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Most textbooks on high-voltage (HV) engineering published in the recent years are focused on general aspects of this field but not on the specifics of HV test and measuring techniques provided in this book. This topic is mainly experimentally based and essential for the wide range of present and future challenges, due to the increasing use of renewable power, the wider application of cable systems as well as the erection of long-distance ultrahigh voltage (UHV) lines using not only alternating but also direct transmission voltages.
Therefore, researchers and engineers engaged in HV test and measuring techniques are developing new equipment, instruments, and procedures. For a general basis, international organizations as CIGRE, IEC, and IEEE summarize the results of research work and provide commonly accepted rules, guides, and standards. Many researchers, designers, and technicians engaged in the field of HV engineering are not well familiar with the approaches prepared and introduced by the abovementioned organizations. In this situation, this book will close a gap and contribute to a better understanding of the advanced technique recently developed and adopted for quality assurance testing and diagnostics of HV insulation. Moreover, the book is a help for students to get well-understandable information on today’s tools for insulation testing and diagnostics. Another main application will be the training, further education and individual learning of engineers.
In this context, it should be noted that great progress has been made in developing HV test systems including the associated measuring equipment which are the main topics of the book written by Hauschild and Lemke. In summary: The book gives a complete introduction and an overview of the state-of-the-art HV test and measuring techniques in close connection to practical aspects. For me, great work has been done by the authors, which I know since the beginning of the 1970s when I visited the HV Institute in Dresden for the first time. Thereafter we became good partners and close friends. I met the authors periodically, mainly when participating in various working groups of CIGRE and IEC where Wolfgang Hauschild was especially engaged in the field of HV test technique and Eberhard Lemke in the field of HV measuring technique. Their outstanding work and fruitful cooperation with the HV Institute of the Graz University of Technology has been recognized by awarding both with the degree of a ‘‘Doctor honoris causa’’ in 2007 and 2009, respectively.
More than a century after its beginning, high-voltage (HV) engineering still remains an empirical field. Experimental investigations are the backbone for the dimensioning of electrical insulations and indispensable for quality assurance by type, routine and commissioning tests as well as for insulation condition assessment by monitoring and diagnostic tests. There is no change in sight for such empiric procedures. The application of higher transmission voltages, improved insulation materials, and new design principles require the further development of HV test and measuring techniques. The relevant bodies of experts in CIGRE, IEC and IEEE provide commonly accepted standards and guides of HV testing adapted to both, the needs and the level of knowledge.
Coming from the Dresden School of HV engineering of Fritz Obenaus and Wolfgang Mosch , the authors have been lucky to follow and to contribute to the development of HV test techniques for half of a century. This book is based on that experience and shall reflect the actual state of the art of HV test and measuring techniques. According to our intention, the book shall close a gap in the international literature of HV engineering and lead to a better understanding of the relevant IEC and IEEE standards. It is hoped our text will fill the needs of designers, test field and utility engineers as well as those of senior undergraduate and graduate students and researchers. Today, many engineers who are confronted with or even engaged in HV testing did not have an in-depth education in HV engineering. Therefore, the book is intended to support the individual learning as it is useful for further training courses, too.
After an introduction related to the history and the position of HV test techniques within electric power engineering, the general basis of test systems and test procedures, the approval of measuring systems and the statistical treatment of test results are explained. In separate chapters for alternating, direct, impulse, and combined test voltages, respectively, their generation, their requirements, and their measurements are described in detail. Because partial discharge and dielectric measurements are mainly related to alternating voltage tests, separate chapters on these important tools are arranged after that of alternating test voltages. The book closes with chapters on HV test laboratories and on-site testing.
The cooperation with many experts from all over the world has been a precondition for writing this book. We are grateful to all of them, but we can mention only a few: We got our stamping at the HV Laboratory of Dresden Technical University and acknowledge the cooperation of its staff, represented by Eberhard Engelmann and Joachim Speck . We consider our membership in the expert bodies of CIGRE 33 (later D1), IEC TC 42 and IEEE - TRC and ICC as a school during our professional life. We have got numerous suggestions from this work on HV testing as well as from discussions with the members. We are grateful to Dieter Kind, Gianguido Carrara, Kurt Feser, Arnold Rodewald, Ryszard Malewski, Ernst Gockenbach, Klaus Schon, Michael Muhr and all others who are not mentioned here. Of course, the daily work in our companies has been connected with many technical challenges of HV test techniques. As they have always been mastered in our reliable teams, we would like to express our sincere thanks to both, the management and the staff of Highvolt Prüftechnik Dresden GmbH and Doble - Lemke GmbH . Thanks to Harald Schwarz and Josef Kindersberger , who appointed Wolfgang Hauschild to a lectureship on HV test techniques at Cottbus Technical University respectively on Munich Technical University. This required a suitable structure for the subject which is also used in this book. For the careful proofreading of the manuscript and the helpful advices, we thank our friends Jürgen Pilling and Wieland Bürger . We would be grateful for further suggestions and critics of the readers of this book.
The recent years after the first edition of this book has been published are characterized by many developments in electric power generation, transmission, and distribution, e.g., the increasing application of renewable energy, the extensions of the AC transmission voltages to the UHV level >800 kV, the wider application of HVDC power transmission, also by using cable systems, and improved methods of diagnostics and condition assessment. All these advances are of consequence for the high-voltage test and measuring technique. The second edition of this book shall reflect the trend in HV testing and should be understood as a contribution to the present impetus of high-voltage engineering in general.
Also for this second Edition, we have been supported by many colleagues and mention Dr. Ralf Pietsch, Günter Siebert and Uwe Flechtner . Especially, we acknowledge the cooperation with Dr. Christoph Baumann, Petra Jantzen and Sudhany Karthick of Springer Nature.
Due to the generous aid by HIGHVOLT Prüftechnik Dresden GmbH, the book has got its colored appearance. Furthermore, all photographic figures and three-dimensional drawings without reference are supplied by the HIGHVOLT archives. Our sincere thanks are related to the management, especially to Bernd Kübler, Thomas Steiner and Ralf Bergmann , for their permanent support of our project.
Abbreviations
- AC
Alternating current (in composite terms, e.g., AC voltage)
- ACIT
HV units for feeding induced voltage tests
- ACL
Accredited Calibration Laboratory
- ACRF
HVAC series resonant circuit of variable frequency
- ACRL
HVAC series resonant test circuit of variable inductance
- ACT
HVAC test circuit based on transformer
- ACTF
HVAC test circuit of variable frequency based on transformers
- ADC
Analog–digital converter
- AE
Acoustic emission
- AMS
Approved measuring system
- C
Capacitance
- CD
Committee Draft (IEC)
- CH
Channel
- CRO
Cathode ray oscilloscope
- DAC
Damped alternating current (in composite terms, e.g., DAC voltage)
- DC
Direct current (in composite terms, e.g., DC voltage)
- DCS
Directional coupler sensor
- DNL
Differential nonlinearity
- DSP
Digital signal processing
- EMC
Electromagnetic compatibility
- GIL
Gas-insulated (transmission) line
- GIS
(1) Gas-insulated substation
(2) Gas-insulated switchgear
- GST
Grounded specimen test
- GUM
ISO/IEC Guide 98-3:2008
- HF
High frequency
- HFCT
High-frequency current transformer
- HV
High voltage (in composite terms, e.g., HV tests)
- HVAC
High alternating voltage
- HVDC
High direct voltage
- IEC
International Electrotechnical Commission
- IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (USA)
- IGBT
Insulated gate bipolar transistor
- INL
Integral nonlinearity
- IVPD
Partial discharge measurement at induced AC voltage
- IVW
Induced voltage withstand test
- L
Inductance
- LI
Lightning impulse (in composite terms, e.g., LI test voltage)
- LIC
Chopped lightning impulse
- LIP
Liquid-impregnated paper (insulation)
- LSB
Least significant bit
- LTC
Life time characteristic (or test)
- LV
Low voltage
- M/G
Motor–generator (set)
- ML
Maximum likelihood
- MLM
Multiple level method
- MS
Measuring system
- MV
Medium voltage (do not mix-up with the dimension ‘‘Megavolt’’!)
- NMI
National Metrology Institute
- OLI
Oscillating lightning impulse
- OSI
Oscillating switching impulse
- PD
Partial discharge (in composite terms, e.g., PD measurement)
- PSM
Progressive stress method
- R
Resistor
- R&D
Research and development
- RF
Radio frequency
- RIV
Radio interference voltage
- RMS
Reference measuring system
- rms
Root of mean square
- RoP
Record of performance
- RVM
Return voltage measurement
- SFC
Static frequency converter
- SI
Switching impulse (in composite terms, e.g., SI test voltage)
- TC
Technical Committee (of IEC)
- TDG
Test data generator
- TDR
Time domain reflectometry
- THD
Total harmonic distortion
- TRMS
Transfer reference measuring system
- UDM
Up-and-down method
- UHF
Ultrahigh frequency
- UHV
Ultrahigh voltage (in composite terms, e.g., UHV laboratory)
- V
Voltage
- VHF
Very high frequency
- X
Reactance
- XLPE
Cross-linked polyethylene
- Z
Impedance
Symbols
- A
Area
- a
Distance
- α
Phase angel
- ß
Overshoot magnitude
- C
Capacitance
- C i
Impulse capacitance
- C l
Load capacitance
- c
Velocity of light
- D
Dielectric flux density
- d
Diameter
- dV
Voltage drop (DC)
- Δf
Bandwidth
- ΔT
Error of time measurement
- ΔV
Voltage reduction (DC)
- δ
(1) Air density
(2) Weibull exponent
(3) Ripple factor
(4) Loss angel (tan δ )
- δ V
Ripple voltage (DC)
- E
Electric field strength
- e
(1) Elementary charge (e = 1.602 × 10 −19 As)
(2) Basis of natural logarithm (e = 2.71828…)
- ε
Permittivity (ε 0 = 8,854 × 10 −12 As/Vm)
- ε r
Relative permittivity
- η
(1) 63% quantile (Weibull and Gumbel distributions)
(2) Utilization or efficiency factor
- F
(1) Scale factor
(2) Coulomb force
- F p
Polarization factor
- F(f)
Transfer function
- F(x)
Distribution function
- f
Frequency
- f m
Rated frequency
- f t
Test frequency
- f 0
(1) Natural frequency
(2) Centre frequency (narrowband PD measurement)
- f 1
Lower frequency limit
- f 2
Upper frequency limit
- Φ
Magnetic flux
- φ
Phase angle
- G
Current density
- g
Parameter for atmospheric corrections
- g(t)
Unit step response
- H
(1) Magnetic field strength
(2) Altitude
- h
Humidity
- I
Current
- I m
Rated current
- I sc
Short-circuit current
- i L
Discharge current
- K
Coverage factor for expanded uncertainty
- K t
Atmospheric correction factor
- k
(1) Parameter for atmospheric corrections
(2) Fixed factor
- k d
Constant in life time characteristic
- k e
Field enhancement factor
- k(f)
(1) Test voltage factor
(2) Test voltage function for LI evaluation
- k 1
Air density correction factor
- k 2
Humidity correction factor
- κ
Conductivity
- L
(1) Inductance
(2) Likelihood function
- M
Pulse magnitude (PD measurement)
- m
Estimated mean value
- μ
Theoretical mean value
- μ
Permeability ( µ 0 = 0.4 π × 10 −6 Vs/Am = 1,257 × 10 −6 Vs/Am)
- μ r
Relative permeability
- n
(1) Life time exponent
(2) Number (e.g., of electrons)
- ω
Angular frequency
- P
Active test power
- P F
Feeding power
- P m
Dipole moment
- P N
Natural power of a transmission line
- P R
Loss power of a resonant circuit
- p
(1) Probability
(2) Pressure
- p 0
Reference pressure
- Q
(1) Charge
(2) Quality factor (resonance circuit)
- q
(1) Charge of a PD pulse
(2) Charge of a leakage current pulse
- R
(1) Resistance
(2) Ratio between two results
- R d
Damping resistance
- R f
Front resistor
- R t
Tail resistor
- r
(1) Ratio (e.g., divider or transformer)
(2) Radius
- S
(1) Reactive test power
(2) Steepness (LI/SI test voltage)
- S f
Scale factor
- S 50
50 Hz equivalent test power
- s g
Mean square deviation (estimation of standard deviation)
- σ
Standard deviation
- T
Duration (AC period)
- T C
Time to chopping
- T N
Experimental response time
- T R
Residual response time
- T T
Duration of overshoot
- T 1
Front time of LI voltage
- T 2
Time to half-value of impulse voltages
- t
(1) Temperature
(2) Time
- t s
Settling time
- t t
Test time
- t 0
Reference temperature
- τ
Time constant
- U
Expanded uncertainty
- U cal
Expanded uncertainty of calibration
- U M
Expanded uncertainty of measurement
- u
Standard uncertainty
- u A
Type A standard uncertainty
- u B
Type B standard uncertainty
- V
Voltage
- V B
Maximum of base curve (LI voltage)
- V E
Extreme value of recorded curve (LI voltage)
- V e
PD extinction voltage
- V F
Feeding voltage
- V i
(1) PD inception voltage
(2) Impulse voltage
- V k
Short-circuit voltage (test transformer)
- V m
(1) Highest voltage of equipment, rated voltage
(2) Arithmetic mean (DC)
- V max
Maximum of DC voltage
- V min
Minimum of DC voltage
- V n
Nominal voltage
- V peak
Peak voltage
- V r
Return or recovery voltage
- V rms
Root mean square value of voltage
- V T
Test voltage value
- V(v)
Performance function
- V ∑
Cumulative charging voltage
- V 0
(1) Line-to-ground voltage
(2) Initial voltage for a test
(3) Charging DC voltage
- V 1
Primary voltage of a test transformer
- V 2
Secondary voltage of a test transformer
- V 50
50% breakdown voltage
- v
Variance
- v(t)
Time-depending voltage
- v k
Short-circuit impedance of a test transformer
- w
Number of turns of a winding
- W
Energy
- W i
Impulse energy (of impulse voltage generator)
- X
Reactance
- X res
Short-circuit reactance of a transformer
- Z
Impedance
- Z L
Surge impedance of a transmission line