Dangerous Trade: Arms Exports, Human Rights, and International Reputation

accountability: and Argentine arms transfer scandal (1995), 167; in Arms to Iraq scandal (Belgium), 134–35; in Arms to Iraq scandal (UK), 116–17; and ATT, 152–54; and Belgian regionalism, 134–37; and democracy, 19, 24; domestic mechanisms of, 14–15, 147–50, 154; in Iran-Contra scandal (U.S.), 114, 132–33, 206n62; need for international mechanisms of, 7, 18, 30–31, 43, 138; and NGOs, 107–8, 114, 141; in Rwanda affair (France), 125, 127–29; and scandal, 7–8, 14–15, 18–19, 24, 36–37, 108, 124; in South Africa arms import scandals (2012–2013), 145; in Tanzanian ammunitions factory scandal (Wallonia), 137–38; and transparency, 34–37, 112, 141, 186n52

Achen, Christopher, 173

Affaire Luchaire, l’ (France), 125–26

affected states, 9–10, 12, 35, 49, 62–63, 93, 140

Afghanistan, 54, 70, 92, 121, 124, 192n44

All-Party Parliamentary Group on International Corporate Responsibility (UK), 118

Al Yamamah arms deals (UK), 78

American Bar Association, 202

American Political Science Association Task Force on U.S. Standing, 182n18

ammunition: production and trade, 48, 106, 137; treaties regarding, 87, 89, 94, 151, 157, 159–61, 165

Amnesty International, 9, 117, 119–20, 186n45, 206n64, 206n71

analytical eclecticism, 23, 37–43

Angolagate (France), 128

Anti–Ballistic Missile Treaty, 102

Antigua and Barbuda, 191n38

APL (anti-personnel landmines), 192n45. See also landmine ban

Apostolidis, Paul, 33

Arab Spring, 6, 70, 85, 107, 119, 129

Argentina, 106–7, 191n38, 198n47

arms industry. See defense industry

Arms to Africa affair (UK), 118

Arms to Iraq scandal, 141; Belgium, 134–35; United Kingdom, 61, 114–19, 185n40. See also Iraq

Arms Trade Data Set, 47–48, 55–56, 65–66, 163–67

Arms Trade Treaty (ATT): approval of, 3, 60, 89; and defense industry, 75–82; and human security, 88–89, 156; implementation and compliance with, 10, 152–55; importance of, 6, 44–45; provisions, 10, 48, 88, 139–40; secretariat of, 10, 152

Aussenwirtschaftsgesetz (AWG), 203n25

Austria, 188n4, 191n38

Bamako Declaration on Illicit Proliferation, Circulation, and Brokering of SALW (Organization of African Unity, 2000), 160

Baum, Matthew, 116, 208n12

Belgium: and accountability, 135, 137; arms export policies, 80–81, 98–99, 133–34, 137; arms exports to conflict zones, 134–37, 207n78; and ATT, 12, 99, 191n38; defense industry, 80–81, 99; and domestic reputation, 137; and dual-use technology, 136; and economic factors, 136, 142; and EU Code of Conduct, 12, 133, 135; foreign policy, 81, 135, 137, 199nn70–71; and human rights, 99, 134, 136; and human security, 136; and international reputation, 98–100; and landmine ban, 98–99; as major arms supplier, 12, 74; and NGOs, 98–99, 111, 113, 133–34, 136–37, 206n71; public opinion, 109, 113, 134–37; regionalism of arms trade, 80–81, 98–99, 113, 133, 135–37, 195n20, 199n70; and scandal, 32, 107, 111, 133–37; and transparency, 80, 111, 113, 133–37; and UNPOA, 12

Berlin Information-Center for Transatlantic Security, 120

biological weapons, 5, 102, 206n62

Biological Weapons Convention, 102

black market, 9–10, 188n9. See also illicit arms trade

Blair, Tony, 92–93, 195n14

Blanton, Shannon Lindsey, 9, 65, 193n50

blinding laser weapons, 158

Bofors Affair (Sweden), 201n4

Boland Amendments (U.S.), 130

Braeckman, Colette, 126

branding and marketing, 26, 181n6, 184n29

Brasilia Declaration of Latin American and Caribbean States (2000), 160

Brazil, 5, 111, 140, 143, 146–47, 172, 191n28, 191n38

British Aerospace (BAE), 195n14

brokering, 87, 160, 162

Bromley, D. B., 183n22

Bromley, Mark, 209n4

Brooks, Stephen, 184–85n32

BUKO Kampagne: Stoppt den Rüstungsexport (Campaign to Stop Arms Exports), 204n40

Burkina Faso, 191n38

Busby, Joshua, 36, 182–83n18, 182n15

Bush, George H. W., 100, 131, 191n34

Bush, George W., 100–104, 133

Canada, 57, 62, 94, 163, 186–87n55, 198n50

Carter, Jimmy, 52–54, 63, 100, 188n1, 201n87, 202n15

Carton de Wiart, Adrian, 50

Center for Defense Information (U.S.), 206n64

Centre for Conflict Resolution (South Africa), 208n9

Centripetalism data set, 170

chemical weapons, 5, 204n42, 206n62

China: arms embargo against, 85, 123, 125, 208n8; and ATT, 13, 88, 153, 188n2, 209n1; and P5 arms transfer discussions (1991), 58; and sanctions against Syria, 139; and UNPOA, 197n40; and Zimbabwean arms shipments, 1–2, 145

Chirac, Jacques, 97, 125

Chong, Dennis, 29, 34

Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands (CDU), 122, 124, 204n45

Cingranelli, David, 190n25, 210n16

Cingranelli-Richards (CIRI) Human Rights dataset, 210n16

climate change, 7, 148, 154, 181n12

Clinton administration (U.S.), 103, 191n34, 201n87

Coalition for Peace in Africa–Action Support Centre, 208n9

COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls, 1949–1994), 52, 58, 157

Cold War, 3, 6, 11, 14, 51–59, 201n4

Colombia, 62, 107, 136, 208n8

colonialism, 49–50, 91–93, 157, 189n14

commitment to international rules and norms: and arms export control policy, 5, 17, 25, 42, 64–72, 104–5, 140–43; and credibility, 21–23; history and data on, 10–13, 21, 65–71, 157–62; and material incentives, 14, 43, 45, 72, 74, 141–42; relationship to compliance, 10–12, 64–65, 72, 140–42, 149, 155; and reputation, 17–19, 24–25, 43, 72, 138, 140, 148–50; theoretical implications, 5–7, 37–43, 147, 185n33, 185n35; and transparency, 36, 72, 186n52

compliance with international rules and norms: and arms export control policy, 5, 17, 34, 42, 64–72, 107–8, 137–38, 140–43; and domestic politics, 107, 138, 149; in IR theory, 5, 37–43, 147–48, 180n5, 185n33, 187n66; and material interest, 137, 192n46; relationship to commitment, 7, 10–12, 140–42; and reputation, 5–7, 14–15, 17–24, 30–34, 72, 104, 110–12, 182n13; and transparency, 30–31, 36–37, 63

conflict zones: arms exports to, 2–3, 10, 60, 62, 112, 121, 130, 139–40, 158–59; internal conflict in, 9, 123, 167–68, 171, 175–78

Congolese Association for Peace and Development, 208n9

consensus rules, 28; and ATT, 29, 88, 151–52; and EU Code of Conduct, 84–85; and UNPOA, 73, 86–87, 191n36, 197n44

Conservative Party and government (UK), 78, 93, 113, 115–16, 118–19

constructivism, 24, 38, 41–42, 181n7

Control Arms Campaign, 192n40, 193n55

Convention Against Torture, 187n66

conventional arms control: difficulties of developing, 2–5, 9, 35; future prospects for, 140–43; reasons for shift toward, 2–3, 9, 17–19, 25, 60–64; treaties and conferences, 157–62

Conventional Arms Transfer (CAT) talks (US–USSR, 1977–1978), 53–54, 158

Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW, 2003), 158, 161

Convention on Cluster Munitions (2008), 102, 162

Cook, Robin, 116–18

Correlates of War data, 171

corruption, 24, 32, 37, 125, 128, 130, 145–46, 185n38, 195n4

Côte d’Ivoire, 191n38

Coveliers, Hugo, 135

Cowen, Regina, 79, 120

credibility, 19–22, 30

Cuba, 88, 194n1, 197n40, 197n45

Czech Republic, 191n38

Declaration of Ayacucho (1974), 157

Defence Export Services Organization (UK), 78

defense industry, 2, 39–41, 48, 75–82, 142–43, 186n53. See also specific countries

democracy, 7, 13, 17–19, 23–24, 42, 167–68, 170–71, 175–78

domestic structure, 24, 40, 110, 181n11

Dominican Republic, 191n38

dual-use technologies, 35, 52, 136, 157, 196n22, 203n25, 204n42, 206n62

economic interests, 11, 14, 17–18, 38–41, 137, 142, 154; and compliance, 74, 89–90; and policy development, 48, 56–60, 68–69, 71

ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) Moratorium on Production and Trade of SALW (1998, 2006), 6, 160–61

enforcement, 18, 31, 40, 72, 185n33

English School, 24, 42, 181–82n12

epistemic communities, 35

ethical foreign policy, 60, 92–93, 117, 135, 192n39. See also foreign policy

EU (European Union) arms embargo to China, 85, 123, 125

EU (European Union) Code of Conduct on Arms Exports (1998): adoption of, 60, 85, 91, 96–97, 159, 162, 203n37; importance, 6; provisions of, 10, 48, 67, 84–86, 154; and transparency, 35, 47, 112

EU (European Union) Common Position on Arms Exports 2008/944/CFSP (2008), 85, 162

EU (European Union) Council of Ministers, 85

EU (European Union) Joint Action on SALW (1998), 159

EU (European Union) Programme for Preventing and Combating Illicit Trafficking in Conventional Arms (1997), 159

EU (European Union) Strategy to combat illicit accumulation and trafficking of SALW and ammunition (2005), 161

EU (European Union) Working Group on Conventional Arms Exports, 85

Evans, Gareth, 181–82n12

Export Credits Guarantee Department (UK), 78

Federation of American Scientists, 206n64

Federation of German Industry (Bundesverband Deutscher Industrie), 79

financial crises (1990s, 2008), 6, 70, 184n29, 186n47

Finnemore, Martha, 4, 25, 42, 187n62, 187n64

firearms, 8–9, 100, 102, 140, 159–61, 200n82, 200n84

Flanders, 81, 109, 111, 133–37. See also Belgium

Flemish Peace Institute, 206n71

FN Herstal (Belgium), 80–81, 135

Ford administration (U.S.), 52–53

foreign interventions, 39, 187n56

foreign policy, 51–60, 71, 92–93, 117, 135, 170–71, 192n39

Foreign Trade and Payments Act (Germany, 1961), 113

France: and accountability, 129; arms export policy, 52, 76–77, 96–97, 113, 121, 128–29, 157, 195n19; and ATT, 12, 45, 77, 96, 109, 191n38; defense industry, 75–76; and earlier arms transfer agreements, 49, 52, 57, 157, 191n33; and EU Code of Conduct and Common Position, 12, 85, 96–98, 197n35, 208n15; foreign intervention, 187n56; foreign policy, 96–97, 199n65–66; and human rights, 97; and international reputation, 85, 96–98, 128; as major arms supplier, 12, 74, 179n7; and multilateralism, 97; and national security, 96; NGOs, 35, 96–98, 109, 111, 124–29, 205n50, 205n56; and P5 arms transfer discussions (1991), 57; and public opinion, 109–10, 113, 128; and scandal, 33, 107, 111, 124–29; and small arms control, 96; strength of state, 110, 128; and transparency, 111, 113, 124–29; and UNPOA, 12, 96

Fung, Archon, 186n47

Garcia, Denise, 34, 42, 63

Garment, Suzanne, 32

General Act for the Repression of the African Slave Trade (Brussels Act), 189n14

Geneva Arms Traffic Convention (1925), 50, 157

Geneva Conventions (1949), 10

genocide, 10, 62, 206n63. See also human rights

Germany: arms exports to conflict zones, 120–24; and ATT, 12, 45, 80, 191n38; as civilian power, 95, 119, 124, 199n63, 205n48; during Cold War, 188n1; defense industry, 79–80; and EU Code of Conduct, 12, 203n37; foreign policy, 93, 95–96, 119–20, 124; and good international citizenship, 93; human rights and arms exports, 90, 122–24; as major arms supplier, 12, 79–80, 179n7; NGOs, 95, 111, 119–21, 123; public opinion, 94–95, 109, 119–24, 142, 195n17, 204n38, 204n46; and reputation, 93–96; scandals, 32, 107, 111, 119–21; and transparency, 111, 113, 119–21; and UNPOA, 12

Gerring, John, 170, 210n21

Gesetz über die Kontrolle von Kriegswaffen (KWKG), 203n25

Gilpin, Robert, 183n20

good international citizenship: and arms transfer policies, 87–88, 104, 148; concept of, 25; and Germany, 93; and human rights, 74; and reputation, 24, 28, 30, 150; and United Kingdom, 91

Goodliffe, Jay, 187n66

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 191n33

Goss, Kristin, 200n82

Gouteux, Jean-Paul, 125

Gowa, Joanne, 186n55

Graham, Mary, 186n47

Grieco, Joseph, 186n54

gross domestic product (GDP), 8, 167–68, 170, 175–78, 193n50

Groupe de recherche et d’information sur la paix et la sécurité (Research and Information Group on Peace and Security, Belgium), 206n71

Groupement industriel des armaments terrestres (GIAT, France), 77

Guay, Terrence, 196n25

Gulf War (1991), 57–58, 61, 71, 112, 114–19, 141. See also Iraq

Gun Free South Africa, 208n9

gun ownership (civilian): Brazil, 146–47; United States, 2, 82, 101–3, 132–33

Hafner-Burton, Emilie, 11, 210n19

Hawkins, Darren, 187n66

Hirshberg, Matthew, 33

Hoffmann, Stanley, 53

Hogendoorn, E. J., 133

honor, 21, 182–83n18

Houben, Marc, 199n71

Howells, Kim, 198n50

Human Rights Watch (HRW), 126, 206n64

human rights, 11, 41–42, 49, 52–56, 58–72, 90, 141–42; and ATT (Arms Trade Treaty), 2, 155; and democracy, 13, 170–71; genocide, 10, 62, 206n63; in IR (international relations) theory, 181n12; and reputation, 148; and scandals, 112; and security, 62–63; and small and major conventional weapons, 9–10; and statistical model, 167–69, 173–78. See also specific countries

human security: and arms transfer policies, 3, 5, 74, 83, 140; and ATT, 88–89, 156; and landmine ban, 60, 62–63

Human Security Centre, 169

Humphreys, Macartan, 210n21

hypocrisy costs, 4, 14, 17, 19, 30, 34, 116

identity: Brazil, 147; France, 97, 127; Germany, 95, 119, 121, 124, 204n30; national, 8, 14, 18–20, 25–27, 33–35, 71; person or social, 183n22; state, 18, 25, 90, 148, 183n21, 187–88n66; United States, 101

Ignatieff, Michael, 201n90

illicit arms trade, 9–10, 188n9; agreements on, 60, 73, 86, 88, 139, 159–62, 197n44; and Belgium, 99, 137; and France, 205n56; and United States, 100

image, 17–20, 25–29, 33, 35–36, 184n29

India, 107, 136, 194n1, 197n40, 197–98nn45–47

Ingebritsen, Christine, 183n21

Institute for Security Studies (South Africa), 208n9

instrumental use of norms, 4, 14, 17–18, 29, 42

International Action Network on Small Arms (IANSA), 208n9

International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), 62–63, 71, 75–76, 208n15. See also landmine ban

International Criminal Court, 102

international law, 13, 15, 23, 32, 35, 126, 182n13, 185n33; and Brazil, 147; and Switzerland, 182n15; and United States, 150–51, 200n81, 201n90

International Peace Information Service, 206n71

International Tracing Instrument, 87

Iran, 45, 88, 197n40, 197n45, 198n47, 209n1

Iran–Contra Affair (U.S., 1980s), 130–32, 201n4

Iraq: arms shipments to, 61, 114–19, 125, 130, 134–35, 141, 185n40; Gulf War (1991), 57–58, 61, 71, 112, 114–19, 141; Iraq War (2000s), 92

IR (international relations) theory, 5, 16–17, 19–23, 25, 37, 147–52, 181n12

Israel, 88, 111, 143–45, 191n28

Japan, 37, 49, 62, 191n33, 191n38

Jervis, Robert, 182n16

Johnston, Alastair Iain, 24, 28, 83–84, 181n8, 196n28

Joint Conference Church and Development (Gemeinsame Konferenz Kirche und Entwicklung), 120

Keohane, Robert, 22, 35, 40

Kissinger, Henry, 203n26

Klotz, Audie, 180n14

Kolling, Andrea, 204n43

Kolodziej, Edward, 76, 113

Krasner, Stephen, 151

Krznaric, Roman, 169

Kurds (Turkey), 9, 122, 204n44

Kwakwa, Edward, 208n14

Labour Party and government (UK): and arms control treaties, 78, 91, 93; and arms exports and industry, 78, 119, 192n39, 194n10; and NGOs, 118, 185n40; and scandal, transparency, and accountability, 113–15, 117–18, 197n35

landmine ban: and arms transfer policy and treaties, 62–63, 90, 98–99, 103, 109, 141, 153, 158–59; defense industry support for, 75–76; and human rights and security, 60, 62–63; NGO role, 35, 109, 158; and public pressure, 40

LaPierre, Wayne, 101, 200–201n84

League of Nations, 46, 49–51, 54

League of Nations Disarmament Conference (1934), 50–51, 157

Lebovic, James, 184n32

legitimacy, 7, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 25, 29, 30, 33, 150, 151

liberalism: domestic liberalism, 40–41, 72; neoliberalism, 38–40

licensing of arms exports: and Belgian regionalism, 80–81, 98–99, 134–35, 137; and transparency, 112–13, 115; treaty regulation of, 49–51, 158, 161, 207n72

licensing of arms production, 51, 122, 195n19

Liechtenstein, 191n38

Lynch, Cecelia, 180n14

Major, John, 115–16

major conventional weapons (MCW): data on, 46–48, 55–60, 65–71, 142, 163–66, 174–76; definition, 48; and human rights, 9, 48, 55–56, 58–59, 65–71, 142, 175–76, 193–94n55; and internal conflicts, 171; suppliers of, 12, 79, 146, 207n4; and treaties and conferences, 2, 9

Mali, 191n38, 192n44

Marsh, Nicholas, 166

Mason, Thomas, 200n84

Matrix Churchill Ltd. (UK), 115

Meese, Edwin, 205n59

Mercer, Jonathan, 21, 180n4, 184n32

Merkel, Angela, 121, 123–24

methodology, 10–15, 163–78; case selection, 11–13; control variables, 173–74; data sources and coding, 163–72; interviews, 171–72, 198n48; NGO classification, 202n21; scandal identification, 202n19; statistical model and analysis, 11, 173–78, 190n26

Middle East, 52, 70, 157–58, 170–71. See also specific countries

military aid, 190n24

military-industrial complex (MIC), 41, 76, 79, 82. See also defense industry

Missile Technology Control Regime (1987), 158

Mitterrand, François, 125, 199n66

Mitterrand, Jean-Christophe, 128

Mixter, Christian, 131

monitoring: importance of mechanisms for, 40, 64, 72, 105, 155, 165; and international arms trade, 31, 72, 105, 146, 149, 190n21, 191n33, 204n40; and peer review, 28; and scandal, 19; and transparency, 36

Monroe, Kristen, 183n21

Moose, Richard, 203n26

Moravcsik, Andrew, 76, 186n53

Moreno, Carola, 170, 210n21

moving-windows (moving-regression) analyses, 67

multilateralism, 93, 95, 97, 100–103

multimethod approach, 10

Munck, Gerardo, 180n13

Nassauer, Otfried, 121

National Accounts Main Aggregates Database, 170

National Rifle Association (NRA, U.S.), 101–3, 109, 132–33, 147, 153, 200–201n84

national security, 4, 6, 17–18, 39, 68–70, 144, 154–55, 186n53

national values, 32, 110–11, 137, 143, 186n52; and France, 127; and Germany, 122, 124

nation branding, 26, 181n6

Nepal, 123, 130, 135

Netherlands, 94, 97, 191n38

Network Vlaanderen (Flanders/Belgium), 206n71

New Lachaussee Company (Belgium), 137

Nicaragua, 130–31, 198n46

Nixon administration (U.S.), 52–53

Nolan, Janne, 191n34

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs): and accountability, 108–14;arms control advocacy, 9, 34–37, 63, 71, 138, 149; and arms control implementation and compliance, 18, 141–43, 152–53; in Belgium, 98–99, 111, 113, 133–34, 136–37, 206n71; in Brazil, 146–47; classification of in this study, 202n21; and conventional arms control, 35, 120; in France, 96–98, 124–29; in Germany, 95, 111, 119–23; in Israel, 144; landmine conference (1993), 158; and scandal, 7–8, 14–15, 34, 117–19; in South Africa, 145–47; in United Kingdom, 93; in United States, 101–3, 129–33

norm adoption, 4, 16–18, 30, 184, 208–9n16

normative obligation, 27; and arms transfer policy adoption and change, 6–7, 14, 45, 64, 74, 141; and arms transfer policy compliance, 41–42, 65, 142

norm cascades, 4, 13, 18, 91

norm diffusion, 4, 35, 147–51, 208n16

norm entrepreneurs, 4, 35, 148

norm internalization, 5, 7, 14–15, 17, 71, 150

norm leadership, 29, 35, 61, 148; Belgium, 98–99; France, 97–98; Germany, 94–95, 198n59; South Africa, 146; United Kingdom, 92–93, 114, 117; United States, 100, 150–51

norm socialization: conditions for, 183n23; investigation of, 4, 147; and policy adoption, 14, 16–17, 38, 149–50; and policy implementation and compliance, 85, 150, 187–88n66

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 121–22, 134, 187, 204n44

North Korea, 45, 197n45, 198n47, 209n1

Norton-Taylor, Richard, 116

Norway, 62, 164, 191n38

Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers (NISAT), 165–66, 188–89n10

nuclear weapons, 5, 108, 154

Nye Committee (U.S. Senate Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry), 50–51

oil production, 167–68, 170, 175–78

O’Neill, Barry, 182–83n18

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), 83; Document on Small Arms and Light Weapons (2000), 160; Istanbul Summit (1999), 160; Principles Governing Conventional Arms Transfers (1993), 158

Organization of American States (OAS): Convention Against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking of Firearms (1997), 159; Inter-American Convention on Transparency in Conventional Weapons Acquisitions (1999), 160; Landmine Resolution (1996), 158

Oslo Declaration (cluster munitions, 2007), 162

Ottawa Conference Towards a Global Ban on APL (1996), 159. See also landmine ban

Ottawa Mine Ban Treaty (1997), 62–63, 90, 98–99, 103, 141, 153, 159. See also landmine ban

Oxfam, 117, 119–20

Oxfam–Solidarity Belgium, 206n71

Pakistan, 88, 197n40

Panzeraffäre (Germany, 1992), 122

Pasqua, Charles, 128

Pasquarello, Thomas, 190n25

Peace and Security Program (University of Witwatersrand), 208n9

Pilkington, Colin, 115

Poindexter, John, 131

policy–practice gap: and accountability, 154; and Belgian regionalism, 137; and transparency, 31, 108, 123, 146, 184n30; weakness of theoretical explanations for, 11, 14, 42, 70, 72

political economy, 21–22

Political Terror Scale (PTS), 48, 55, 168–69, 210n16, 210n18

Polity IV data set, 170

Preparatory Committee meetings on SALW conference (2000–2001), 160

Presidential Decision Directive 34 (U.S., 1995), 191n34

Presidential Directive 13 (PD-13, U.S., 1977), 53–54

prestige, 25, 27, 46, 183n20, 186n53, 199n66

Protocol on the Control of Firearms, Ammunition, and Other Related Materials (Southern African Development Community, 2001), 160

public opinion, 6–8, 38, 40–43, 107–10, 186n52

Quilès Commission (France), 127

Reagan administration (U.S.), 54, 130–31, 191n34

realism, 37–39, 185n33

regime formation, 40, 147–51

regression analyses, 48, 55–56, 65–67, 174

religious institutions, 1, 120, 146

Relly, Jeannine, 186n50

Republican Party (U.S.), 100–101, 200n83

reputation: and commitment to arms control, 5, 14, 20–21, 30–31, 149–55, 182n13; and compliance, 7, 14, 15, 18, 19, 22–23, 30–31, 32, 34, 72, 110–12, 182n13; corporate, 181n6, 184n29; and credibility, 19–23; definitions of, 7, 19–21, 182n16, 182n18; and domestic politics, 5–7, 14–17, 19–20, 24, 32–37, 110–12, 148–49; and image, 17–20, 25–29, 33, 35–36; as international social incentive, 7–8, 13–14, 17–18, 23–31, 43, 148–55; and material gain, 19, 23, 25, 150, 196n30; personal and social, 183n22; and scandal, 17–19, 23–24, 32–37, 149; shaming, 8, 14, 19, 32, 34–35, 196n28, 208n16; and standing, 7, 17–18, 20, 25–30; theories of, 18–21, 23–25, 38, 147, 149, 180n1, 180n3, 180n5; and transparency, 17–19, 30–34, 182n13

Reus-Smit, Christian, 182n17

rhetorical entrapment, 14, 19, 30, 32, 34, 36, 149, 199n62

Richards, David L., 210n16

Ridgeway, Cecilia, 183n19

Ron, James, 11, 210n19

Roosevelt, Franklin, 189n16

Ruppelt, Wolfgang, 122

Russia: and ATT, 13, 88, 153, 188n2, 209n1; as major arms supplier, 179n7; and Syrian arms shipments, 139; and UNPOA, 197n40; and Zimbabwean arms embargo, 2

Rwanda affair (France), 124–29

Rwanda conflict and genocide, 9, 62, 124–28, 208n7

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, 191n38

Sarkozy, Nicolas, 97

Saudi Arabia, 78, 118, 120–21, 123, 134, 206n70, 207n77, 208n8

scandal: definitions of, 19, 32, 185nn37–38, 202n19; and democracy, 7–8, 24; NGO use of, 7–8, 14, 34, 36–37, 111–12, 138, 143; and policy compliance, 17–19, 32, 35, 106–8, 137–38, 140, 149; and public opinion, 15, 32–34, 36–37, 110–12, 143; and reputation, 17–19, 23–24, 32–37, 149; and transparency, 15, 19, 24, 32–33, 36, 138, 143. See also specific countries and scandals

Schelling, Thomas, 21

Scott, Richard, 115–17

September 11 (2001) attacks, 70, 102–3. See also terrorism

shaming, 8, 14, 19, 32, 34–35, 196n28, 208n16. See also reputation

“ship of shame” (China to Zimbabwe, 2008), 1

Sikkink, Kathryn, 4, 25, 187n64

Slovenia, 107, 191, 191n38

small arms and light weapons (SALW): data on, 46–48, 55–60, 65–70, 142, 163–67, 174, 177–78; definition, 48; and human rights, 9, 48, 55–56, 58–59, 65–70, 142, 177–78; and internal conflicts, 62, 171; suppliers of, 12, 146; and treaties and conferences, 2, 9–10, 86, 159–61

Small Arms Survey (SAS), 12, 145, 166, 188n7, 207n4, 209n9

Small Arms Working Group, Southern African Development Community (1998), 160

social benefits, 7–8, 14, 17–18, 23, 64, 74, 104, 148

social hierarchy, 27

social influence, 18, 20, 27–29, 196n28

socialization. See norm socialization

social status, 20, 25–27, 196n30

soft power, 27, 29, 104, 147, 183n20

South Africa, 1–2, 107, 111, 145–47, 190n21, 208n8

sovereignty, 5–6, 16, 39, 44–45, 48–50, 71, 141; and ATT, 25, 102, 155

Soviet Union, 51–54, 57, 100, 189n13, 191n28

Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (SPD), 122, 204n45

Spiegel, Daniel, 203n26

standing, 7, 17–18, 20, 25–30. See also reputation

Stavrianakis, Anna, 203n30

Steinmetz, Christopher, 121

St. Germain Convention for the Control of the Trade in Arms and Ammunition (1919), 49–50, 157

Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), 12, 48, 164–65, 193n47, 204n40, 209nn3–4, 209nn6–7

Stohl, Michael, 53–54

Stohl, Rachel, 101, 133, 200n79

Stoltenberg, Gerhard, 122

Stone, David, 189n15

strategic constructivism, 181n7. See also constructivism

Suez Crisis (1956), 52

supergun (Iraq), 134

Sweden, 107, 112, 164, 181n9, 188n4, 191n38, 201n5

Switzerland, 107, 164, 172, 182n15, 191n38

Syria: arms exports to, 2, 121, 139–40; and ATT, 45, 197n45, 198n47, 209n1

Tanzania, 137, 191n38, 207n77

terrorism, 92, 125, 130, 139–40, 204n44; September 11 attacks, 70, 102–3; war on terror, 6, 70, 103, 154, 193–94n55

Thacker, Strom, 170, 210n21

Thatcher, Margaret, 78, 116, 195n14

Thompson, John, 185n37

Tiananmen Square (1989), 9

Tomz, Michael, 181n6, 184n32

transparency: and accountability, 34–37, 141; and ATT implementation, 15, 152; conditions for, 186n52, 202n20; in defense industry, 203n23; definition, 36; growth of since Cold War, 35–36, 46–47, 58, 61, 63; and policy-practice gap, 31, 108, 123, 146, 184n30; and public opinion, 36–37, 43, 186n52; and reputation, 17–19, 30–34, 182n13; and scandal, 7, 24, 107–8, 110–14, 138, 143; in treaties and conferences, 158–60, 189n19. See also specific countries

Treaty of Rome (1957), 179n5

Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (1990), 158

Treaty on Open Skies (1992), 158

trend-indicator values (TIV), 164–65

Trinidad and Tobago, 191–92n38

Tripartite Declaration (1950), 52, 157

Turkey, 9, 120–23, 164, 188n6, 204n44, 207n77

UN Article 51, 3–6

UN Comtrade (customs) data, 47, 165

UN Disarmament Commission guidelines (1996), 159

UN Firearms Protocol (2005), 161

UN General Assembly: and ATT, 60, 87–89, 161–62, 188n3, 198n47; and reputation of states, 28, 84; and United States, 197n43

UN General Assembly landmine resolution (1996), 159. See also landmine ban

UN General Assembly Resolution 50/70B (1995), 158

UN General Assembly Resolution 54/54V (1997), 159

UN General Assembly Resolution A/61/394 to establish an ATT (2006), 161

UN Institute for Disarmament Research, 184n26

UN International Instrument to Enable States to Identify and Trace, in a Timely and Reliable Manner, Illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons (2005), 161

UN Panel of Governmental Experts on SALW (1996–1997), 159

UN Programme of Action on Small Arms (UNPOA), 6, 60, 73, 86–88, 91, 145, 184n26

UN Programme of Action on Small Arms (UNPOA) Review Conference (2006), 161

UN Register of Conventional Arms, 35, 46–47, 58, 61, 112–13, 158, 164

UN Security Council, 2, 57–58, 61, 100, 139, 158

UN small arms conference (2001), 69–70, 73–74, 86–87, 101, 160, 191n36, 200n84. See also UN Programme of Action on Small Arms (UNPOA)

UNGGE (United Nations Group of Governmental Experts), 62, 69, 87–88, 158–60, 162, 188n3

United Kingdom: and ATT, 45, 78, 191–92n38; defense industry, 77–78; and ethical foreign policy and good international citizenship, 91–93, 117, 192n39; and EU Code of Conduct, 12, 91; and foreign interventions, 187n56; as major arms supplier, 12, 179n7; and P5 arms transfer discussions (1991), 57; public opinion in, 109–10; and reputation, 91–93; scandals, 32, 61, 107, 111, 114–19, 185n40; and transparency, 111–14, 117; and UNPOA, 12

United States: and ATT, 12–13, 45, 82, 88, 151–53, 191–92n38, 207n3; Cold War arms control, 51–54; defense industry, 82; Department of State data, 48, 55, 169, 210n18; and exceptionalism, 102, 142, 201n86; and foreign interventions, 187n56; foreign policy, 201nn88–90; gun ownership laws and rights in, 2, 82, 101–3, 132–33; and human rights, 103, 188n1, 191n34; and landmine ban, 103, 153; as major arms supplier, 11–12, 179n7; and national security, 133; 1976 presidential elections, 52–53, 63, 202n15; Nye Committee and League of Nations Disarmament Conference (1934), 50–51; and Ottawa treaty, 153; and P5 arms transfer discussions (1991), 57; public opinion in, 109; and reputation, 90, 100–104; scandals, 32–33, 111, 129–33; and small arms control and UNPOA, 12, 73, 85, 101, 191n36, 200n84; and South African arms embargo, 190n21; and St. Germain Convention, 50; and Syrian arms shipments, 139; and transparency, 111, 114, 186n47, 188n4