Study Notes

1:1—2:25 This first section of Exodus forms a prologue to the book. It describes how God blesses the Israelites to the point where they become a threat to the Egyptians. Oppression follows, but God raises up a deliverer in the person of Moses. Thus the stage is set for the conflict with the pharaoh and for Israel’s redemption from Egypt.

1:1–5 These verses clearly indicate that Exodus was written as a continuation of Genesis. The Israelites lived in Egypt 430 years (12:40).

1:1 These are the names of. The same expression appears in Ge 46:8 at the head of a list of Jacob’s descendants. Israel . . . Jacob. Jacob had earlier been given the additional name Israel (see Ge 32:28; 35:10 and notes).

1:2–4 The sons of Leah (Reuben through Zebulun) and Rachel (Benjamin; Joseph is not mentioned because the list includes only those “who went to Egypt” with Jacob, v. 1) are listed in the order of their seniority and before the sons of Rachel’s and Leah’s female servants: Bilhah had Dan and Naphtali, Zilpah had Gad and Asher (Ge 35:23–26).

1:5 seventy. See note on Ge 46:27.

1:6–7 From the death of Joseph to the rise of a “new king” (v. 8) was more than 250 years.

1:7 The language of this verse echoes that of God’s benediction on humankind at the time of their creation (see Ge 1:28 and note). This benediction is renewed in the new beginning after the flood (see Ge 9:1 and note on 9:1–7) and subsequently becomes a centerpiece in the blessings promised and covenanted to Abraham (Ge 17:2, 6; 22:17), Isaac (Ge 26:4) and Jacob (Ge 28:14; 35:11; 48:4). God’s good intentions for humans when he created them were beginning to be realized in a special way in Israel’s history. See notes on 39:32; Nu 1:46. land. Goshen (see note on Ge 45:10).

1:8 See Ac 7:18. new king. Probably Ahmose (1550–1525), the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, who expelled the Hyksos (foreign—predominantly Semitic—rulers of Egypt). to whom Joseph meant nothing. He did not know or acknowledge the great blessing Joseph had been to Egypt many years before.

1:11 slave masters. The same official Egyptian designation appears on a wall painting in the Theban tomb of Rekhmire during the reign of the Eighteenth-Dynasty pharaoh Thutmose III (see Introduction: Chronology). oppress them with forced labor. See Ge 15:13. Rameses. See note on Ge 47:11. Pharaoh. The word, which is Egyptian in origin and means “great house,” is a royal title rather than a personal name.

1:14 made their lives bitter. A fact commemorated in the Passover meal, which was eaten “with bitter herbs” (12:8). all kinds of work in the fields. Including pumping the waters of the Nile into the fields to irrigate them (Dt 11:10).

1:15 Hebrew. See note on Ge 14:13. Shiphrah and Puah. Semitic, not Egyptian, names. Since the Israelites were so numerous, there were probably other midwives under Shiphrah and Puah.

1:16 delivery stool. A woman sat on this while giving birth (see photo). if . . . a boy, kill him. Boy babies are potential warriors and fathers.

1:17–21 The midwives disobeyed the pharaoh to obey God, resulting in God blessing them with families (v. 21).

1:17 See Ac 5:29 for a parallel in the early church. feared God. See note on Ge 20:11.

1:22 all his people. Failing to accomplish his purposes through the midwives, the pharaoh mobilized all the Egyptians to deal with the Israelite threat.

2:1 a man . . . a Levite woman. Perhaps Amram and Jochebed (but see note on 6:20).

2:2 a fine child. Moses was “no ordinary child” (Ac 7:20; Heb 11:23). The account of Moses’ remarkable deliverance in infancy foreshadows Israel’s deliverance from Egypt that God would later effect through him.

2:3 papyrus basket. Each of the two Hebrew words lying behind this phrase is of Egyptian origin. The word for “basket” is used only here and of Noah’s ark (see note on Ge 6:14). Moses’ basket was a miniature version of the large, seaworthy “papyrus boats” mentioned in Isa 18:2. reeds. A word of Egyptian derivation, reflected in the proper name Red Sea (see NIV text note on 10:19).

2:4 His sister. Miriam (15:20).

2:5 Pharaoh’s daughter. Perhaps the famous Eighteenth-Dynasty princess who later became Queen Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458). Throughout this early part of Exodus, all the pharaoh’s efforts to suppress Israel were thwarted by women: the midwives (1:17), the Israelite mothers (1:19), Moses’ mother and sister (vv. 3–4,7–9), the pharaoh’s daughter (here). The pharaoh’s impotence to destroy the people of God is thus ironically exposed.

2:10 he became her son. Thus “Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians” (Ac 7:22; see note there). The narrator here was not interested in describing what this involved. Instead, he cited in the following verses (11–12,13,16–17) three incidents that illustrated Moses’ character as a champion of justice. Moses. The name, of Egyptian origin, means “is born” and forms the second element in such pharaonic names as Ahmose (see note on 1:8), Thutmose and Rameses (see note on 1:11). drew him out. A Hebrew wordplay on the name Moses (see NIV text note), emphasizing his providential rescue from the Nile. Thus Moses’ name may also have served as a reminder of the great act of deliverance God worked through him at the Red Sea (13:17—14:31).

2:11–15 See Ac 7:23–29; Heb 11:24–27 and notes.

2:11 Moses had grown up. He was now 40 years old (Ac 7:23).

2:12 he killed the Egyptian. Although Moses may have had good motives, he had no human or divine authorization to do this.

2:14 Who made you ruler and judge . . . ? Unwittingly, the speaker made a prediction that would be fulfilled 40 years later (Ac 7:27, 30,35). The Hebrew word for “judge” could also refer to a deliverer, as in the book of Judges (Ac 7:35); it was often a synonym for “ruler” in the OT (see Ge 18:25 and note), as well as in ancient Canaanite usage. Moses was afraid. See note on Heb 11:27.

2:15 Pharaoh. Probably Thutmose II (1491–1479; see Introduction: Chronology). Midian. Named after one of Abraham’s younger sons (see Ge 25:2; see also note on Ge 37:25). Midian flanked the eastern arm of the Red Sea (Gulf of Aqaba) on both sides (see map). Dry and desolate, it formed a stark contrast to Moses’ former home in the royal court. He lived in Midian 40 years (Ac 7:29–30).

2:16 priest of Midian. Reuel (v. 18), which means “friend of God.” His other name, Jethro (3:1), may be a title meaning “his excellency.”

2:23–25 These verses turn the reader’s attention back to Israel’s miserable plight in Egypt. They show that God truly cares for his people and has not forgotten his covenant promises made to their ancestors. This sets the stage for God’s active intervention to bring about Israel’s deliverance. Four expressions refer to Israel’s suffering: “groaned,” “cried out,” “cry for help” (v. 23), “groaning” (v. 24); and four verbs describe God’s response: “heard,” “remembered” (v. 24), “looked on,” “was concerned about” (v. 25).

2:23 king of Egypt. Probably Thutmose II (see note on v. 15).

2:24 covenant with Abraham. See Ge 15:17–18; 17:7 and notes. with Isaac. See Ge 17:19; 26:24. with Jacob. See Ge 35:11–12.

3:1—18:27 The second main section of the book. It describes the deliverance of Israel from Egypt and includes the call of Moses, the plagues, the Passover, the exodus from Egypt, the crossing of the Red Sea and the journey to Sinai.

3:1 Like David (2Sa 7:8), Moses was called from tending the flock to be the shepherd of God’s people. Jethro. See note on 2:16. Horeb. Means “desert,” “desolation”; either (1) another name for Mount Sinai or (2) another high mountain in the same vicinity in the southeast region of the Sinai peninsula. Tradition identifies Mount Horeb with Ras es-Safsaf (“willow peak”), 6,500 feet high, and Mount Sinai with Jebel Musa (“mountain of Moses”), 7,400 feet high, but both identifications are uncertain (see article).

3:2 angel of the LORD. Used interchangeably with “the LORD” and “God” in v. 4 (see note on Ge 16:7). appeared to him in flames of fire. God’s revelation of himself and his will was often accompanied by fire (see 13:21; 19:18; Ge 15:17 and note; 1Ki 18:24,38).

3:4 Every true prophet was called by God (see, e.g., 1Sa 3:4; Isa 6:8; Jer 1:4–5; Eze 2:1–8; Hos 1:2; Am 7:15; Jnh 1:1–2; see also note on 7:1–2). Moses! Moses! . . . Here I am. See notes on Ge 22:1,11.

3:5 Take off your sandals. A sign of respect and humility in the ancient Near East (Jos 5:15). This practice is still followed by Muslims before entering a mosque. holy. The ground was not holy by nature but was made so by the divine presence (see, e.g., Ge 2:3). Holiness involves being consecrated to the Lord’s service and thus being separated from the commonplace.

3:6 See 2:24 and note. afraid to look at God. See notes on Ge 16:13; 32:30. Later, as the Lord’s servant, Moses would meet with God on Mount Sinai (19:3) and even ask to see God’s glory (33:18–20).

3:8 I have come down to rescue. God may also come down to judge (Ge 11:5–9; 18:21). land flowing with milk and honey. The traditional and proverbial description of the hill country of Canaan—in its original pastoral state, providing abundant grazing land for milk-producing sheep and goats. The Hebrew for “honey” refers to both bees’ honey and the sweet, syrupy juice of grapes or dates. For a description of the natural bounty of Canaan, see note on Ne 9:25. Canaanites . . . Jebusites. See notes on Ge 10:6, 15–16; 13:7. The list of the Canaanite nations ranges from two names (Ge 13:7) to five (Nu 13:29) to six (as here; see also Jdg 3:5) to ten (see Ge 15:19–21 and note) to twelve (Ge 10:15–18). The classic description includes seven names (see, e.g., Dt 7:1), seven being the number of completeness (see note on Ge 4:17–18).

3:10 Pharaoh. Probably Thutmose III (see Introduction: Chronology).

3:11 Moses’ first expression of reluctance, which is a recurring theme (see v. 13; 4:1,10,13 and notes).

3:12 I will be with you. See note on Ge 26:3. The Hebrew word translated “I will be” is the same as the one translated “I AM” in v. 14. sign. A visible proof or guarantee that what God had promised he would surely fulfill (see notes on 4:8; Ge 15:8).

3:13 Moses’ second expression of reluctance. What is his name? God had not yet identified himself to Moses by name (see v. 6; cf. Ge 17:1).

3:14 I AM WHO I AM. The name by which God wished to be known and worshiped in Israel—the name that expressed his character as the dependable and faithful God who desires the full trust of his people (see article; see also v. 12, where “I will be” is completed by “with you”; see also 34:5–7). I AM. The shortened form of the name is perhaps found also in Ps 50:21; Hos 1:9 (see NIV text notes there). Jesus applied the phrase to himself; in so doing he claimed to be God and risked being stoned for blasphemy (see Jn 8:58–59 and notes).

3:15 The LORD. The Hebrew for this name is Yahweh (often incorrectly spelled “Jehovah”; see article). It means “He is” or “He will be” and is the third-person form of the verb translated “I will be” in v. 12 and “I AM” in v. 14. When God speaks of himself he says, “I AM,” and when people speak of him they say, “He is.”

3:16 elders. The Hebrew for this word refers to men with sufficient age, wisdom, experience and influence to lead the people. As heads of local families and tribes, “elders” had a recognized position also among the Babylonians, Hittites, Egyptians (Ge 50:7), Moabites and Midianites (Nu 22:7). Their duties included judicial arbitration and sentencing (Dt 22:13–19), as well as military leadership (Jos 8:10) and counsel (1Sa 4:3).

3:18 Hebrews. See note on Ge 14:13. three-day journey. See note on Ge 22:4. wilderness. God had met with Moses there (vv. 1–2) and would meet with him there again (v. 12). to offer sacrifices. Entries in extant logs of Egyptian supervisors show that such a request was not exceptional.

3:20 wonders. A prediction of the plagues that God would send against Egypt (7:14—12:30).

3:21–22 See 11:2–3; 12:35–36.

3:21 when you leave you will not go empty-handed. God had promised Abraham that after the Israelites had served for 400 years they would “come out with great possessions” (Ge 15:14; see Ps 105:37). Israel was to live by the same principle of providing gifts to a released slave (Dt 15:12–15).

3:22 plunder the Egyptians. As if they had conquered them in battle (12:35–36).

4:1–17 Moses has already voiced two reasons for his reluctance to obey God’s call to rescue Israel from Egyptian bondage (see notes on 3:11,13). Here he states three more (vv. 1,10,13; see notes there). The Lord answers all three. Moses is now ready to return from Midian to Egypt (vv. 18–31).

4:1 Moses’ third expression of reluctance (in spite of God’s assurance in 3:18).

4:2 staff. Probably a shepherd’s crook.

4:3 snake. See 7:9–10 and note. Throughout much of Egypt’s history the pharaoh wore a cobra made of metal on the front of his headdress as a symbol of his sovereignty.

4:8 sign. A supernatural event or phenomenon designed to demonstrate authority, provide assurance (Jos 2:12–13), bear testimony (Isa 19:19–20), give warning (Nu 17:10) or encourage faith. See note on 3:12.

4:10 Moses’ fourth expression of reluctance. I am slow of speech and tongue. Not in the sense of a speech impediment (Ac 7:22). He complained, instead, of not being eloquent or quick-witted enough to respond to the pharaoh (6:12). Cf. the description of Paul in 2Co 10:10.

4:13 Moses’ fifth and final expression of reluctance (see note on 3:11).

4:14 the LORD’s anger burned against Moses. Although the Lord is “slow to anger” (34:6), he does not withhold his anger or punishment from his disobedient children forever (34:7). Levite. Under Aaron’s leadership Israel’s priesthood would come from the tribe of Levi.

4:15–16 See note on 7:1–2.

4:19 all those . . . are dead. Including Thutmose II (see 2:15,23; see also Introduction: Chronology).

4:20 sons. Gershom (2:22) and Eliezer. The latter, though unmentioned by name until 18:4, had already been born.

4:21 wonders. See note on 3:20. I will harden his heart. Nine times in Exodus the hardening of the pharaoh’s heart is ascribed to God (here; 7:3; 9:12; 10:1,20,27; 11:10; 14:4,8; see Jos 11:20; Ro 9:17–18 and notes); another nine times the pharaoh is said to have hardened his own heart (7:13–14,22; 8:15,19,32; 9:7,34–35). The pharaoh alone was the agent of the hardening in each of the first five plagues. Not until the sixth plague did God confirm the pharaoh’s willful action (9:12), as he had told Moses he would do (see similarly Ro 1:24–28).

4:22 firstborn son. A figure of speech indicating Israel’s special relationship with God (Jer 31:9; Hos 11:1).

4:23 kill your firstborn son. Anticipates the tenth plague (11:5; 12:12).

4:24 lodging place. Perhaps near water, where travelers could spend the night. the LORD . . . was about to kill him. Evidently because Moses had persistently disobeyed God’s command to circumcise his son (see Ge 17:9–14).

4:25 Zipporah . . . cut off her son’s foreskin. Sensing that divine displeasure had threatened Moses’ life, she quickly performed the circumcision on their young son. flint knife. Continued to be used for circumcision long after metal was introduced, probably because flint knives were sharper than the metal instruments available and thus more efficient for the surgical procedure (see Jos 5:2 and note). feet. Probably a euphemism for “genitals,” as in Dt 28:57 where the word is rendered “womb.”

4:26 bridegroom of blood. Circumcision may have been repulsive to Zipporah—though it was practiced for various reasons among many peoples of the ancient Near East.

4:27 kissed. See note on Ge 29:13.

4:30 Aaron told them everything the LORD had said to Moses. See note on 7:1–2.

5:1 Pharaoh. See note on 3:10.

5:3 See 3:18 and note. The reason for sacrificing where the Egyptians could not see them is given in 8:26 (see note on Ge 43:32).

5:6 slave drivers. Probably the same as the Egyptian “slave masters” in 1:11 (see note there). overseers. The appointment of these Israelite supervisors and their functions are indicated in vv. 14–16.

5:7 straw. Chopped and mixed with the clay as binder to make the bricks stronger. Canaanite Amarna letter 148.30–34 probably refers to the use of straw in making bricks. See photo.

5:9 lies. See 4:29–31. The pharaoh labels all hopes of a quick release for Israel as presumptuous and false.

5:10 This is what Pharaoh says. In opposition to “This is what the LORD says” (4:22; 5:1). The pharaoh is now set on a collision course with the God of Israel.

5:15 Israelite overseers . . . appealed to Pharaoh. During certain periods of Egyptian history slaves were permitted to appeal directly to the pharaoh, bypassing the ordinary chain of command. Egyptian records show that sometimes they were heard, but more often they were not.

5:18 quota of bricks. A leather scroll from the reign of Rameses II attests to quotas and to numbers of bricks made by workers for building projects.

5:21 May the LORD look on you and judge you! See Ge 16:5; 31:49 and notes. obnoxious. See note on 1Sa 13:4.

6:1 hand. Often used figuratively in the Bible for power.

6:2 I am the LORD. Appears four times in this passage: (1) to introduce the message; (2) to confirm God’s promise of redemption (v. 6) based on the evidence of vv. 2–5; (3) to underscore God’s intention to adopt Israel (v. 7); (4) to confirm his promise of the land and to conclude the message (v. 8).

6:3 God Almighty. See note on Ge 17:1. by my name the LORD I did not make myself fully known to them. See notes on 3:14–15. Although Genesis makes it clear that the patriarchs were not totally ignorant of the name Yahweh (“the LORD”), they did not understand its full implications as the name of the One who would redeem his people (see notes on v. 6; Ge 2:4). That fact could be comprehended only by the Israelites who were to experience the exodus, and by their descendants. known. This experiential sense of the verb “to know” is intended also in its repeated use throughout the account of the plagues (v. 7; 7:17; 8:10,22; 9:14,29; 10:2; 11:7) and in connection with the exodus itself (14:4,18; 16:6,8,12; 18:11).

6:5 remembered. See note on Ge 8:1.

6:6 I will bring you out . . . will free you . . . will redeem you. The verbs stress the true significance of the name Yahweh—“The LORD”—who is the Redeemer of his people (see note on v. 3). For “redeem,” cf. Ru 2:20; Isa 41:14 and notes. outstretched arm. Used figuratively of God’s display of his power in the redemption of his people (see Dt 4:34; 5:15; see also Isa 51:9–11 and note on 51:9). mighty acts of judgment. See 7:4. The Lord’s acts include redemption (for Israel) and judgment (against Egypt).

6:7–8 brought you out from . . . will bring you to. Redemption means not only release from slavery and suffering but also deliverance to freedom and joy.

6:7 I will take you as my own people, and I will be your God. Words that anticipate the covenant at Mount Sinai (see 19:5–6; see also Jer 31:33; Zec 8:8 and notes).

6:8 See Ge 22:15–17. swore with uplifted hand. See note on Ge 14:22.

6:12 I speak with faltering lips. See note on 4:10.

6:13 Moses and Aaron. The genealogy contained in vv. 14–25 gives details concerning the background of Moses and Aaron. It is included to establish their credentials and authority. Only the first three of Jacob’s 12 sons (Reuben, Simeon and Levi) are listed since Moses and Aaron were from the third tribe.

6:16 Merari. The name is of Egyptian origin, as are those of Putiel and Phinehas (v. 25) and of Moses himself (see note on 2:10). Levi lived 137 years. See vv. 18,20. In the OT, attention is usually called to a person’s life span only when it exceeds 100 years.

6:20 Amram . . . Aaron and Moses. There is some reason to believe that Amram and Jochebed were not the immediate parents but the ancestors of Aaron and Moses. Kohath, Amram’s father (v. 18), was born before Jacob’s (Israel’s) descent into Egypt (Ge 46:11), where the Israelites then stayed 430 years (12:40–41). Since Moses was 80 years old at the time of the exodus (7:7), he must have been born at least 350 years after Kohath, who consequently could not have been Moses’ grandfather (v. 18). Therefore Amram must not have been Moses’ father, and the Hebrew verb for “bore” would have the same meaning it sometimes has in Ge 10 (see NIV text note on Ge 10:8, where it is translated “was the father of”). Jochebed. The name appears to mean “The LORD is glory.” If so, it shows that the name Yahweh (here abbreviated as Jo-) was known before Moses was born (see note on v. 3). Aaron and Moses. Aaron, as the firstborn (7:7), is listed first in the official genealogy.

6:26 divisions. The Hebrew word may imply that Israel is to serve as the Lord’s army (also in 7:4; 12:17,41,51).

6:30 faltering lips. See v. 12 and note on 4:10.

7:1–2 As God transmits his word through his prophets to his people, so Moses will transmit God’s message through Aaron to the pharaoh. The prophet’s task was to speak God’s word on God’s behalf. He was God’s “mouth” (4:15–16).

7:3 harden. See note on 4:21. signs. See notes on 3:12; 4:8.

7:4 mighty acts of judgment. See note on 6:6.

7:7 Moses was eighty years old. See notes on 2:11,15.

7:9–10 snake. The Hebrew for this word is different from that used in 4:3 (see Ps 74:13, “monster”). A related Hebrew word (also translated “monster”) is used in Eze 29:3 as a designation for Egypt and her king, possibly functioning here as an indirect insult to the pharaoh.

7:11 wise men and . . . magicians. See note on Ge 41:8. According to tradition, two of the magicians who opposed Moses were named Jannes and Jambres (2Ti 3:8; the first is also mentioned in the pre-Christian Dead Sea Scrolls). the Egyptian magicians also did the same things by their secret arts. Either through sleight of hand or by means of demonic power.

7:12 Aaron’s staff swallowed up their staffs. Demonstrating God’s mastery over the pharaoh and the gods of Egypt.

7:13 heart became hard. A hardened heart refers to a stubborn refusal to take God and his word seriously (see also note on 4:21).

7:14—10:29 The first nine plagues can be divided into three groups of three plagues each: 7:14—8:19; 8:20—9:12; 9:13—10:29. The first plague in each group (the first, the fourth and the seventh) is introduced by a warning delivered to the pharaoh in the morning as he went out to the Nile (v. 15; 8:20; 9:13). Each of the three groups of plagues seems to be directed against one or more of the chief gods of Egypt (see notes on 7:20; 9:3; 10:21).

7:17 my. Moses’. the water of the Nile . . . will be changed into blood. See Ps 78:44; 105:29. Some interpreters believe that the first nine plagues may have been a series of unprecedented intensifications of events that were part of the Egyptian experience, events that in their more usual form did not have anything like the catastrophic effects of the disasters God brought on Egypt in order to deliver the Israelites from Egyptian imperial bondage. If that was the case, the first plague may have resulted from an unparalleled quantity of red sediment being washed down from Ethiopia during the annual flooding of the Nile in late summer and early fall, causing the water of Egypt’s lifeline to become as red as blood (see v. 24; cf. the incident in 2Ki 3:22–23).

7:19 your staff. Aaron was acting on Moses’ behalf (v. 17). in vessels of wood and stone. Or “in/on the wooden things and in/on the stone things” (see NIV text note). Some think that since the Egyptians believed that their gods inhabited idols and images made of wood, clay and stone (Dt 29:16–17), the plague may have been intended as a rebuke to their religion (12:12).

7:20 Nile. Egypt’s dependence on the life-sustaining waters of the Nile led to its deification as the god Hapi, for whom hymns of adoration were composed. See note on v. 19.

7:24 dug along the Nile to get drinking water. Filtered through sandy soil near the river bank, the polluted water would become safe for drinking.

8:2 I will send a plague of frogs. The frog (or toad) was deified in the goddess Heqt, who assisted women in childbirth.

8:3 come up. The frogs abandoned the Nile and swarmed over the land (see photo), perhaps because an unusually high concentration of bacteria-laden algae had by now proved fatal to most of the fish, thus polluting the river.

8:13 the LORD did what Moses asked. For similar occurrences, see v. 31; 1Sa 12:18; 1Ki 18:42–45; Am 7:1–6. The frogs died. Perhaps because they had been infected by bacteria in the Nile algae (see note on v. 3).

8:15 hardened his heart. See note on 7:13.

8:16 dust will become gnats. The word “dust” is perhaps a reference to the enormous number (see, e.g., Ge 13:16) of the gnats, bred in the flooded fields of Egypt in late autumn.

8:18 they could not. The Lord has allowed the magicians to imitate some of the plagues (7:22; 8:7), but here he draws the line.

8:19 finger of God. A concise and colorful figure of speech referring to God’s miraculous power (31:18; Ps 8:3). Jesus drove out demons “by the finger of God” (Lk 11:20). Cf. the similar use of the phrase “hand of the LORD” in 9:3 and “arm of the LORD” in Isa 51:9 (see note there).

8:20 as he goes to the river. To the Nile. Perhaps the pharaoh went there (1) to worship at a shrine or (2) to bathe, as the princess had done in 2:5 (see also 7:15). The specific purpose remains uncertain.

8:21 I will send swarms of flies. They probably would have multiplied rapidly as the receding Nile left breeding places in its wake. Full-grown, such flies infest houses and stables and bite people and animals.

8:22 I will deal differently. See 33:16. God makes a “distinction” (v. 23) between his people and the pharaoh’s people in this plague as well as in the fifth (9:4,6), the seventh (9:26), the ninth (10:23) and the tenth (11:7)—and probably also the sixth and eighth (9:11; 10:6)—demonstrating that the Lord can preserve his own people while judging Egypt. Goshen. See Ge 45:10 and note.

8:23 sign. See 4:8 and note.

8:26 detestable to the Egyptians. See Ge 46:34; see also Ge 43:32 and note.

8:31 the LORD did what Moses asked. See note on v. 13.

9:3 hand of the LORD. See note on 8:19. terrible plague on your livestock. The flies of the fourth plague (see note on 8:21) possibly carried the bacteria (see note on 8:13) that would now infect the animals, which had been brought into the fields again as the floodwaters subsided. The Egyptians worshiped many animals and animal-headed deities, including the bull-gods Apis and Mnevis, the cow-god Hathor and the ram-god Khnum. Thus Egyptian religion is again rebuked and ridiculed (see note on 7:19). camels. See note on Ge 12:16.

9:4 distinction. See note on 8:22.

9:5 Tomorrow. To give those Egyptians who feared God time to bring their livestock in from the fields and out of danger (see also v. 20)—mercy in the midst of judgment.

9:6 All the livestock of the Egyptians died. That is, all that were left out in the fields. Protected livestock remained alive (vv. 19–21).

9:8 Take . . . soot . . . toss it into the air. Perhaps symbolizing either the widespread extent of the plague of boils or their black coloration. furnace. Possibly a kiln for firing bricks, the symbol of Israel’s bondage (1:14; 5:7–19). The same word is used in Ge 19:28 as a simile for the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

9:9 boils. Possibly skin anthrax (a variety of the plague that struck the livestock in vv. 1–7), a black, burning abscess that develops into a pustule. people and animals. The plague on the livestock now extended to other animals, as well as to the people of Egypt.

9:11 magicians could not stand. The “boils of Egypt” (Dt 28:27) seriously affected the knees and legs (Dt 28:35).

9:12 the LORD hardened Pharaoh’s heart. See note on 4:21.

9:16 Paul quotes this verse as an outstanding illustration of the sovereignty of God (Ro 9:17).

9:18 I will send . . . hailstorm. The flooding of the Nile (the possible occasion of the first six plagues) came to an end late in the fall. The hailstorm is thus in the proper chronological position, taking place in January or February when the flax and barley were in flower but the wheat and spelt had not yet germinated (vv. 31–32).

9:19–21 See note on v. 6.

9:19 An example of God’s compassion. Even in judgment he allows for the protection of both humans and animals (see also note on Jnh 4:11).

9:27 This time I have sinned. For the first time the pharaoh acknowledges his sinfulness and perceives its devastating results.

9:29 spread out my hands. See 1Ki 8:22, 38,54; 2Ch 6:12–13,29; Ezr 9:5; Ps 44:20; 88:9; 143:6; Isa 1:15; 1Ti 2:8. Statues of men praying with hands upraised have been found by archaeologists at several ancient sites in the Middle East (see photo below).

9:30 LORD God. See note on Ge 2:4.

9:31–32 See note on v. 18.

9:32 spelt. Grains of spelt, a member of the grass family allied to wheat, have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. Although inferior to wheat, it grows well in poorer and drier soil.

10:2 tell your children. The memory of God’s redemptive acts is to be kept alive in this way (12:26–27; 13:8,14–15; Dt 4:9; Ps 77:11–20; 78:4–6, 43–53; 105:26–38; 106:7–12; 114:1–3; 135:8–9; 136:10–15).

10:4 I will bring locusts. This was God’s action, even if he used natural events and greatly intensified them (v. 14). In March or April the prevailing east winds (v. 13) would sometimes bring in hordes of migratory locusts. Fifty million of them could occupy less than half a square mile and devour as much as 100,000 tons of vegetation in a single night. Such locust plagues were greatly feared in ancient times and became a powerful symbol of divine judgment (see Joel 1:4–7; 2:1–11; Am 7:1–3; see also photo).

10:7 How long . . . ? The pharaoh’s officials ironically echo the phrase used by Moses in v. 3. Egypt is ruined. Human rebellion and disobedience always bring death and destruction in their wake.

10:10 The LORD be with you. This may be irony (see NIV text note on “Clearly you are bent on evil”).

10:11 Have only the men go. From the pharaoh’s standpoint, (1) women and children should remain behind as hostages, and (2) it was typically only men who participated fully in worship.

10:13 east wind. See note on v. 4.

10:19 the LORD changed the wind. He used the forces of his own creation to carry out his historical purpose and sovereign will (see v. 4; 14:21; Ps 104:4 and notes; cf. Mt 8:23–27). Red Sea. See NIV text note.

10:21 darkness spreads over Egypt. Like the third and sixth plagues, this ninth plague was unannounced to the pharaoh. It was possibly caused by the arrival of an unusually severe khamsin, the blinding sandstorm that blows in from the desert each year in the early spring. The darkness was an insult to the sun-god Ra (or Re), one of the chief deities of Egypt.

10:28 The pharaoh declares that he will never again grant Moses an audience. The day you see my face. During a plague of darkness, these words are somewhat ironic.

11:1 and when he does. The Hebrew for this phrase can also be read “as one sends away [a bride]”—i.e., laden with gifts (Ge 24:53).

11:2–3 See 3:21–22; 12:35–36.

11:4 Moses said. Continuing the speech of 10:29.

11:5 Every firstborn son in Egypt will die. See Ps 78:51; 105:36; 135:8; 136:10. This is the ultimate disaster, since all the plans and dreams of a father were bound up in his firstborn son, who received a double share of the family estate when the father died (see Dt 21:17 and note). Moreover, judgment on the firstborn represented judgment on the entire community. female slave, who is at her hand mill. The lowliest of occupations (see 12:29 and note; Isa 47:2).

11:7 distinction. See note on 8:22.

11:8 Moses, hot with anger. Moses’ announcement of the death of the pharaoh’s firstborn son is the Lord’s response to the death threat to his servant Moses (10:28).

12:2 This month is . . . the first month. The inauguration of the religious calendar in Israel (see chart). In the ancient Near East, new year festivals normally coincided with the new season of life in nature. The designation of this month as Israel’s religious New Year reminded Israel that its life as the people of God was grounded in God’s redemptive act in the exodus. The Canaanite name for this month was Aviv (13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Dt 16:1), which means “young head of grain.” Later the Babylonian name Nisan was used (Ne 2:1; Est 3:7). Israel’s agricultural calendar began in the fall (see note on 23:16), and during the monarchy it dominated the nation’s civil calendar. Both calendars (civil and religious) existed side by side until after the exile. Judaism today uses only the calendar that begins in the fall.

12:5 animals . . . without defect. See Lev 22:18–25. These animals were of great value (2Sa 24:24). Similarly, Jesus was like “a lamb without blemish or defect” (see 1Pe 1:18–19 and note on 1:18).

12:6 at twilight. May mean either (1) between the decline of the sun and sunset, or (2) between sunset and nightfall—which has given rise to disputes about when the Sabbath and other holy days begin.

12:7 blood. Symbolizes a sacrifice offered as a substitute, one life laid down for another (see Ge 9:4–6; 22:13; Lev 17:11 and notes). Thus Israel escapes the judgment about to fall on Egypt only through the mediation of a sacrifice (Heb 9:22; 1Jn 1:7).

12:8 bitter herbs. Endive, chicory and other bitter-tasting plants are indigenous to Egypt. Eating them would recall the bitter years of servitude there (see 1:14 and note). bread made without yeast. Reflecting the haste with which the people left Egypt (see vv. 11,39; Dt 16:3; see also note on Ge 19:3).

12:9 roast it . . . head, legs and internal organs. The method wandering shepherds used to cook meat.

12:11 Passover. Explained in vv. 13,23,27 to mean that the Lord would “pass over” and not destroy the occupants of houses that were under the sign of the blood.

12:12 judgment on all the gods of Egypt. Some had already been judged (see notes on 7:19; 8:2; 9:3; 10:21), and now all would be: (1) They would be shown to be powerless to deliver from the impending slaughter, and (2) many animals sacred to the gods would be killed.

12:13 sign. Just as the plagues were miraculous signs of judgment on the pharaoh and his people (see 4:8 and note; 8:23), so the Lord’s “passing over” the Israelites who placed themselves under the sign of blood was a pledge of God’s mercy.

12:14 celebrate it as . . . a lasting ordinance. Frequent references to Passover observance occur in the rest of Scripture (Nu 9:1–5; Jos 5:10; 2Ki 23:21–23; 2Ch 30:1–27; 35:1–19; Ezr 6:19–22; Lk 2:41–43; Jn 2:13, 23; 6:4; 11:55—12:1). The ordinance is still kept by observant Jews today.

12:15 remove the yeast from your houses. Yeast later was often used as a symbol of sin, such as “hypocrisy” (Lk 12:1; cf. Mk 8:15 and note) or “malice and wickedness” (1Co 5:8; see note there). Before celebrating Passover, observant Jews today conduct a systematic (often symbolic) search of their house to remove every crumb of leavened bread that might be there (v. 19). cut off from Israel. Removed from the covenant people by execution (see, e.g., 31:14; Lev 20:2–3) or banishment. See also Ge 17:14 and note.

12:17 Festival of Unleavened Bread. Began with the Passover meal and continued for seven days (see vv. 18–19; see also Mk 14:12 and note). divisions. See note on 6:26.

12:21 Passover lamb. Christ (the Messiah) is “our Passover lamb” (1Co 5:7), sacrificed “once for all” (Heb 7:27) for us.

12:22 hyssop. Here probably refers to an aromatic plant (Origanum maru) of the mint family with a straight stalk (Jn 19:29) and white flowers (see photo). The hairy surface of its leaves and branches held liquids well and made it suitable as a sprinkling device for use in purification rituals (see Lev 14:4, 6,49,51–52; Nu 19:6,18; Heb 9:19; see also Ps 51:7). dip it into the blood. Today at Passover meals a sprig of parsley or other plant is dipped in salt water to symbolize the lowly diet and tears of the Israelites during their time of slavery.

12:23 pass over. See note on v. 11. the destroyer. In Ps 78:49 the agent of God’s wrath against the Egyptians is described as a band of destroying angels. God often used angels to bring destructive plagues (see 2Sa 24:15–16; 2Ki 19:35; see also 1Co 10:10, a reference to Nu 16:41–49).

12:26 your children ask you, ‘What does this ceremony mean to you?’ See 13:14. The Passover was to be observed as a memorial festival commemorating Israel’s redemption and appropriating it anew. As observed today, it includes the asking of similar questions by the youngest child present.

12:27 Passover sacrifice. See note on v. 21. passed over. See note on v. 11.

12:29 prisoner, who was in the dungeon. The lowliest of situations (see note on 11:5).

12:30 not a house without someone dead. Hyperbole. The reference is limited to houses with firstborn people or animals.

12:31 Pharaoh summoned Moses. Though he had sworn never again to grant Moses an audience (see 10:28 and note), the pharaoh now humbles himself by summoning Moses and Aaron into his presence. Yet immediately he has the nerve to request a blessing (v. 32)!

12:35–36 See 3:21–22; 11:2–3.

12:36 plundered the Egyptians. See note on 3:22.

12:37 journeyed from Rameses. See 1:11; see also note on Ge 47:11. The Israelite departure took place “the day after the Passover” (Nu 33:3). Rameses . . . Sukkoth. See map. about six hundred thousand men. A round number for 603,550 (38:26; see article; see also Nu 1:46 and note).

12:38 Many other people. Possibly including such Egyptians as those mentioned in 9:20.

12:41 430 years. See notes on Ge 15:13; Ac 7:6.

12:44 See Ge 17:12–13 and note on 17:10.

12:46 Do not break any of the bones. See Nu 9:12; Ps 34:20; quoted in Jn 19:36 in reference to Jesus.

12:48 No uncircumcised male may eat it. Only those consecrated to the Lord in covenant commitment could partake of Passover; only for them could it have its full meaning (Ge 17:9–14). Concerning participants in the Lord’s Supper, see 1Co 11:27–30.

13:2 Consecrate to me every firstborn male. God had adopted Israel as his firstborn (4:22) and had delivered every firstborn among the Israelites, whether human or animal, from the tenth plague (12:12–13). All the firstborn in Israel were therefore his. Jesus, Mary’s firstborn son (Lk 2:7), was presented to the Lord in accordance with this law (Lk 2:22–23).

13:5 See note on 3:8.

13:9 like a sign on your hand and a reminder on your forehead. A figure of speech (see v. 16; Dt 6:8; 11:18; see also Pr 3:3; 6:21; 7:3; SS 8:6). A non-figurative reading of this verse has led to the practice of writing the texts of vv. 1–10, vv. 11–16, Dt 6:4–9 and Dt 11:13–21 on separate strips of parchment and placing them in two small leather boxes, which the observant Jew then straps on his forehead and left arm before his morning prayers. The boxes are called “phylacteries” (Mt 23:5). This practice seems to have originated after the exile to Babylonia.

13:13 Redeem. Obtain release by means of payment (see 6:6 and note; cf. Ro 3:24 and note). every firstborn donkey. The economic importance of pack animals allowed for their redemption through sacrificing a lamb. break its neck. Since donkeys were not sacrificial animals, their blood was not to be shed. every firstborn among your sons. Humans were to be consecrated to the Lord by their life, not by their death (see Ge 22:12; Nu 3:39–51; cf. Ro 12:1 and note).

13:14 See note on 12:26.

13:16 See note on v. 9.

13:17 road through the Philistine country. Although the most direct route from Goshen to Canaan, it was heavily guarded by a string of Egyptian fortresses.

13:18 desert road. Leading south along the west coast of the Sinai peninsula. Red Sea. See NIV text note. Various locations of the crossing have been proposed along the line of the modern Suez Canal and including the northern end of the Gulf of Suez (see note on 14:2). ready for battle. Probably armed only with spears, bows and slings.

13:19 See notes on Ge 50:24–25.

13:21 pillar of cloud . . . pillar of fire. The visible symbol of God’s presence among his people (see 14:24; see also note on 3:2), from which he often spoke to them (Nu 12:5–6; Dt 31:15–16; Ps 99:6–7).

14:2 turn back. Northward, in the general direction from which they had come. Pi Hahiroth. Located “east of Baal Zephon” (Nu 33:7). Migdol. Location uncertain, perhaps near Lake Balah (see map). The name means “watchtower.” sea. The sea that the NIV, in accordance with established tradition, calls the Red Sea—in Hebrew Yam Suph, i.e., Sea of Reeds (see 13:18 and NIV text note). Reference can hardly be to the northern end of the Gulf of Suez since reeds do not grow in salt water. Moreover, an Egyptian papyrus seems to locate Baal Zephon in the vicinity of Tahpanhes (see note on Jer 2:16), a site near Lake Menzaleh about 20 miles east of Rameses. The crossing of the Red Sea thus may have occurred at the southern end of Lake Menzaleh (see map; but see note on 13:18). However, more recent investigation points toward Lake Balah (see map). Baal Zephon. Means “Baal of the north” or “Baal of North (Mountain)”—also the name of a Canaanite god.

14:4 harden. See v. 8 and note on 4:21. know that I am the LORD. See note on 6:3.

14:7 chariots. Introduced into Egypt from Canaan, they brought about a revolutionary change in the art of warfare. Where the terrain was open and relatively flat, as much of Egypt was, they were especially effective.

14:8 hardened. See v. 4 and note.

14:14 The LORD will fight for you. A necessary reminder that although Israel was “ready for battle” (13:18) and “marching out boldly” (v. 8), the victory would be won by God alone.

14:19 angel of God. See note on Ge 16:7; here associated with the cloud (13:21).

14:20 coming between the armies of Egypt and Israel. The pillar of cloud (signifying the Lord’s presence) protected Israel (see Ps 105:39 and note).

14:21 strong east wind. See 10:13. In 15:8 the poet praises the Lord and calls the wind the “blast of your nostrils,” affirming (as here) that the miracle occurred in accordance with God’s timing and under his direction (15:10).

14:22,29 In later times, psalmists and prophets reminded Israel of what God had done for them (Ps 66:6; 106:9; 136:13–14; Isa 51:10; 63:11–13). The waters were “piled up” (15:8) on both sides.

14:24 last watch of the night. Often the time for surprise attack (see Jos 10:9; 1Sa 11:11 and note). the LORD looked down. See note on 13:21.

14:25 The LORD is fighting for them. See note on v. 14.

14:27 the LORD swept them into the sea. As he had done with the locusts of the eighth plague (10:19).

14:31 feared the LORD. See note on Ge 20:11. put their trust in him and in Moses. Faith in God’s mighty power and confidence in Moses’ leadership (cf. 1Sa 12:18 and note). his servant. Here refers to one who has the status of a high official in the Lord’s kingly administration (see notes on Nu 12:6–8; Dt 34:5). See also the same title applied to Joshua (Jos 24:29), Samuel (1Sa 3:10), David (2Sa 3:18) and Elijah (2Ki 9:36).

15:1–18 A hymn celebrating God’s spectacular victory over the pharaoh and his army. The focus of the song is God himself (see v. 11 and note); the divine name Yahweh (“the LORD”) appears ten times. The first two stanzas (vv. 2–6, 7–11) retell the story of the “deliverance” (14:13) at the Red Sea, and the final stanza (vv. 12–17) anticipates the future approach to and conquest of Canaan (the promised land).

15:1 I will sing . . . into the sea. Together with v. 18, this opening couplet frames the song and highlights its dominant theme of God’s rule. I will sing. A common way to begin a hymn of praise (Jdg 5:3; Ps 89:1; 101:1; 108:1).

15:2–6 The Lord’s victory over the pharaoh was decisive.

15:2 The first half of the verse is echoed in Ps 118:14 (Isa 12:2).

15:3 The LORD is a warrior. See note on 14:14. God is often pictured as a king leading his people into battle (see, e.g., Dt 1:30; Jdg 4:14; 2Sa 5:24; 2Ch 20:17–18).

15:4 officers. See note on 14:7.

15:5 deep waters . . . covered them. See vv. 8,10. sank . . . like a stone. See vv. 10,16. Babylon is similarly described in Jer 51:63–64.

15:6 right hand. See Isa 41:10 and note.

15:7–8 The Lord’s overwhelming victory marks him as incomparable among the gods.

15:8 See note on 14:22. blast of your nostrils. See note on 14:21; see also Ps 18:15.

15:10 you blew with your breath. See note on 14:21. sank like lead. Cf. vv. 5,8,16.

15:11 Who is like you . . . ? See Ps 35:10; 71:19; 89:6; 113:5; Mic 7:18 and note. The Lord, who tolerates no rivals (see 20:3 and note), has defeated the gods of Egypt and their worshipers.

15:12–17 The Lord’s victorious right hand (= power) will surely establish his people in the promised land.

15:12 earth. Perhaps refers to Sheol or the grave (Ps 63:9; 71:20), the “realm of the dead below” (Dt 32:22), since it was the sea that swallowed the Egyptians.

15:13 unfailing love. See note on Ps 6:4. people you have redeemed. See note on 6:6. your holy dwelling. Perhaps a reference to the house of worship at Shiloh (Jer 7:12), and ultimately the temple on Mount Zion (Ps 76:2), the “place” God would “choose” (Dt 12:14, 18,26; 14:25; 16:7,15–16; 17:8,10; 18:6; 31:11) to put “his Name” (Dt 12:5, 11,21; 14:23–24; 16:2,6,11; 26:2). But the phrase may refer to the promised land, which is called “your dwelling” and “the sanctuary . . . your hands established” in v. 17. holy. See note on 3:5.

15:14–15 Philistia . . . Edom . . . Moab . . . Canaan. Israel’s potential enemies. The order is roughly that along the route Israel would follow from Mount Sinai to the promised land.

15:15 chiefs. The term used earlier of the Edomite rulers (Ge 36:15–19, 21,29–30,40,43).

15:16 dread will fall on them. See note on 1Ch 14:17. bought. See NIV text note; see also Dt 32:6 and NIV text note. In Ps 74:2 the meaning “bought” or “purchased” is found in context with “redeemed” (see note on 13:13).

15:17 inheritance. The promised land (1Sa 26:19; Ps 79:1).

15:18 See note on v. 1.

15:20 prophet. See Nu 12:1–2 for a statement by Miriam concerning her prophetic gift (see also note on 7:1–2). Other female prophets in the Bible were Deborah (Jdg 4:4), Isaiah’s wife (Isa 8:3, but see note there), Huldah (2Ki 22:14), Noadiah (Ne 6:14), Anna (see note on Lk 2:36) and Philip’s daughters (Ac 21:9). women followed her, with timbrels and dancing. Such celebration was common after victory in battle (1Sa 18:6; 2Sa 1:20).

15:21 Miriam repeats the first four lines of the victory hymn (v. 1), changing only the form of the first verb.

15:22—18:27 The story of Israel’s journey from the Red Sea to Mount Sinai (see Introduction: Outline).

15:22 Desert of Shur. Located east of Egypt (Ge 25:18; 1Sa 15:7) in the northwestern part of the Sinai peninsula. In Nu 33:8 it is called the “Desert of Etham.” Shur and Etham both mean “fortress wall” (Shur in Hebrew, Etham in Egyptian).

15:23 Marah. Probably modern Ain Hawarah, inland from the western arm of the Red Sea, about 50 miles south of its northern end.

15:24 grumbled. During their wilderness wanderings, the Israelites grumbled against Moses and Aaron whenever they faced a crisis (16:2; 17:3; Nu 14:2; 16:11,41). In reality, however, they were grumbling “against the LORD” (16:8). Paul warns believers not to follow their example (1Co 10:10–11).

15:25 He threw it into the water, and the water became fit to drink. For a similar occurrence see 2Ki 2:19–22. a ruling and instruction. Technical terms presumably referring to what follows in v. 26. put them to the test. See note on Ge 22:1. God tested Israel also in connection with his provision of manna (16:4; Dt 8:2–3) and the giving of the Ten Commandments (20:20).

15:26 diseases I brought on the Egyptians. Probably refers to the plagues (see notes on Dt 7:15; 28:60).

15:27 Elim. Seven miles south of Ain Hawarah (see note on v. 23) in the well-watered valley of Gharandel. palm trees. Elim means “large trees.”

16:1 from Elim . . . to the Desert of Sin. See map; see also Nu 33:10–11. The Desert of Sin was in southwestern Sinai (“Sin” is probably derived from “Sinai”). fifteenth day of the second month. Exactly one month had passed since Israel’s exodus from Egypt (12:2,6,29,31).

16:2 grumbled. See note on 15:24.

16:3 meat. Nu 11:5 lists additional items of food from Egypt that the Israelites craved.

16:4 bread from heaven. That the God of Israel could provide food in the wilderness for his people for 40 years was one of the great signs that Israel’s God was the true God, the Lord of creation (see note on v. 31; see also Nu 11:9). Jesus called himself “the true bread from heaven” (Jn 6:32; see notes on 6:31–33; see also Nu 11:7), “the bread of God” (Jn 6:33), “the bread of life” (Jn 6:35,48), “the living bread that came down from heaven” (Jn 6:51)—all in the spiritual sense (Jn 6:63). For a similar application, see Dt 8:3 and Jesus’ quotation of it in Mt 4:4. go out each day and gather enough for that day. Probably the background for Jesus’ model petition in Mt 6:11; Lk 11:3. test. See notes on 15:25; Ge 22:1.

16:5 sixth day . . . twice as much as they gather on the other days. To provide for “the seventh day, the Sabbath” (v. 26), “a day of sabbath rest” (v. 23). See v. 29.

16:6 know. See note on 6:3.

16:8 meat . . . in the evening and . . . bread . . . in the morning. See vv. 13–14.

16:10 glory of the LORD appearing in the cloud. See 24:15–17; see also notes on 13:21; 40:34; Ps 26:8.

16:12 twilight. See note on 12:6.

16:13 quail came. For a similar incident, see Nu 11:31–33.

16:14 thin flakes like frost. See note on v. 31.

16:15 What is it? See v. 31 and NIV text note; see also article.

16:18 See 2Co 8:15, where Paul quotes the heart of the verse to describe Christians who share with each other what they possess.

16:23 sabbath. The first occurrence of the word itself, though the principle of the seventh day as a day of rest and holiness is set forth in the account of creation (see note on Ge 2:3).

16:29 See note on v. 5.

16:33 jar. Said in Heb 9:4 to be made of gold.

16:34 covenant law. Anticipates the later description of the tablets containing the Ten Commandments as the “two tablets of the covenant law” (31:18; 32:15; 34:29), which gave their name to the “ark of the covenant law” (25:22; 26:33) in which they were placed (25:16,21), along with the jar of manna (see Heb 9:4; see also Rev 2:17 and note).

16:35 ate manna forty years . . . until they reached . . . Canaan. The manna stopped at the time the Israelites celebrated their first Passover in Canaan (Jos 5:10–12).

17:1 traveling from place to place. For a list of specific sites, see Nu 33:12–14. Rephidim. Probably either the Wadi Refayid or the Wadi Feiran, both near Jebel Musa (see note on 3:1) in southern Sinai.

17:2 put the LORD to the test. Israel fails the Lord’s testing (16:4) by putting the Lord to the test.

17:3 grumbled. See note on 15:24.

17:4 these people. The same note of distance and alienation (“these people” instead of “my people”) in such situations (see also the interplay in 32:7,9–11; 33:13) is found often in the prophets (see, e.g., Isa 6:9–10 and note; Hag 1:2).

17:6 I will stand there . . . by the rock. Paul may have had this incident in mind when he spoke of Christ as “the spiritual rock that accompanied” Israel (see 1Co 10:4 and note; see also Heb 11:24–26). Horeb. See note on 3:1. Strike the rock, and water will come out. The event was later celebrated by Israel’s hymn writers and prophets (Ps 78:15–16, 20; 105:41; 114:8; Isa 48:21).

17:7 Massah and Meribah. Heb 3:7–8,15 (quoting Ps 95:7–8) gives the meaning “testing” for Massah and “rebellion” for Meribah. Another Meribah, where a similar incident occurred near Kadesh Barnea (see note on Ge 14:7), is referred to in Nu 20:13,24 (see note on 20:13); 27:14; Dt 32:51; 33:8; Ps 81:7; 106:32; Eze 47:19; 48:28.

17:8 Amalekites. See notes on Ge 14:7; Est 3:1; 9:5–10.

17:9 Joshua. The name given by Moses to Hoshea, son of Nun (Nu 13:16). “Hoshea” means “salvation,” while “Joshua” means “The LORD saves.” The Greek form of the name Joshua is the same as that of the name Jesus, for the meaning of which see NIV text note on Mt 1:21. Joshua was from the tribe of Ephraim (Nu 13:8), one of the most powerful of the 12 tribes (see notes on Ge 48:6,19). fight the Amalekites. Joshua’s military prowess uniquely suited him to be the conqueror of Canaan 40 years later, while his faith in God and loyalty to Moses suited him to be Moses’ “aide” (24:13; 33:11) and successor (Dt 1:38; 3:28; 31:14; 34:9; Jos 1:5).

17:10 Hur. Perhaps the same Hur who was the son of Caleb and the grandfather of Bezalel (1Ch 2:19–20), one of the builders of the tabernacle (31:2–5).

17:11 held up his hands. A symbol of appeal to God for help and enablement (see note on 9:29; see also 9:22; 10:12; 14:16).

17:14 Write. See 24:4; 34:27–28; Nu 33:2; Dt 28:58; 29:20,21,27; 30:10; 31:9,19,22,24; see article; see also Introduction: Author and Date of Writing. scroll. A long strip of leather or papyrus on which scribes wrote in columns (Jer 36:23) with pen (Isa 8:1) and ink (Jer 36:18), sometimes on both sides (Eze 2:10; Rev 5:1). After being rolled up, a scroll was often sealed (Isa 29:11; Da 12:4; Rev 5:1–2, 5,9) to protect its contents. Scrolls were of various sizes (Isa 8:1; Rev 10:2,9–10). Certain Egyptian examples reached lengths of over 100 feet; biblical scrolls, however, rarely exceeded 30 feet in length, as in the case of a book like Isaiah (see Lk 4:17; see also photo). Reading the contents of a scroll involved the awkward procedure of unrolling it with one hand while rolling it up with the other (Isa 34:4; Eze 2:10; Lk 4:17, 20; Rev 6:14). Shortly after the time of Christ the scroll gave way to the book form still used today.

17:15 my Banner. A banner often led troops into battle. The image here testifies to the power of God displayed in defense of his people.

18:1 Jethro, the priest of Midian. See note on 2:16.

18:2 sent away his wife. Apparently Moses sent Zipporah to her father with the news that the Lord had blessed his mission (v. 1) and that he was in the vicinity of Mount Sinai with Israel.

18:5 mountain of God. See 3:1 and note.

18:7–12 A striking example of how the God of Israel demonstrated not only to Israel but also to non-Israelites, by his mighty acts in behalf of his people, that he is the only true God. See the similar responses of Rahab (see Jos 2:9–11 and note) and the Gibeonites (Jos 9:9–10); see also notes on 16:4; Ge 12:1.

18:11 Now I know that the LORD is greater than all other gods. See the similar confession of Naaman in 2Ki 5:15.

18:12 brought. Jethro simply brought things to sacrifice; he did not officiate at the sacrifice. eat a meal with. A token of friendship (contrast the battle with the Amalekites, 17:8–16). Such a meal often climaxed the establishment of a treaty (Ge 31:54; Ex 24:11).

18:15 seek God’s will. Inquire of God, usually by going to a place of worship (see Ge 25:22 and note; Nu 27:21) or to a prophet (1Sa 9:9; 1Ki 22:8).

18:16 God’s decrees and instructions. The process of compiling and systematizing the body of divine law that would govern the newly formed nation of Israel may have already begun (15:25–26).

18:21 men who fear God. See note on Ge 20:11. appoint them as officials. The complex structure described here provides the foundation for more formal governmental, military and judicial responsibilities in the future.

19:1 The arrival at Sinai marked a significant milestone in Israel’s life. Having been delivered by God from Egyptian bondage and having experienced his care and provision, they were about to enter into a national covenantal relationship with him.

19:2 Desert of Sinai. Located in the southeast region of the peninsula (see note on 3:1). The narrator locates there the events recorded in the rest of Exodus, all of Leviticus, and Nu 1:1—10:10.

19:3—24:18 The Sinaitic covenant. It was cast in the form of ancient Near Eastern suzerainty-vassal treaties of the second millennium bc. It contained the divine pledge to be the Israelites’ Suzerain-Protector if they would be faithful to him as their covenant Lord and obedient to the stipulations of the covenant as the vassal-people of his kingdom. The covenant had several later renewals, including ch. 34, the whole book of Deuteronomy, and Jos 24. See chart; see also note on Jer 31:32 and article.

19:3 Jacob . . . Israel. See note on 1:1.

19:4 I carried you on eagles’ wings. Symbolizing the Lord’s protection and care of his people.

19:5 if . . . then. The covenant between God and Israel at Mount Sinai is the outgrowth and extension of the Lord’s covenant with Abraham and his descendants 600 years earlier. Participation in the divine blessings is conditioned on obedience added to faith (see note on Ge 17:9). my covenant. See note on Ge 9:9. out of all nations . . . my treasured possession. A frequent image for Israel (Dt 7:6; 14:2; 26:18; Ps 135:4; Mal 3:17). The equivalent phrases used of Christians in 1Pe 2:9 are “chosen people” and “God’s special possession” (cf. Titus 2:14). the whole earth is mine. See Ge 14:19, 22; Ps 24:1–2.

19:6 kingdom of priests. The Israelites were to constitute the Lord’s kingdom (the people who acknowledged him as their King) and, like priests, were to be wholly consecrated to his service (see Isa 61:6; cf. 1Pe 2:5; Rev 1:6; 5:10; 20:6). In their priestly role, the Israelites were to be channels of God’s grace to the nations (see notes on Ge 12:2–3; Isa 42:1–4; 49:6). holy nation. See 1Pe 2:9. God’s people, both individually and collectively, are to be “set apart” (see note on 3:5) to do his will (Dt 7:6; 14:2,21; 26:19; Isa 62:12).

19:8 We will do everything the LORD has said. See 24:3,7; Dt 5:27.

19:9 dense cloud. See 13:21 and note. the people will hear me speaking. See Dt 4:33. put their trust in you. See 14:31 and note.

19:10–11 Outward preparation to meet God symbolizes the inward consecration God requires of his people.

19:12–13 The whole mountain becomes holy because of God’s presence (see 3:5 and note). Israel must keep away from the mountain even as they are to keep away from the tabernacle proper (Nu 3:10).

19:15 Abstain from sexual relations. Not because sex is sinful but because it may leave the participants ceremonially unclean (see Lev 15:18; see also 1Sa 21:4–5).

19:16 thunder . . . lightning . . . trumpet blast. God’s appearance is often accompanied by an impressive display of meteorological sights and sounds (see, e.g., 1Sa 7:10; 12:18; Job 38:1; 40:6; Ps 18:13–14). thick cloud. See 13:21 and note.

19:18 fire . . . smoke from a furnace. See Ge 15:17 and note.

19:21,24 force their way through. Perhaps through a physical or human barrier that Moses had established (vv. 12,23).

19:22 priests. See also v. 24. Before the Aaronic priesthood was established (28:1), priestly functions were performed either by the elders (see note on 3:16; see also 3:18; 12:21; 18:12) or by designated younger men (24:5). But perhaps the verse anticipates the regulations for the Aaronic priests who will be appointed. who approach the LORD. To officiate at sacrifices (40:32; Lev 21:23).

19:23 set it apart as holy. See note on 3:5.

20:1–17 See Dt 5:6–21; see also Mt 5:21, 27; 19:17–19; Mk 10:19; Lk 18:20; Ro 13:9; Eph 6:2–3; Jas 2:10–11.

20:1 words. These ten “words” (vv. 2–17), elsewhere called the “Ten Commandments” (34:28; Dt 4:13; 10:4), correspond to the “(covenant) stipulations” in ancient Near Eastern treaties (e.g., among the Hittites; see also 24:3,8; 34:28). “Decalogue,” a term of Greek origin often used as a synonym for the Ten Commandments, also means “ten words.”

20:2 I am the LORD your God, who brought you out. The Decalogue reflects the structure of the contemporary royal treaties (see note on Ge 15:7). On the basis of (1) a preamble, in which the great king identified himself (“I am the LORD your God”), and (2) a historical prologue, in which he sketched his previous gracious acts toward the subject king or people (“who brought you out . . .”), the Lord then set forth (3) the treaty (covenant) stipulations (Dt 5:1–3, 7–21) to be obeyed (in this case, ten in number, vv. 3–17).

Use of this ancient royal treaty pattern shows that the Lord is here formally acknowledged as Israel’s King and that Israel is his subject people. As his subjects, his covenant people are to render complete submission, allegiance and obedience to him out of gratitude for his mercies, reverence for his sovereignty, and trust in his continuing care. See chart.

20:3 no other gods before me. No deity, real or imagined, is to rival the one true God in Israel’s heart and life (see NIV text note).

20:4 image in the form of anything. Because God has no visible form, any idol intended to resemble him would be a sinful misrepresentation of him (Dt 4:12,15–18). Since other gods are not to be worshiped (v. 5), making idols of them would be equally sinful (Dt 4:19,23–28). Cf. Jn 4:23–24 and note on 4:24.

20:5 jealous God. God will not put up with rivalry or unfaithfulness. Usually his “jealousy” concerns Israel and assumes the covenant relationship (analogous to marriage) and the Lord’s exclusive claim to their love and allegiance. Jealousy is part of the vocabulary of love. The “jealousy” of God (1) demands exclusive devotion to God (see 34:14; Dt 4:24; 32:16,21; Jos 24:19; Ps 78:58; 1Co 10:22; Jas 4:5 and NIV text note), (2) delivers to judgment all who oppose God (Dt 29:20; 1Ki 14:22; Ps 79:5; Isa 42:13; 59:17; Eze 5:13; 16:38; 23:25; 36:5–6; Na 1:2; Zep 1:18; 3:8) and (3) vindicates God’s people (2Ki 19:31; Isa 9:7; 26:11; Eze 39:25; Joel 2:18; Zec 1:14; 8:2). In some of these passages the meaning is closer to “zeal” (the same Hebrew word may be translated either way, depending on context). to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me. Those Israelites who blatantly violate God’s covenant and thus show that they reject the Lord as their King will bring down judgment on themselves and their households (see, e.g., Nu 16:31–34; Jos 7:24 and note)—households were usually extended to three or four generations. See note on Ps 109:12. hate. In covenant contexts the terms “hate” and “love” (v. 6) were conventionally used to indicate rejection of or loyalty to the covenant Lord.

20:6 a thousand generations of those. See Dt 7:9; 1Ch 16:15; Ps 105:8. The Lord’s mercy far exceeds his judgment. love me and keep my commandments. See Dt 5:10; 6:5; 7:9,12 and note; Ne 1:5; Da 9:4; Jn 14:15; 1Jn 5:3. In the treaty language of the ancient Near East the “love” owed to the great king was a conventional term for total allegiance and implicit trust expressing itself in obedient service.

20:7 misuse the name of the LORD. By profaning God’s name—e.g., by swearing falsely by it (see Lev 19:12; see also Jer 7:9 and NIV text note), as on the witness stand in court. Jesus elaborates on oath-taking in Mt 5:33–37.

20:8 See Ge 2:3. Sabbath. See note on 16:23. holy. See note on 3:5.

20:9 Six days. Not a mandate for a six-day work week; rather, an emphasis on setting aside a day for worship and rest.

20:10 On it you shall not do any work. Two reasons (one here and one in Deuteronomy) are given: (1) Having completed his work of creation God “rested on the seventh day” (v. 11), and the Israelites are to observe the same pattern in their service of God in the creation; (2) the Israelites must cease all labor so that their servants can also participate in the Sabbath-rest—just as God had delivered his people from the burden of slavery in Egypt (Dt 5:14–15); (3) the Israelites must also not force foreigners to work for them on the Sabbath. The Sabbath thus became a “sign” of the covenant between God and Israel at Mount Sinai (see 31:12–17; see also note on Ge 9:12).

20:12 Honor. (1) Prize highly (Pr 4:8), (2) care for (Ps 91:15), (3) show respect for (Lev 19:3; 20:9), and (4) obey (see Dt 21:18–21; cf. Eph 6:1). so that you may live long. “The first commandment with a promise” (Eph 6:2). See also note on Dt 6:2. Honoring those in authority is essential for social stability.

20:13 See Mt 5:21–26. murder. The Hebrew for this verb usually refers to a premeditated and deliberate act. The prohibition does not necessarily address capital punishment, war or self-defense. See note on Nu 35:33.

20:14 See Mt 5:27–30. adultery. A sin “against God” (Ge 39:9) as well as against the marriage partner. The “marriage bed should be kept pure” (Heb 13:4).

20:15 steal. Stealing deprives others of what God has entrusted to them (see 22:1–15 and notes).

20:16 false testimony. Violates others’ reputation and deprives them of their rights (see Ps 24:4; Pr 6:19; Jer 5:2 and notes).

20:17 covet. To have a consuming desire for what belongs to others and is not intended for you. This command shows that God is concerned with inward attitudes as well as outward actions (see Mt 5:21–30; cf. Col 3:5).

20:18–21 Concludes the account of the giving of the Decalogue. The order of the narrative appears to be different from the order of events, since v. 18 is most likely a continuation of 19:25. On this reading, the proclamation of the Decalogue took place after Moses approached God (v. 21). Biblical writers often did not follow chronological sequence in their narratives for various literary reasons. The purpose of chronological displacement here may have been either (1) to keep the Decalogue distinct from the “Book of the Covenant” (24:7) that follows (20:22—23:19) or (2) to conclude the account with the formal institution of Moses’ office as covenant mediator—or both.

20:19 See Dt 18:15–22; Heb 12:19–20. The Israelites request a mediator to stand between them and God, a role fulfilled by Moses and subsequently by priests, prophets and kings—and ultimately by Jesus Christ (see 1Ti 2:5).

20:20 Do not be afraid. God’s display of his majesty is not intended to create abject fear. He has come to enter into covenant with his people as their heavenly King. test. See note on Ge 22:1. fear of God. See note on Ge 20:11.

20:22—23:19 The stipulations of the “Book of the Covenant” (24:7), consisting largely of expansions on and expositions of the Ten Commandments. See chart.

20:22–26 Initial stipulations governing Israel’s basic relationship with God (cf. v. 3).

20:22 heaven. God’s dwelling place. Even on “top of Mount Sinai” (19:20) God spoke from heaven.

20:23 See vv. 3–4. The contrast between the one true God “in heaven,” who “does whatever pleases him” (Ps 115:3), and idols of silver or gold, who can do nothing at all (see Ps 115:3–8; see also Ps 135:5–6,15–17), is striking.

20:24 altar of earth. Such an altar, with dimensions the same as those of the altar in the tabernacle (27:1), has been found in the excavated ruins of a small Iron Age (tenth, or possibly eleventh, century bc) Israelite temple at Arad in southern Israel (see photo). burnt offerings. See note on Lev 1:3. fellowship offerings. See note on Lev 3:1. Wherever I cause my name to be honored. Not the later central sanctuary at Jerusalem, but numerous temporary places of worship (see, e.g., Jos 8:30–31; Jdg 6:24; 21:4; 1Sa 7:17; 14:35; 2Sa 24:25; 1Ki 18:30).

20:25 do not build it with dressed stones. Many ancient altars of undressed stones (from various periods) have been found in Israel (cf. photos, here and here). Undressed stones may have been required because they are fashioned by God and not by humans.

20:26 steps. The oldest stepped altar known in Israel is at Megiddo and dates between 3000 and 2500 bc (see photo). or your private parts may be exposed. Men who ascended to such altars would expose their nakedness in the presence of God. Although Aaron and his descendants served at stepped altars (Lev 9:22; Eze 43:17), they were instructed to wear linen undergarments (28:42–43; Lev 6:10; 16:3–4; Eze 44:17–18).

21:1 This verse functions as the heading for the section 21:2—23:19.

21:2–11 See Jer 34:8–22. The list begins with laws regulating servitude. No other ancient Near Eastern law collection begins this way. Hammurapi’s law code, e.g., deals with the question of slavery last (see chart). The fact that the Lord gives priority to regulating servitude in the Book of the Covenant may reflect his recent deliverance of Israel from a painful period of enslavement in Egypt.

21:2 buy a Hebrew servant. Indentured servitude functioned as a social safety net to avoid destitution. Hebrew. See note on Ge 14:13. in the seventh year, he shall go free. The Lord’s servants are not to be anyone’s perpetual slaves (see 20:10 and note).

21:6 the judges. See 22:8–9,28 and NIV text notes. pierce his ear with an awl. See Dt 15:17. Submission to this rite symbolized willing service (see Ps 40:6–8 and note on 40:6).

21:7 she is not to go free. Because her protection and provision now come from the household of her master. Freeing her would deprive her of these.

21:12–15 See 20:13 and note; see also Nu 35:16–34; Dt 19:1–13; 21:1–9; 24:7; 27:24–25; Jos 20:1–9.

21:12 See Ge 9:6 and note.

21:13 not done intentionally. Related terms and expressions are “accidentally” (Nu 35:11), “without enmity” (Nu 35:22), “was not an enemy” (Nu 35:23), “no harm was intended” (Nu 35:23) and “without malice aforethought” (Dt 19:4). Premeditated murder is thus distinguished from accidental manslaughter. God lets it happen. The event is beyond human control. place. A city of refuge (Nu 35:6–32; Dt 19:1–13; Jos 20:1–9; 21:13,21,27,32,38).

21:14 from my altar. Or “even from my altar.” The horns of the altar were a final refuge for those subject to judicial action (see 1Ki 1:50–51; 2:28; Am 3:14 and notes).

21:15 See 20:12 and note.

21:16 See 20:15 and note.

21:17 curses . . . father or mother. Calls down curses on them to effect their destruction.

21:19 walk around outside with a staff. Recover in a satisfactory way.

21:20–21 Benefit of doubt was granted to the slaveholder where no homicidal intentions could be proved.

21:23–25 See Dt 19:21. The so-called law of retaliation, as its contexts show, was meant to limit the punishment to fit the crime. By invoking the law of love (Lev 19:18), Jesus corrected the popular misunderstanding of the law of retaliation (Mt 5:38–42). See note on Lev 24:20.

21:23 serious injury. Either to mother or to child.

21:26–27 Humane applications of the law of retaliation.

21:28–32 The law of the goring bull.

21:28 the bull is to be stoned to death. By killing someone, the bull becomes accountable for that person’s life (see Ge 9:5 and note).

21:30 if payment is demanded. If the victim’s family is willing to accept a ransom payment instead of demanding the death penalty. the owner may redeem his life by the payment. The payment is not to compensate the victim’s family but to save the negligent person’s life. whatever is demanded. Contrary to other ancient Near Eastern law codes, Israelite law does not place a fixed monetary value on human life.

21:32 thirty shekels of silver. Apparently the standard price for a slave. It was also the amount Judas was willing to accept as his price for betraying Jesus (see Mt 26:14–15; see also Zec 11:12–13 and notes). shekels. See note on Ge 20:16.

21:33–36 Laws concerning injuries to animals.

22:1–15 Laws concerning property rights (see 20:15 and note).

22:1 four sheep for the sheep. See 1Sa 12:3; 2Sa 12:6 and notes.

22:2 at night. Assessing the threat is easier during the daylight hours.

22:3 after sunrise. Killing an intruder in broad daylight is not justifiable.

22:5 from the best. Restitution should always err on the side of quality and generosity.

22:6 thornbushes. Often used as hedges (Mic 7:4) bordering cultivated areas.

22:11 See 20:7 and note. an oath before the LORD. The judges were God’s representatives in court cases (see 21:6; 22:8–9,28 and NIV text notes).

22:12–13 Similar laws apparently existed as early as the patriarchal period (Ge 31:39).

22:16–31 General laws related to social obligations (see chart).

22:16 bride-price. A gift, usually substantial, given by the prospective groom to the bride’s family as payment for her (Ge 24:53). The custom is still followed today in parts of the Middle East.

22:18 Dt 18:9–12 strongly condemns sorcery and all such occult practices (see also 1Sa 28:9; Isa 47:12–14).

22:19 Ancient myths and epics describe acts of bestiality performed by pagan gods and demigods in Babylon and Canaan.

22:20 See 20:3–5. The total destruction (see NIV text note) of the idolatrous Canaanites was later commanded by the Lord (Dt 7:2; 13:15; 20:17; Jos 6:17; 10:40; 11:12,20).

22:21–27 That the poor, the widow, the orphan, the foreigner—in fact, all defenseless people—are objects of God’s special concern and providential care is clear from the writings of Moses (21:26–27; 23:6–12; Lev 19:9–10; Dt 14:29; 16:11,14; 24:19–21; 26:12–13), the psalmists (Ps 10:14, 17–18; 68:5; 82:3; 146:9) and the prophets (Isa 1:23; 10:2; Jer 7:6; 22:3; Zec 7:10; Mal 3:5), as well as from the teachings of Jesus (see, e.g., Mt 25:34–45) and the apostles (Ro 15:26; Gal 2:10; Jas 1:27; 2:2–7).

22:25–27 Laws dealing with interest on loans (see Lev 25:35–37; Dt 15:1, 7–11; 23:19–20; see also Ne 5:10 and note; Job 24:9; Ps 15:5; Pr 28:8 and note; Eze 18:8, 13; 22:12). Interest for profit was not to be charged at the expense of the poor. Generosity in such matters was extended even further by Jesus (Lk 6:34–35).

22:26–27 If all that a person had to offer in pledge for a loan was a cloak, that person was among the poorest of the poor (see Am 2:8 and note).

22:28 Do not . . . curse the ruler of your people. A ruler was God’s representative. Paul quoted this law in addressing the high priest (Ac 23:4–5).

22:29 vats. See note on Hag 2:16. give me the firstborn. See notes on 4:22; 13:2,13; see also 13:15.

22:30 Do the same with your cattle and your sheep. See notes on 13:2,13; see also 13:12,15. give them to me on the eighth day. Perhaps to ensure ritual purity (Lev 22:27). The same principle applied in a different way to firstborn sons as well (see note on Ge 17:12).

22:31 Since God’s people were “a kingdom of priests” (see 19:6 and note), they were to obey a law later specified for members of the Aaronic priesthood (Lev 22:8) as well.

23:1–9 Most of the regulations in this section pertain to false testimony (20:16).

23:1 See Lev 19:16; Dt 22:13–19; 1Ki 21:10–13.

23:4–5 Those hostile to you are to be shown the same consideration as others (see Dt 22:1–4; Pr 25:21; cf. Mt 5:44).

23:8 See Dt 16:19.

23:10–13 Extensions of the Sabbath principles taught in 20:8–11; Dt 5:12–15.

23:14–19 See 34:18–26; Lev 23:4–44; Nu 28:16—29:40; Dt 16:1–17; For details regarding these festivals, see also chart.

23:15 Festival of Unleavened Bread. Celebrated from the 15th through the 21st days of the first month (usually about mid-March to mid-April; see note on 12:2) at the beginning of the barley harvest; it commemorated the exodus.

23:16 Festival of Harvest. Also called the “Festival of Weeks” (34:22) because it was held seven weeks after the Festival of Unleavened Bread. It was celebrated on the sixth day of the third month (usually about mid-May to mid-June) during the wheat harvest. In later Judaism it came to commemorate the giving of the law on Mount Sinai, though there is no evidence of this significance in the OT. In NT times it was called “(the day of) Pentecost” (20:16; 1Co 16:8), which means “fifty” (see Lev 23:16; Ac 2:1 and note). Festival of Ingathering. Also called the “Festival of Tabernacles” (Lev 23:34; see note on Zec 14:16) or “Booths” because the Israelites lived in temporary shelters when God brought them out of Egypt (Lev 23:42–43). It was celebrated from the 15th through the 22nd days of the seventh month (usually about mid-September to mid-October) when the produce of the orchards and vines had been harvested; it commemorated the wilderness wanderings after the exodus. end of the year. End of the agricultural year, which began in the fall (see note on 12:2).

23:17 all the men. Normally accompanied by their families (see, e.g., 1Sa 1).

23:18 not . . . with anything containing yeast. See note on 12:15. not be kept until morning. See 12:9–10.

23:19 firstfruits. Representative of the whole harvest. The offering of firstfruits was an acknowledgment that the harvest was from the Lord and belonged wholly to him (34:26; Lev 23:9–14; Nu 18:12–13; Dt 18:13). Do not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk. The reason for the prohibition is uncertain, but it may be related to the prohibition against slaughtering a mother animal and its offspring (Lev 22:28; cf. Dt 22:6–7).

23:20 angel. See 14:19; see also note on Ge 16:7. place I have prepared. Canaan (cf. the similar statement of Jesus in Jn 14:2–3).

23:21 Name. Representing God’s presence (see note on Dt 12:5).

23:22 If. See note on 19:5.

23:23 See 3:8 and note.

23:25–26 For more expanded lists of God’s covenant blessings, see Lev 26:3–13; Dt 7:13–15; 28:1–14; 31:1–10 and relevant notes.

23:27 my terror. See note on 1Ch 14:17.

23:28 hornet. The meaning of the Hebrew for this word is uncertain. The Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) renders it “wasp,” but the translators may have been guessing. In any event, the Lord promises to send some agent to disable or frighten the peoples of Canaan so that they will not be able to resist Israel’s invasion (cf. Isa 7:18).

23:30 Little by little. See Jdg 1, especially 1:19 and note.

23:31 See Ge 15:18; 1Ki 4:21. Red Sea. The (south)eastern border (here the modern Gulf of Aqaba; see note on 1Ki 9:26). Mediterranean Sea. The western border (see NIV text note). the desert. The southern border (northeastern Sinai; see note on Ge 15:18). Euphrates River. The northern border.

23:33 snare. A symbol of destruction (10:7; Job 18:9; Ps 18:5; Pr 13:14; 21:6; Isa 24:17–18).

24:1 Come up. The action, temporarily interrupted for the Book of the Covenant (20:22—23:33), is resumed from 20:21. Moses and his associates would ascend the mountain after the events of vv. 3–8. Nadab and Abihu. Aaron’s two oldest sons (see Lev 10:2; Nu 3:4 and notes). seventy . . . elders. Cf. Nu 11:16; perhaps representing Jacob’s 70 descendants (see 1:5; Ge 46:27 and note). elders. See note on 3:16. at a distance. See 20:21.

24:2 Moses. The mediator between God and the people of Israel. Jesus, who is greater than Moses (see Heb 3:1–6 and notes), is the “mediator of a new covenant” (Heb 12:24; cf. 1Ti 2:5).

24:3 words. Probably refers to the Ten Commandments (see 20:1 and note). laws. Probably refers to the stipulations of the Book of the Covenant (20:22—23:19). we will do. See v. 7; see also 19:8 and note.

24:4 Moses . . . wrote. See note on 17:14; see also Introduction: Author and Date of Writing. twelve stone pillars representing. See Jos 4:5, 20; 1Ki 18:31.

24:5 young Israelite men . . . offered. See note on 19:22.

24:6 half of the blood . . . the other half. The division of the blood points to the twofold aspect of the “blood of the covenant” (v. 8): The blood on the altar symbolizes God’s forgiveness and his acceptance of the offering; the blood on the people points to an oath that binds them in obedience (vv. 3,7).

24:7 Book of the Covenant. Strictly speaking, 20:22—23:19 (see note there)—but here implying also the stipulations of 20:2–17; 23:20–33. We will do . . . we will obey. See v. 3; see also 19:8 and note.

24:8 then. Only after the people agreed to obey the Lord could they participate in his covenant with them. blood of the covenant. See Mk 14:24 and note.

24:9 went up. See v. 1 and note.

24:10 saw . . . God. But not in the fullness of his glory (see 33:20; see also notes on 3:6; Ge 16:13; Nu 12:8; Eze 1:28). sky. Symbolized by the blue color of the “lapis lazuli” (Eze 1:26).

24:11 raise his hand against. See 9:15. ate and drank. A covenant meal (cf. Ge 26:30; 31:54) celebrating the ratification of the covenant described in vv. 3–8. It foreshadows the Lord’s Supper, which celebrates the new covenant ratified by Christ’s death (1Co 11:25–26).

24:12 Come up. See note on v. 1. tablets of stone. See note on 31:18. their. The people’s. instruction. As instruction from the covenant Lord, the laws were divine directives.

24:13 Joshua his aide. See note on 17:9.

24:14 Hur. See note on 17:10.

24:17 glory of the LORD. See v. 10; 16:10 and notes.

24:18 stayed on the mountain. Moses did not come down until he had received instructions concerning the tabernacle and its furnishings (32:15). forty days and forty nights. Jesus, the new Moses (see note on v. 2), fasted for the same length of time (Mt 4:2).

25:2 offering. Here refers to a voluntary contribution.

25:4 blue, purple and scarlet. Royal colors. blue, purple. Dyes derived from various shellfish (primarily the murex) that swarm in the waters of the northeast Mediterranean. See note on Ge 10:6. scarlet. Derived from the eggs and carcasses of the worm Coccus ilicis, which attaches itself to the leaves of the holly plant. fine linen. A very high quality cloth (often used by Egyptian royalty) made from thread spun from the fibers of flax straw. Excellent examples of unusually white, tightly woven linen have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. Some are so finely woven that they cannot be distinguished from silk without the use of a magnifying glass. goat hair. From long-haired goats. Coarse and black (cf. SS 1:5; 6:5), it was often used to weave cloth for tents.

25:5 ram skins dyed red. After all the wool had been removed from the skins. The final product was similar to present-day morocco leather. durable leather. See NIV text note. acacia. The wood is darker and harder than oak and is avoided by wood-eating insects. It is common in the Sinai peninsula.

25:6 spices. Those used in the anointing oil are identified in 30:23–24 as myrrh (balsam sap), cinnamon (bark of the cinnamon tree, a species of laurel), calamus (pith from the root of a reed plant) and cassia (made from dried flowers of the cinnamon tree). Those used in the fragrant incense are identified in 30:34 as gum resin (a powder taken from the middle of hardened drops of myrrh—rare and very valuable), onycha (made from mollusk shells) and galbanum (a rubbery resin taken from the roots of a flowering plant that thrives in Syria and Persia).

25:7 other gems. See 28:17–20. ephod. See 28:6 and note. breastpiece. See 28:15–30.

25:8 sanctuary. A holy place. See note on 3:5. See also model.

25:9 tabernacle. The word refers to a dwelling place, but is rarely used of human dwellings. It almost always signifies the place where God dwells among his people (see v. 8; 29:45–46; Lev 26:11; Eze 37:27; cf. Jn 1:14; Rev 21:3). pattern. See note on v. 40.

25:10 ark. See model. It was in the form of a chest (see NIV text note). The Hebrew for this word is translated by the traditional term “ark” throughout Exodus (see note on Dt 10:1–3); it is a different word from that used to refer to Noah’s ark and to the reed basket in which the infant Moses was placed (see note on 2:3). Of all the tabernacle furnishings, the ark is mentioned first, probably because it symbolized the throne of the Lord (see 1Sa 4:4; 2Sa 6:2), the great King, who chose to dwell among his people (see note on v. 9).

25:11 pure gold. Uncontaminated by silver or other impurities.

25:12 rings. Poles for carrying the ark would be inserted into these (v. 14). See model.

25:16 covenant law. The two tablets on which were inscribed the Ten Commandments as the basic stipulations of the Sinaitic covenant (20:1–17; 31:18). The Hebrew word for “covenant law” is related to a Babylonian word meaning “covenant stipulations.” See also notes on v. 22; 16:34.

25:17 atonement. The divine act of grace whereby God draws to himself those who were once alienated from him through a blood sacrifice. In the OT, the shed blood of sacrificial offerings effected atonement (see Lev 17:11 and note); in the NT, the blood of Jesus, shed once for all time (Heb 9:12), does the same (see Ro 3:25; 1Jn 2:2 and notes). atonement cover. See Lev 16:2 and note. That God’s symbolic throne was capped with an atonement cover signified his great mercy toward his people—only such a God can be revered (Ps 130:3–4).

25:18 cherubim. Probably similar to the carvings of winged sphinxes that adorned the armrests of royal thrones (see photo; see note on v. 10) in many parts of the ancient Near East (see also note on Ge 3:24). In the OT the cherubim were symbolic attendants that marked the place of the Lord’s “enthronement” in his earthly kingdom (1Sa 4:4; 2Sa 6:2; 2Ki 19:15; Ps 99:1). From the cover of the ark (the footstool of God’s symbolic throne) the Lord gave directions to Moses (v. 22; Nu 7:89). Later the ark’s presence in the temple at Jerusalem would designate it as God’s earthly royal city (see Ps 9:11 and note).

25:21 put in the ark the tablets of the covenant law. See note on 31:18, but see also Dt 31:26.

25:22 ark of the covenant law. Called this because it contained the two “tablets of the covenant law” (v. 16; see note there). The phrase “ark of the covenant law” is a synonym of the more familiar phrase “ark of the covenant” (see, e.g., Nu 10:33). I will meet with you. See note on 27:21.

25:26 rings. See note on v. 12.

25:30 bread of the Presence. Traditionally “showbread.” In this phrase, “Presence” refers to the presence of God himself (as in 33:14–15; Isa 63:9). The bread (12 loaves, one for each tribe) represented a perpetual acknowledgement of God’s continuous provision for his people See Lev 24:5–9. table. See model.

25:31 lampstand. See model. flowerlike cups, buds and blossoms. The design is patterned after an almond tree (v. 33), the first of the trees in the Near East to blossom in spring. The cups of the lampstand resemble either the outer covering of the almond flower or the almond nut.

25:37 seven. Signifying completeness. lamps. The ancient lamp was a small clay saucer with part of its rim pinched together to form a spout from which protruded the top of a wick fed by oil contained in the saucer (see photo). (Examples of seven-spouted lamps come from the time of Moses; see note on Zec 4:2.) The classic representation of the shape of the tabernacle lampstand (menorah) comes from the time of Herod the Great and may be seen on the Arch of Titus in Rome (see photo). The lamps were to burn all night in the tabernacle, tended by the priests. Oil for the lamps was to be supplied by the people; the light from the lamps represented the glory of the Lord reflected in the consecrated lives of the Israelites—Israel’s glory answering to God’s glory in the tabernacle (29:43). See 27:20–21.