See Stephen Prothero, American Jesus: How the Son of God Became a National Icon (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 2003), especially 87–123.
35. James I. Vance, “The Old Rugged Cross,” Christian Century 42, no. 8 (January 19, 1925): 249.
36. Ibid., 250.
37. For understandings of the wisdom and courage of Jesus, see “The Inevitable Cross,” Christian Century 42, no. 14 (April 2, 1925): 434–436, and Fred Eastman, “Courage—Five Minutes Longer,” Christian Century 44, no. 12 (March 21, 1927): 364–366. For concerns over masculinity and softness, see Hubert C. Herring, “The Blood Is the Thing,” Christian Century 42, no. 21 (May 31, 1925): 668–669. Herring proposed the need for a bullfight in America to train men.
38. “Jesus as Efficiency Expert,” Christian Century 42, no. 27 (July 2, 1925): 851. This editorial is a critique of Bruce Barton’s The Man Nobody Knows (1925). For more on the many faces of Jesus in American culture in particular, see Prothero, American Jesus, 3–16. Prothero notes that Klansmen molded Jesus into their own rendering, but he does not explore what the Klan’s Jesus “looked like.”
39. “Jesus as Efficiency Expert,” 851.
40. Kirby Page, “Was Jesus a Patriot?” Christian Century 42, no. 26 (June 25, 1925): 827.
41. “Many Thousands Pay Silent Tribute to Klansman Murdered at Carnegie,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 23 (September 5, 1923): 2.
42. “Preface,” in Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, at Their First Annual Meeting Held at Asheville, North Carolina, July 1923, Anti-Movements in America, ed. Gerald N. Grob (New York: Arno Press, 1977), 2.
43. Ibid., 1.
44. Brown Harwood, introduction to Grob, Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons, 4.
45. Historian David Goldberg discovered that anti-Klan forces committed more violence against Klansmen than Klansmen committed against others. See “Unmasking the Ku Klux Klan: The Northern Movement against the K.K.K., 1920–1925,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 15, no. 4 (Summer 1996): 32–48.
46. “Here’s a Typical Example of How Some Newspapers Will Falsify About the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 6 (May 9, 1923): 6.
47. “Klan Speaker Stoned and Shot At,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 40 (January 2, 1924): 7.
48. “Maine Minister Declares That Klan Is Greatest American Secret Order,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 10 (June 6, 1923): 6.
49. “New Klan Hospital Will Be Memorial to Martyr Who Gave Life for the Cause,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 18 (August 1, 1923): 6.
50. “Texas Klan to Erect Memorial Hospital in Memory of Dead Klansman,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 22 (August 27, 1924): 8. The plans for the memorial hospital occurred a year after Roberts’s death.
51. “Carnegie, Pa., Mob Martyrs Klan Hero and Violates All Rights of Americanism,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 22 (August 29, 1923): 5.
52. Ibid.
53. “Many Thousands Pay Silent Tribute to Klansman Murdered at Carnegie,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 23 (September 5, 1923): 2.
54. Ibid.
55. ”Klansmen Asked to Aid Widow and Babies of Man Who Died for the Cause,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 24 (September 12, 1923): 2.
56. “Carnegie, Pa., Mob Martyrs,” 5.
57. There was reported Klan growth after the martyrs. “Growth of Klans in South Is Steady,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 24 (September 12, 1923): 3. Pennsylvania was included in the South.
58. Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Klansman’s Manual (N.p.: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1924), 60, located in K.K.K. Ephemera Collection, Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens; “To All Exalted Cyclops,” n.d., 7, Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County, Indiana Records, 1916–1933 (bulk 1922–1927), M0407, box 1, folder 5, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
59. KKK, Klansman’s Manual, 11.
60. Ibid., 12.
61. Paul S. Etheridge, “Brief Interpretation of By Laws and Constitution of the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 23 (September 3, 1924): 2–3.
62. Ibid., 3.
63. Alva W. Taylor, “The Ku Klux Klan,” Christian Century 3, no. 27 (July 6, 1922): 850–851.
64. H. W. Evans, “Our Crusading Army,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 11 (October 1926): 2–3.
65. Ibid., 4.
66. Ibid., 5.
67. “Principles and Purposes of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan,” in Grob, Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons, 132.
68. H. W. Evans, “Message from the Imperial Wizard,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 7 (June 1925): 1.
69. Julia Grant noted that the concern over boyhood and how to raise boys was primarily a concern over “feminization.” By the 1920s, a masculine upbringing for boys became the norm. Parents were afraid that effeminate sons would become delinquents, while “regular” or “real” boys would become men. “Real” boys, however, were adventurous and sometimes got into trouble. See Julia Grant, “A ‘Real Boy’ Not a Sissy: Gender, Childhood, and Masculinity, 1890–1940,” Journal of Social History 37, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 829–851.
70. William L. Butcher, “What Is a Boy?” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 12 (November 1925): 18.
71. “Responsibility of Klankraft to the American Boy,” in Grob, Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons, 84–86.
72. Ibid.
73. Blee, Women of the Klan, 158.
74. “Responsibility of Klankraft to the American Boy,” 89.
75. Kloran, Junior Order of Ku Klux Klan, n.d., 9. Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County, Indiana Records, 1916–1933 (bulk 1922–1927), M0407, box 2, folder 2, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
76. Ibid., 10.
77. Ibid., 14.
78. Blee, Women of the Klan, 158.
79. “God Give Us Men,” in Grob, Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons, 154.
80. Harwood, “Introduction,” 3.
81. Ibid., 4.
1. Robbie Gill Comer, “American Women,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 5 (April 1925): 13.
2. “Klanswomen Adopt a Creed at Meeting of National Officers,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 7 (May 14, 1924): 7.
3. Thomas Dixon Jr., The Clansman (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970), 189.
4. Ibid., 21.
5. Ibid., 284.
6. Ibid., 325.
7. George Alfred Brown, Harold the Klansman (Kansas City, Mo.: Western Baptist Publishing Co., 1923).
8. Ibid., 7.
9. Ibid., 157.
10. Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 19. I am borrowing this terminology of conservative maternalism directly from Lichtman, who provides the clearest vision of how women deployed motherhood and womanhood to become agents of reform.
11. “A Tribute and Challenge to American Women,” in Papers Read at the
Meeting of Grand Dragons, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, at Their First Annual Meeting Held at Asheville, North Carolina, July 1923, Anti-Movements in America, ed. Gerald N. Grob (New York: Arno Press, 1977), 92.
12. W. C. Wright, Religious and Patriotic Ideals of the Ku Klux Klan (Waco, TX: W. C. Wright, 1926), 7.
13. Ibid., 11.
14. See Lynn Dumenil, Modern Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s (New York: Hill & Wang, 1995), 99–144.
15. Nancy MacLean, Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 114–115.
16. C.B., “For Our Women,” Kluxer 1, no. 18 (November 24, 1923): 28, located in Archives and Special Collections, Ball State University Archives, Muncie, Ind.
17. Ibid.
18. “A Tribute and Challenge to American Women,” in Grob, Papers Read at the Meeting of Grand Dragons, 89.
19. Ibid., 90.
20. Ibid., 91.
21. Ibid., 92.
22. Ibid., 93.
23. Official Document Issued from the Office of the Grand Dragon, Realm of Indiana, Indianapolis, Indiana, Number 40 (May 6, 1925), Ku Klux Klan, Wayne County, Indiana Records, 1916–1933 (bulk 1922–1927), M0407, box 1, folder 3, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. P.H., “The Klan Celebrates Mother’s Day,” Christian Century 42, no. 21 (May 21, 1925): 677.
27. Ibid., 681.
28. “Was He a Slacker—? And Mother Came Also,” Kluxer 1, no. 14 (October 27, 1923): 25.
29. W. J. Simmons, The Practice of Klannishness (Atlanta: W. J. Simmons, 1918), 5.
30. H. W. Evans, “Preserving the American Home,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 4 (March 1927): 9.
31. “Eminent Jurist Outlines the Duty of Citizens toward the Courts,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 5 (May 2, 1923): 8.
32. “Klanswomen Adopt a Creed,” 7.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. “Klanhaven,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 12 (November 1926): 27.
36. The Truth about the Women of the Ku Klux Klan (Little Rock, Ark.: Parke-Harper, n.d.), 2, located in George R. Dale Collection, 1922–1979, box 1, folder 1, Archives and Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
37. Ibid., 4.
38. Kathleen Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 51.
39. Ibid., 52 (for more information on the conflicts between the KKK and the WKKK, see pp. 57–67).
40. Robbie Gill, “American Woman,” in Inspirational Addresses Delivered at the Second Imperial Klonvokation (N.p.: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1924), 51, located in KKK Ephemera Collection, Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid., 52.
43. Ibid., 54.
44. Ibid., 57.
45. Ibid., 59–60.
46. “Woman’s Relation to Government,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 5 (April 1925): 19.
47. Blee, Women of the Klan, 53.
48. “Address Delivered by Mrs. Robbie Gill Comer,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 12 (November 1926): 13.
49. Ibid., 16.
50. Ibid., 17.
51. Ibid., 20.
52. Ibid., 21.
53. “The Klan Celebrates Mother’s Day,” 677.
54. Proceedings of the Fourth Imperial Klonvokation Held in Chicago, Illinois, July 17, 18 and 19, 1928 (N.p.: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1928), 102, located in Archives and Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
55. Ibid., 104.
56. Ibid., 105.
57. Ibid., 108.
58. Ibid., 110.
59. L. J. King, Secret Confession to a Roman Catholic Priest (Toledo, Ohio: L. J. King, 1925), 48, located in Anti-Catholic Printed Material Collection, box 7, folder 6, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
60. Blee, Women of the Klan, 86, 92.
61. Ibid., 90.
62. Helen Jackson, Convent Cruelties, or My Life in a Convent, 7th ed. (Toledo, Ohio: Helen Jackson, 1924), 12, located in Anti-Catholic Printed Material Collection, box 7, folder 5, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
63. Ibid., 28.
64. Ibid., 29–30.
65. Ibid., 34–35.
66. Ibid., 39.
67. Ibid., 47.
68. Ibid., 78.
69. Ibid., 80.
70. Ibid., 82.
71. Blee, Women of the Klan, 89.
72. King, Secret Confession to a Roman Catholic Priest, 8.
73. Ibid., 9.
74. Ibid., 15.
75. Chronology of the Life of “Pastor” Chiniquy (Huntington, Ind.: National Catholic Bureau of Information), 9, located in Anti-Catholic Printed Material Collection, box 5, folder 8, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
76. King, Secret Confession to a Roman Catholic Priest, 28.
77. Ibid., 29.
78. Ibid., 101.
79. Marie Anne Pagliarini, “The Pure American Woman and the Wicked Catholic Priest: An Analysis of Anti-Catholic Literature in Antebellum America,” Religion and American Culture 9, no. 1 (Winter 1999): 97–128.
80. Ibid., 98.
81. Tracy Fessenden, “The Convent, the Brothel, and the Protestant Woman’s Sphere,” Signs 25, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 451–478.
82. Ibid., 466–469.
83. Record of Anti-Catholic Agitators (n.d.), 8–9, located in Anti-Catholic Printed Material Collection, box 6, folder 7, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind. For more on Helen Jackson’s misconduct, see A Pseudo “Ex-Nun” Thwarted (St. Louis, Mo.: Central Bureau, 1921), 7–12, located in Anti-Catholic Printed Material Collection, box 5, folder 6, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
84. H. W. Evans, “Preserving the American Home,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 4 (March 1927): 10.
85. Ibid., 9.
86. Ibid., 10.
87. Ibid.
88. “Another Grand Dragon Says,” Kourier Magazine 3, no. 4 (March 1927):
II.
89. Proceedings of the Fourth Imperial Klonvokation, 108.
90. “When Is a Marriage Not a Marriage?” Christian Century 14, no. 49 (December 9, 1926), 1510.
91. Ibid., 1511.
92. Official Document, Office of the Grand Dragon, Realm of Georgia, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan 1, no. 3 (December 1926): 4, located in Manuscripts Collection, Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens.
93. H. C. Hengell, “Catholic Marriage Laws according to the New Code,” Our Sunday Visitor 7, no. 5 (May 20, 1923): 1.
1. H. W. Evans, The Attitude of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan toward the Roman Hierarchy (n.p., n.d.), Ku Klux Klan Collection, Wayne County, M0407, box 1, file 6, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis. The revised creed was printed on the back cover of the pamphlet. The title of this chapter is taken from a phrase in the “Address of Imperial Official,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 1 (December 1924): 25.
2. H. W. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” in Proceedings of the Second Imperial Klonvokation Held in Kansas City, Missouri (N.p.: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1924), 148.
3. William Simmons, Official Message of the Emperor of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, to the Initial Session of the Imperial Klonvokation (Atlanta: Knights of the Ku Klux Klan Inc., 1922), 6, located in D. C. Stephenson Collection, M264, box 4, folder 8, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
4. Simmons, Official Message, 8.
5. “The Klansmen’s Creed,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 5 (May 2, 1923): 7.
6. The Imperial Night-Hawk proclaimed any Protestant minister interested in the Klan would receive their publication for free. Protestant ministers were also encouraged to send their names and addresses if they wanted to join. “Notice to Protestant Clergymen,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 10 (June 6, 1923): 6.
7. In his Rituals of Blood, Orlando Patterson claims that lynching, a religious sacrifice, was spearheaded by the Ku Klux Klan in the early twentieth century (202). Further, he argues that “the people who eventually founded the KKK and who led the sacrificial lynch mobs” were one and the same (214). Additionally, he equates the Knights of Mary Phagan’s lynching of Leo Frank with Klan lynching (217). While this is a compelling argument, Patterson lacks historical evidence to back up his claims about the Klan and lynching. The Klan was involved in violence, but Allan Lichtman argues that lynching actually decreased in the United States as the Klan grew in the 1920s (42). See both Orlando Patterson, Rituals of the Blood: Consequences of Slavery in Two American Centuries (Washington, D.C.: Civitas Counterpoint, 1998) and Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 42–46.
8. William Joseph Simmons, The Klan Unmasked (Atlanta: W. E. Thompson, 1924), 49.
9. Evans, The Attitude of the Knights.
10. “Louisiana Klansman Outlines the Aims, Purposes and Principles of His Order,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 9 (May 30, 1923): 6.
11. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 146.
12. “Fifty Reasons Why I Am a Klansman,” (n.d.), 7–8, located in Ku Klux Klan Collection, Wayne County, M0407, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
13. H. W. Evans, “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles and Outlines Klan Activities,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 43 (January 23, 1924): 2.
14. Matthew Frye Jacobsen, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 69.
15. “The Menace of Modern Immigration,” (n.d.), 4, located in Manuscripts, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
16. Ibid., 5.
17. Ibid., 6.
18. Grand Dragon of the Realm of South Carolina, “Poorly Restricted Immigration Is One of the Greatest Perils Confronting America,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 22 (August 29, 1923): 2.
19. Ibid., 3.
20. H. W. Evans, “Imperial Wizard Outlines Attitude of the Klan toward Unrestricted Immigration,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 4 (April 25, 1923): 5.
21. Ibid., 6.
22. Evans, “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles,” 2.
23. “Much Pressure Being Used to Delay Passage of the Immigration Bill,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 48 (February 27, 1924): 6.
24. “Johnson Selective Immigration Law Signed By President,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 11 (June 11, 1924): 2.
25. “Bramble Bush Government,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 1 (December 1924): 13, 14.
26. “Address of Imperial Official,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 1 (December 1924): 25.
27. Interestingly, the Klan admitted that the organization was for white supremacy as well as American freedoms and Protestant Christianity. See Exalted Cyclops of Monroe Klan Number 4, Louisiana, “Klan a Patriotic, Benevolent, Fraternal Organization of Christian Americans,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 2 (April 9, 1924): 2.
28. Evans, The Attitude of the Knights, 2.
29. Evans, “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles,” 3.
30. H. W. Evans, “The Attitude of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan toward the Roman Catholic Hierarchy,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 1 (March 28, 1923): 2.
31. Evans, “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles,” 3.
32. Wright, Religious and Patriotic Ideals, 44.
33. Evans, “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles,” 3.
34. “The Menace of Modern Immigration,” 24.
35. Ibid., 23.
36. Ibid., 22.
37. Simmons, Official Message, 10, 11.
38. F.L.L., “The Negro—His Relation to America,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 2 (January 1926): 17.
39. Ibid., 18.
40. Ibid., 19.
41. W. C. Wright, The Religious and Patriotic Ideals of the Ku Klux Klan (Waco, TX: W. C. Wright, 1926).
42. “Christianity and Racialism: Reply to Dr. Glenn Frank,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 3 (February 1926): 30, 31.
43. Ibid., 32.
44. George Alfred Brown, Harold the Klansman (Kansas City, Mo.: Western Baptist Publishing Co., 1923), 19.
45. Ibid., 194.
46. F.L.L., “The Negro—His Relation to America,” 18.
47. Wright, Religious and Patriotic Ideals, 44.
48. Ibid., 43.
49. Ibid., 44.
50. “Fifty Reasons,” 7–8.
51. “Questions Answered: Questions and Answers Given as a Basis for an Interview to a Certain National Magazine,” (n.d.), 9, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis.
52. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 146.
53. Brown, Harold the Klansman, 191.
54. Ibid., 192–193.
55. Ibid., 193.
56. Ibid., 194.
57. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 146.
58. Ibid., 147.
59. “Wizard Tells About Assaults on Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 24 (September 12, 1923): 4.
60. “The Purpose of This Publication,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 1 (March 28, 1923): 4.
61. “Bigotry,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 5 (May 2, 1923): 7.
62. See “Ohio Klansmen in Act of ‘Riotous Conduct’ Which Caused Them to Be Jailed,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 16 (July 18, 1923): 8. A Klansman’s funeral was alleged to be broken up by the Roman Catholic chief of police in Springfield, Ohio. See “Jewish Rabbi Would Change Battle Hymn,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 11 (June 13, 1923): 8. The rabbi did not want Jewish children to be forced to sing “Onward Christian Soldiers” or “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” at public schools because the songs were against their religious beliefs. See also “Was This Tolerance?” Dawn 1, no. 25 (April 14, 1923): 5. The Klan accused its enemies of ransacking a building in which Klan members lived. This event confirmed their beliefs of being persecuted.
63. “Wizard Tells About Assaults on Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 24 (September 12, 1923): 4.
64. David J. Goldberg, “Unmasking the Ku Klux Klan: The Northern Movement against the K.K.K., 1920–1925,” Journal of American Ethnic History 15, no. 4 (Summer 1996): 42.
65. “Bombers Wreak Vengeance Inspired by Papist Propaganda,” Dawn 1, no. 25 (April 14, 1923): 9.
66. “Was This Tolerance?” 5.
67. Carol Mason notes that white people often claim that they are victimized despite the absence of “alienation, exploitation, or oppression” in their histories. See Carol Mason, “Miscegenation and Purity: Reproducing the Souls of White Folk,” Hypatia 22, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 106. Robyn Wiegman also notes that in post–Civil War America whites refigured their place in American society, as having lost the dominant position, and took on an injured status. See Robyn Wiegman, “Whiteness Studies and the Paradox of Particularity,” boundary 26, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 117.
68. Goldberg, “Unmasking the Ku Klux Klan.”
69. Simmons, The Klan Unmasked, 87.
70. Elaine Frantz Parsons, “Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction Era Ku Klux Klan,” Journal of American History 92, no. 3 (December 2005): 820.
71. According to Nicholas Mirzeoff, “Photography seeks to record with the highest degree of realism the individuality of a subject, but . . . this sense of an individual is exactly what cannot be photographed. . . . Photography becomes an outlet to see myself seeing myself” (An Introduction to Visual Culture [London: Routledge, 1999], 71–72, 236). Thus, when the Klan takes photographs, what is being represented? The traces of individuals are absent, which leads me to think that the Klan’s photographs are taken to show the solidarity of community.
72. Chris Ruiz-Velasco relies on the works of Thomas Dixon to present a rendering of whiteness. According to Ruiz-Velasco, the Klan robes in Dixon’s work provide “white racial unity” (155). He writes, “The elision of personal difference also marks the elision of personal culpability, and the anonymity of the white robe furthers marks the unity of whiteness. This unity of whiteness configures into a hyper-whiteness, one that disallows any gradations and insists on the symbolic white purity and homogeneity of the robe” (156). Moreover, Dixon connects whiteness inherently to goodness. See Chris Ruiz-Velasco, “Order Out of Chaos: Whiteness, White Supremacy, and Thomas Dixon, Jr.,” College Literature 34, no. 4 (Fall 2007): 155–156.
73. See Exalted Cyclops of Texas, “The Seven Symbols of the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 39 (December 26, 1923): 7.
74. Evans, “Dr. Evans, Imperial Wizard, Defines Klan Principles,” 3.
75. “Regalia Factory and Printing Plant Will Save Much Money for Klans of Nation,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 16 (July 18, 1923): 5.
76. Edward J. Blum, Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism 1865–1898 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 9.
77. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 140.
78. Ibid., 141.
79. Ibid., 142.
80. Ibid., 143.
81. Ibid.
82. Ibid., 145.
83. Ibid., 146.
84. H. W. Evans, “The Klan’s Next Duty: Send Home Every Unfit Alien,” Kourier Magazine 2, no. 3 (February 1926): 1.
85. Simmons, Official Message of the Emperor of the Invisible Empire, 9.
86. Evans, “The Klan of Tomorrow,” 150–151.
87. H. W. Evans, “The Klan’s Mission—Americanism,” Kourier Magazine 1, no. 12 (November 1925): 5.
88. Ibid., 6; emphasis added.
89. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 71.
90. Mason, “Miscegenation and Purity,” 102.
91. “Official Document, Office of the Grand Dragon, Realm of Georgia, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan,” 2, no. 3 (March 1927): 4, located in Ku Klux Klan, Athens Klan #5 (Athens, Ga.) records, box 2, folder 8, Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens.
1. The Truth about the Notre Dame Riot on Saturday May 17th 1924 (Indianapolis: Fiery Cross Publishing Co., 1924), 9, located in Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
2. “Klansmen Unalterably Opposed to Religious Intolerance,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 18 (July 30, 1924): 4.
3. Charles Edward Jefferson, Roman Catholicism and the Ku Klux Klan (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1924–1925), 141.
4. Ibid., 142–143.
5. Ibid., 147.
6. Ibid., 148.
7. Ibid., 173.
8. See Todd Tucker, Notre Dame vs. the Ku Klux Klan: How the Fighting Irish Defeated the Klan (Chicago: Loyola Press, 2004).
9. For more on Protestant attraction and repulsion to Catholics, see Jenny Franchot, Roads to Rome: The Antebellum Protestant Encounter with Catholicism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
10. “Klansmen Unalterably Opposed,” 4.
11. Ibid.
12. “Texas Klansman Outlines Principles upon Which the Knights of Ku Klux Klan Is Founded,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 2 (April 4, 1923): 7.
13. H. W. Evans, “ The Attitude of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan toward the Roman Catholic Hierarchy,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 1 (March 28, 1923): 2.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., 7.
16. Ibid., 2.
17. “Catholic-Controlled New York Assembly Passes Bill Seeking to Destroy the Klan,” Imperial Night-Hawk 1, no. 7 (May 16, 1923): 5.
18. “Attempt to Discredit Ku Klux Klan Proves to Be Boomerang,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 17 (July 23, 1924): 3.
19. “Catholic Church Most Powerful Organization, Says Brisbane,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 4 (April 23, 1924): 6.
20. Knights of the Klan versus Knights of Columbus (Oklahoma City: Reno Publishing Co., n.d), n.p., located in Special Collections, University of Georgia Libraries, Athens.
21. Ibid.
22. “The Real Oath of the K.K.K. vs. the Fake Oath of the K.C.,” Our Sunday Visitor 11, no. 5 (May 21, 1922): 1.
23. “An Honest and Dignified Statement of the Facts for Fair-Minded People,” Our Sunday Visitor 7, no. 28 (October 28, 1923): 3.
24. “Effects of Klan Propaganda on the Church,” Our Sunday Visitor 7, no. 23 (September 23, 1923): 2.
25. “Indiana Protestants Outraged by Infuriated College Students,” Imperial Night-Hawk 2, no. 10 (June 4, 1924): 2.
26. “Love vs. Hate,” in The Truth about the Notre Dame Riot on Saturday May 17th 1924 (Indianapolis: Fiery Cross Publishing Co., 1924), 20, located in Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
27. “Indiana Protestants Outraged,” 2.
28. “Klansmen and Opponents in Street Clash,” South Bend News-Times 41, no. 141 (May 20, 1924): 1
29. Wingfoot, “The Story of the Riot,” in The Truth about the Notre Dame Riot on Saturday May 17th 1924 (Indianapolis: Fiery Cross Publishing Co., 1924), 5, located in Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
30. Ibid., 6.
31. Ibid., 7.
32. “Story by Fiery Cross Staff Correspondent after Riot,” in The Truth about the Notre Dame Riot on Saturday May 17th 1924 (Indianapolis: Fiery Cross Publishing Co., 1924), 12, Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
33. “Excerpts from Story Written by a Non-Klan Editor,” in The Truth about the Notre Dame Riot on Saturday May 17th 1924 (Indianapolis: Fiery Cross Publishing Co., 1924), 19, located in Special Collections, Ball State University, Muncie, Ind.
34. Wingfoot, “The Story of the Riot,” 5.
35. “Excerpts from Story Written by a Non-Klan Editor,” 18–19.
36. Wingfoot, “The Story of the Riot,” 8.
37. Ibid., 8–9.
38. “Story by Fiery Cross Staff Correspondent after Riot,” 13.
39. Ibid., 16–17.
40. “Klansmen and Opponents in Street Clash,” 2.
41. “Heads, Not Fists,” Notre Dame Daily 2, no. 118 (May 17, 1924): 2, located in Notre Dame Printed and Reference Material Drop Files, PNDP 83-Nd1, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
42. “Yesterday’s Bulletin,” Notre Dame Daily 2, no. 118 (May 17, 1924): 2, located in Notre Dame Printed and Reference Material Drop Files, PNDP 83Nd-1, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
43. Tucker, Notre Dame vs. The Klan, 152–153.
44. Ibid., 154.
45. Ibid., 156.
46. “Bureau of Information Department,” Our Sunday Visitor 8, no. 22 (September 12, 1924): 3.
47. “Klansmen and Opponents in Street Clash,” 1.
48. Ibid., 1–2.
49. Ibid., 2.
50. For Todd Tucker, the riot primed the Notre Dame football team for its national championship. Catholic Notre Dame showed the national white, Protestant populace that they were a force to be reckoned with in football and as a part of American culture more largely. Historian Mark Massa notes that it is of special importance that Notre Dame football ascended in a period of vehement anti-Catholicism. Notre Dame football became a point of admiration for American Catholics, whether or not they attended the university. See Tucker, Notre Dame vs. The Klan, especially 184–191, and Mark S. Massa, Catholics in American Culture: Fulton Sheen, Dorothy Day and the Notre Dame Football Team (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1999), 196.
51. Image of J. E. Hutchison Letter, May 26, 1924, Ku Klux Klan and Notre Dame Material, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
52. Image of Kluxer Letter, n.d., Ku Klux Klan and Notre Dame Material, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind.
53. “Bureau of Information Department,” Our Sunday Visitor 8, no. 22 (September 12, 1924): 3
54. “Love vs. Hate,” 20.
55. Ibid., 20–21.
1. Stanley Cohen, “Ordinary White Protestants: The KKK of the 1920s,” Journal of Social History 28, no. 1 (Autumn 1994): 164.
2. “Wisconsin Pastor Proclaims Klan as Staunch Defender of Protestantism,” Imperial Night-Hawk, 1, no. 7 (May 16, 1923): 6.
3. M. William Lutholtz, Grand Dragon: D.C. Stephenson and the Ku Klux Klan in Indiana (West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University, 1991), 55.
4. Ibid., 152–153.
5. Ibid., 154.
6. Richard K. Tucker, The Dragon and the Cross: The Rise and Fall of the Ku Klux Klan in Middle America (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1991), 134.
7. Lutholtz, Grand Dragon, 159.
8. “The Klan’s Invisible Empire Is Fading,” New York Times, February 21, 1926.
9. See Kelly J. Baker, “Religion and the Rise of the Second Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1922,” Readex Report 4, no. 3 (September 2009), http://www.readex .com/readex/newsletter.cfm?newsletter=244.
10. Mark S. Massa, Anti-Catholicism in America: The Last Acceptable Prejudice (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 2003), 33.
11. Wyn Craig Wade, Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987), 254.
12. Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), 44.
13. Ibid., 2; emphasis added.
14. Michael Kazin, “The Grass-Roots Right: New Histories of U.S. Conservatism in the Twentieth Century,” American Historical Review 97, no. 1 (February 1992): 145.
15. Leonard J. Moore, “Good Old-Fashioned New Social History and the Twentieth-Century American Right,” Reviews in American History 24, no. 4 (December 1996): 560.
16. Nancy MacLean, “Guardians of Privilege,” in Debating the American Conservative Movement 1945 to the Present, ed. Donald T. Critchlow and Nancy MacLean (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), 139.
17. Wade, The Fiery Cross, ix.
18. David H. Bennett, The Party of Fear: The American Far Right from Nativism to the Militia Movement, rev. ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), especially 2–13.
19. See John Corrigan and Lynn S. Neal, eds., Religious Intolerance in America: A Documentary History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
20. Kenneth T. Jackson, The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930 (Chicago: Elephant Paperbacks, 1992), xv.
21. Leo P. Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right: The Protestant Far Right from the Great Depression to the Cold War (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), xviii.
22. “The Kind of Man Who Joins the Klan,” Evening News 76, no. 80 (October 1, 1921): 6.
23. Kathleen Blee, Women of the Klan: Racism and Gender in the 1920s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 2.
24. In his Ordinary Men, Christopher Browning presents the history of Reserve Police Battalion 101 to show how the men were complicit in the Holocaust and to document their history. He argues for understanding perpetrators in human terms to move beyond caricature. Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (reprint, New York: HarperPerennial, 1998), xix–xxi.
25. Bennett, The Party of Fear,217.
26. The place of moral judgment in history is a contentious topic fraught with steep dichotomies between those who argue that historians should embrace their critical powers of judgment and those who find danger in crafting our narratives in terms of morality. In “Beyond Consensus: The Historian as Moral Critic,” John Higham derides the detachment of historical studies that could lead to the absence of morality. Historians must recognize the chasm between their own moral systems and those of their historical actors, but they also have an obligation to reflect on the complexity of the human experience. Historians must also focus on what the actors “ought” to have done. Adrian Oldfield continues this line of thinking and suggests historians should show how actors could have done things differently. This way historians can begin to see the “heroes” and “villains” of the narratives. For Old-field, part of the responsibility to one’s field is to be a “moral educator.” James Axtell notes that abstaining from judgment makes the past indecipherable, so historians need to make judgments as end products of their writing and research. According to Axtell, historians judge, so we should be explicit about our decisions and how they mold our narratives. The Journal of the History of Ideas hosted a roundtable on the so-called moral turn in history, during which George Cotkin argued that the moral turn should not be explicitly about judgment but rather a reflection on the complexity of human intention and action. Instead of focusing on “ought,” historians should pass judgment with care and be aware of their own limitations. In response, Neil Jumonville warned of the problem of discerning the moral. Michael O’Brien suggested that historians are bad moral philosophers, so the moral turn might prove unwise. See George Cotkin, “History’s Moral Turn,” Journal of the History of Ideas 69, no. 2 (April 2008): 293–315; Neil Jumonville, “The Complexity of Moral History: Response to Cotkin,” Journal of the History of Ideas 69, no. 2 (April 2008): 317–322; Michael O’Brien, “Anomalies Not for Turning: Response to Cotkin,” Journal of the History of Ideas 69, no. 2 (April 2008): 323–326; Lewis Perry, “Turn, Turn, Turn: Response to Cotkin,” Journal of the History of Ideas 69, no. 2 (April 2008): 333–337.
27. Harry Stout, Upon the Altar of Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Viking, 2006), xii.
28. Edward J. Blum, Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism 1865–1898 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 3.
29. Ibid., 7.
1. Anthony Karen, “Aryan Outfitters: Meet the KKK’s Seamstress of Hate Couture,” Mother Jones, March 2008, http://motherjones.com/photoessays/2008/03/aryan-outfitters (accessed April 2, 2008). A special thank-you to Amy Koehlinger for sending me this photo essay, which has proved helpful and pivotal in my analysis of the modern Klan. She deserves special credit for passing along the documentary.
2. Ibid.
3. Historian David Bennett notes that the Klan fragmented into many divisive and different organizations after the 1980s. See David H. Bennett, The Party of Fear: The American Far Right from Nativism to the Militia Movement, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 431–433. Moreover, the Southern Poverty Law Center tracks current movements that claim the Klan label. As of 2009, there were over one hundred chapters of the Klan from dozens of competing organizations. See “Ku Klux Klan,” Intelligence Files, Southern Poverty Law Center, http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-files/ideology/ku-klux-klan (accessed November 15, 2010).
4. Jon Meacham, “In Perspective: Religion in America,” PBS, September 10, 2010, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/need-to-know/culture/in-perspectivereligion-in-america/3488/ (accessed September 13, 2010).
5. Nicholas D. Kristoff, “America’s History of Fear,” New York Times, September 4, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/05/opinion/05kristof.html ?_r=1 (accessed September 10, 2010).
6. Many commentators hoped that Obama’s presidency might usher in a new and better postracial America. Here’s only one example of many. See Daniel Schorr, “A New, ‘Post-Racial’ Political Era in America,” National Public Radio, January 28, 2008, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=18489466 (accessed October 15, 2010).
7. Larry Keller, “Klan Murder Shines Light on Bogalusa, La.,” Intelligence Report 134 (Summer 2009), http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2009/summer/into-the-wild (accessed September 13, 2010).
8. Mark Potok, “Rage on the Right: The Year in Hate and Extremism,” Intelligence Report 137 (Spring 2010), http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2010/spring/rage-on-the-right (accessed September 15, 2010).
9. See “Arson Reported at Tennessee Mosque Site,” USA Today, August 29, 2010, http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2010–08–29-arson28_ST_N.htm (accessed September 13, 2010); Josh Ault, “Lesbian Couple in Vonore Says House Fire Is a Hate Crime,” WATE.com, September 10, 2010, http://www.wate.com/global/story.asp?s=13134384 (accessed September 13, 2010); Anthony Welsch, “Mosque Leaders Downplay Shot, Burned Koran Left at Mosque Entrance,” WBIR, September 13, 2010, http://www.wbir.com/news/local/story.aspx?storyid=134130&catid=2 (accessed September 13, 2010).
10. For both Lichtman and Hankins, the 1920s mark the beginning of the culture wars between Left and Right and the increasing polarization of political discourse. While their arguments are persuasive, I wonder if perhaps the polarization narrative assumes too much about how the “middle” is persuaded by left and right. See Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2008), especially 2–7, and Barry Hankins, Jesus and Gin: Evangelicalism, the Roaring Twenties, and Today’s Culture Wars (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), especially 1–4.
11. See Wyn Craig Wade, The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987). For Wade, this incarnation of the Klan would not have been as popular without attaching itself to fundamentalism. However, Wade has an ulterior motive in which he seeks to link the violent Klan to the Christian Coalition in the 1980s to show the violence of both movements and their danger to American society. However, this historical link seems tenuous at best.
12. Ibid., 402.
13. Matthew Weaver, “Qur’an Burning: From Facebook to the World’s Media, How the Story Grew,” Guardian, September 10, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/10/quran-burning-how-the-story-grew (accessed October 1, 2010).
14. Ibid.
15. William Saletan, “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” Slate, September 8, 2010, http://www.slate.com/id/2266535/ (accessed September 8, 2010).
16. “ABC News/Washington Post Poll: Views of Islam,” ABC News, September 8, 2010, http://a.abcnews.go.com/images/US/ht_cordoba_house_100908.pdf (accessed October 12, 2010).
17. Ed Pilkington, “How the Tea Party Movement Began,” Guardian, October 5, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/oct/05/us-midtermelections-2010-tea-party-movement (accessed October 6, 2010).
18. Matthew Continetti, “The Two Faces of the Tea Party: Rick Santelli, Glenn Beck, and the Future of Popular Insurgency,” Weekly Standard 15, no. 39 (June 28, 2010), http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/two-facestea-party (accessed August 20, 2010).
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Huma Khan, “Glenn Beck’s Rally Panned By Civil Rights Leaders,” ABC News, August, 20, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/glenn-becksplanned-rally-runs-trouble-civil-rights/story?id=11440553 (accessed August 20, 2010).
22. Huma Khan and Kevin Dolak, “Glenn Beck’s ‘Restoring Honor’ Rally Draws Thousands,” ABC News, August 28, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/Poltics/thousands-gather-dc-becks-restoring-honor-rally/story?id=1150433 (accessed October 6, 2010).
23. Ibid.
24. John R. Parkison, “Tea Party Spells K.K.K., Rights Leader Says,” ABC News, August 26, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/tea-party-comparedkkk-rev-walter-fauntroy/story?id=11489233 (accessed August 26, 2010).
25. Ibid.
26. Stephen Colbert, “Yahweh or No Way: Blues Brothers and Glenn Beck,” Colbert Report, June 23, 2010, http://www.colbertnation.com/thecolbert-report-videos/313496/june-23–2010/yahweh-or-no-way—the-bluesbrothers—glenn-beck (accessed June 25, 2010).
27. See Joan Walsh, “The Tea Partiers’s Racial Paranoia,” Salon, April 15, 2010, http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/joan_walsh/politics/2010/04/15/tea_party_racial_paranoia (accessed April 15, 2010), and Arian Campo-Flores, “Are Tea Partiers Racist?” Newsweek, April 26, 2010, http://www.newsweek.com/2010/04/25/are-tea-partiers-racist.html (accessed April 27, 2010).
28. Campo-Flores, “Are Tea Partiers Racist?”
29. See Brian Montopoli, “NAACP Issues Report on Link between Tea Party Factions and ‘Racist Hate Groups,’” CBS News, October 20, 2010, http://www.cbsnews.com/8301–50344_162–20020160–503544.html (accessed October 26, 2010).
30. Christopher Hitchens, “White Fright,” Slate, August 30, 2010, http://www.slate.com/id/2265515/ (accessed August 31, 2010).
31. Alex McNeill, “‘Me’ the People: A Day with the Tea Party,” Religion Dispatches, August 30, 2010, http://www.religiondispatches.org/archive/atheologies/3236/me_the_people%3A_a_day_with_the_tea_party/ (accessed September 2, 2010).
32. Ibid.
33. Michael Bersin, “NAACP in Kansas City: Representative Sheila Jackson Lee on the Tea Party and Human Rights,” Show Me Progress: Missouri’s Progressive Politics Community, July 12, 2010, http://showmeprogress.com/diary/4773/naacp-in-kansas-city-representative-sheila-jackson-lee-on-thetea-party-and-human-rights (accessed August 20, 2010).