Institute of Outdoor Sports and Environmental Science, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
*E-mail: tuerk@dshs-koeln.de
There are many reasons why a traveller chooses a particular destination (Crompton and Ankomah, 1993). Nevertheless, it is of immense importance for decision makers in the destinations to know as much as possible about destination choice and behavioural intentions. This knowledge is a precondition to address, attract and satisfy guests.
But what are the reasons for a guest to travel to a certain area in winter? First and foremost, it is the option to practise winter sports. Therefore, one has to find a suitable landscape with the perfect climate (Henschel, 2002) for an acceptable price/performance ratio. Of course, cultural or culinary preferences are also of interest to tourists, but the appropriate selection is often made on-site (DiePresse.com, 2017). Thus, it is of great importance to deal with the sportive offers and to see whether there are any particular preferences with regard to the types of sports and the options for exercising them. For tourism destinations, it is important to consider that these preferences might change over time. Preferences for certain activities are also related to the respective socio-demographic but also cultural background of the guests. With marketing initiatives, events and special offers, many destinations try to influence their perceived image, to attract a certain market segment and to establish a relationship with their clients.
Finally, in addition to the sport offers, the surroundings have to fit and fulfil customers’ needs. The atmosphere should be harmonious. These are the special stimuli that act as pull factors to attract a guest to a particular destination (Hannich, 2007). The presented studies in this section show that there actually are national- or region-specific requirements that winter sports resorts should ideally follow in order to position themselves successfully. Of course, certain regions stand for defined guest wishes simply because of their name or their specific location. And differences between snow-covered regions such as the Austrian Alps or Iceland quickly become apparent. For example, in one place the slope must be perfectly prepared, in the second place ideal off-piste offers must be found and in the third place a well-cleared road or a functioning rescue service is the decisive criterion for the choice of travel. Choosing a destination still depends on whether its image matches the travel motives (Moutinho, 1987) and/or whether the relevant holiday motives are fulfilled (Crompton, 1979).
These different interests and expectations may lead to conflicts in winter destinations. Such problems are often based on a different understanding of sport (Jacob and Schreyer, 1980; Adelman et al., 1982). If for one group the use of motorized sports equipment is an absolute no-go, it is precisely this motor support that is the reason why others are active in winter landscapes. While the first group combines sports-related performances with peace, quietness and the experience of nature, the second group obviously sees action and speed as important motivators for a stay in a snowy landscape. Even if the free use of motorized sports equipment in snow-covered landscapes is more of a North American than an alpine phenomenon, it is generally valid that such a different motivation, especially in outdoor activities, often causes significant conflicts. Solving these conflicts is always a great challenge for tourism experts. In large areas, spatial solutions such as zoning concepts might be applicable; in addition, the destination may also think about redesigning the offer to satisfy different expectations. If spatial solutions or redesigns are not feasible, the destination has to decide on their desired and most suitable target group(s). In addition to the primary interests that have to be fulfilled, further attractions and activities should be considered to underline a certain profile or image attracting a specific clientele.
In this context, the role of nature reserves or national parks should also be considered. On the one hand, a destination within or close to a protected area is perceived as a sign for attractive and unspoiled landscapes and the opportunity for diverse nature experiences (Pröbstl et al., 2014). On the other hand, the sensitive environmental conditions in protected areas may require restrictions for winter tourism and the right balance between tourism activities and conservation goals. However, this challenging trade-off offers opportunities to combine different interests and to promote mutual acceptance and respect for environmental issues in the long run. In this context one may ask for whom if not for visitors do we protect and conserve the environment (Leslie, 1986).
Conflicts between environmental goals and tourism development are a common issue in many destinations. However, quite new are conflicts caused by significant socio-cultural differences due to guests from other continents or different cultures, such as the arrival of Chinese tourists in Switzerland. How do you meet each other, how do you communicate and how can you ensure mutual understanding? Of course, it seems crucial to find the right answers to these questions in order to reach new target groups (ETC, 2014). But it seems just as important not to lose one’s independence and local identity despite the adaptation to new target groups, because authentic and different experiences are the main argument for travelling.
Part II should not end without taking a look at employment in winter tourism. Especially for young people who are enthusiastic about snow sports, winter destinations are attractive workplaces. And exactly these people are needed by touristic enterprises, because guests want to be instructed by good and inspiring teachers. However, living in such places is expensive and these jobs are usually modestly paid. These conditions often lead to an increasing amount of seasonal workers and short-term employment in winter destinations with negative consequences for the social structure in the respective towns and villages. Therefore, it should be a main goal to understand the demand and the behavioural intentions of the workforce in tourism and to provide working and living conditions that allow people to stay in the destination full-time and to actively participate in the political, social and economic development of the destination.
The chapters in Part II deal with visitor trends, preferences and destination choice. The authors also deal with experience offers as well as marketing concepts. Downhill skiing, cross-country skiing and snowmobiling are under investigation to identify trends in winter recreation activities. Working with different target groups requires knowledge on their preferences, as well as about their sensitivity. Conflicts between different user groups have to be taken into account when planning winter sports areas. And to know what the guests really want is the best basis for good marketing and corresponding offers. In this context Visitor Monitoring Systems will help to find out which activities lead to which conflicts. New markets and target groups must also be examined, as the benefits might be associated with new challenges. Special offers are an expression of the necessary diversification in ski resorts. Solutions for special problems must also be found in the context of those working in the destinations in order to make winter tourism attractive for the future.
The chapters are described further below.
Authors: Peter Fredman and Tatiana Chekalina
A total of 10% of Sweden is covered by an alpine area. And the Swedish mountain region is of great interest for both summer and winter tourism. In Chapter 16, Peter Fredman and Tatiana Chekalina examine the outstanding significance of winter recreation activities for this mountain region. They discuss the identified trends in downhill skiing, cross-country skiing and snowmobiling in connection with regional as well as with global development.
For their study of possible changes over the period from 1985–2013, they used three previous surveys of domestic visitors in the Swedish mountains. Based on these data they found significant changes. Regarding the development in downhill skiing one can see that the number of skiers significantly increased into the 1990s and has remained stable since then. Nowadays, most people go downhill skiing only once up to a maximum of five times a year, and not more often. The observation of motorized snowmobiling shows a similar development to downhill skiing. But the situation is somewhat different regarding cross-country skiing: one can also observe a declining frequency but in addition one can see that the activity per se is less attractive.
This development in different sectors of winter sports is discussed by the authors under the consideration of a number of overarching influencing factors, e.g. physical demands, work patterns, value seeking or available income. Climate change is also addressed in the discussion. The reasons for the observed development could be a sign of activity diversification, place substitution and/or decrease in loyalty.
Authors: Ulrike Pröbstl-Haider and Nina Mostegl
It seems to be a matter of fact that our culture determines which sport we practise and how often. Also in tourism our culture may influence our actions. For this reason, Ulrike Pröbstl-Haider and Nina Mostegl examine motives and expectations as well as their influence on the choice and attractiveness of a destination. In Chapter 17, the authors examine the three important target groups of German, Austrian and Italian skiers and snowboarders to test new development and marketing opportunities for South Tyrol, an enchanting alpine winter destination.
German, Austrian and Italian winter sports tourists were questioned with a comprehensive survey in order to obtain information on their winter sports activities, the skiing days and the skiing locations, their perception of the chosen ski resorts, and on some future aspects (e.g. climate change and destination development). The survey included a discrete choice experiment to understand preferences and intended behaviour. Finally, a decision support tool was used to depict the choices of the three different target groups.
Regarding the main motivations, preferences and destination choices, the authors found significant differences among the tourists from the three different countries. Italian tourists seem to be interested in social experiences, preferring to ski within the family and enjoying the time together, while Austrians are more interested in being active and prefer extended winter tourism facilities. These findings may lead to new ideas for marketing and product placement. For tailored marketing strategies it is also of interest that German and Austrian tourists in South Tyrol are also looking for local food and the atmosphere in the typical small restaurants.
Authors: Anna Dóra Sæþórsdóttir and C. Michael Hall
An important goal of Icelandic tourism is to promote the country as a year-round tourist destination to minimize seasonal fluctuations especially in international visitor arrivals. Especially winter tourism seems to be currently promoted, whereas summer tourism is already showing the first crowding effects. As an all-season destination, Iceland seems to be the solution for sustainable growth/development.
To examine the tourists’ perception of crowding as well as their satisfaction, the authors Anna Dóra Sæþórsdóttir and C. Michael Hall conducted a survey in seven popular nature destinations in the south and south-west of Iceland. The questionnaire was divided into three categories: participant background questions, questions about activities, behaviour and preferences, and finally questions about attitude, experience and catalyst/motivation. Of special interest for the study is the fact that the selected destinations differ in their tourism-relevant development. The authors’ findings are provided in Chapter 18.
Most of the interviewed persons were visiting Iceland for the first time, coming from all over the world. The natural attractions led to a high level of satisfaction at all the locations surveyed, although the ratings for recreation rooms, services and parking areas at the seven destinations are quite different. However, the survey already revealed some overcrowding effects at certain sites. Assuming a further growth in tourism development, it will be necessary to address crowding effects and to improve the offer, including snow-ploughed roads or organized rescue services. In that case, winter offers the opportunity to promote extraordinary nature-based experiences in Iceland.
Authors: Jerry J. Vaske and Aubrey D. Miller
In Chapter 19, the authors Jerry J. Vaske and Aubrey D. Miller examine whether motorized snowmobilers, non-motorized recreationists such as skiers, backcountry skiers, snowboarders, cross-country skiers and snowshoe walkers, or hybrid participants (e.g. snowmobile-assisted skiers) differ in their motivations for solitude, social interaction, physical fitness and/or thrill seeking. The study was conducted in Vail Pass Recreation Area in Colorada, USA, visited by approximately 35,000 visitors per year. On the basis of more than 20 years of cooperation, the research area has been zoned in order to be able to offer both motorized and non-motorized users a high-quality recreation area. Nearly half of the area is used by non-motorized winter sports enthusiasts and motorized winter sports enthusiasts, respectively. Only a small part of the area is designated for hybrid use.
Data were obtained from online surveys for the backcountry huts and on-site surveys distributed at the parking area to all visitors after their recreation experience. The data were tested for the above-mentioned four different motivation statements and respective statistical differences. The authors show that the motorized visitors ranked the motivations solitude, social and physical fitness significantly lower than the non-motorized recreationists, who consider these motivations most important. The means for the hybrid group were always in between the two other groups, and only thrills were most important for the hybrid group.
A major reason for the interpersonal conflict seems to be the result of noise and exhaust from snowmobiles. However, the differences in motivation between the three groups may also contribute. And finally, a social value conflict is likely to cause the visible differences. In order to regulate these problems effectively, it will be necessary to develop management tools, including signage and messaging. The identified differences should determine management decisions of the Vail Pass Recreation Area for the future.
Authors: Bruno Abegg, Leandra Jänicke, Mike Peters and Alexander Plaikner
Chapter 20 by Bruno Abegg, Leandra Jänicke, Mike Peters and Alexander Plaikner describes other activities in alpine tourism besides skiing and snowboarding. They show that an increasing number of guests practise more and more winter activities such as winter hiking, tobogganing, cross-country skiing and snowshoeing. Consequently, the authors focus their interest on the six most popular ‘alternative’ winter sport activities in Tyrol, including backcountry skiing and ski touring on slopes. The study analyses people’s activity profiles and their satisfaction with the existing offer in Tyrol. Special attention is given to the motivation to practise alternative winter sport activities.
The results section describes the socio-demographic profiles as well as the motives of outdoor recreationists in Tyrol. Most of the alternative activities are of a high importance as secondary or tertiary choices. For example, the tourists state that they like the opportunity for tobogganing but they are not visiting Tyrol for this activity explicitly. The study revealed noticeable differences between overnight guests and day visitors. In order to tailor their respective marketing campaigns and offers, it will be of great importance for the destinations whether their guests are looking for quietness, health improvement or physical achievement. Only then can the destinations perfect their marketing and offers. Although the study can only highlight a few interesting aspects, it clearly shows the importance of alternative winter sports for the future. Considering such alternatives will be of increasing importance also in the context of climate change and demographic development.
Authors: Karolina Taczanowska, Mikołaj Bielański, Joanna Hibner, Miłosz Jodłowski and Tomasz Zwijacz-Kozica
In Chapter 21, Karolina Taczanowska, Mikołaj Bielański, Joanna Hibner, Miłosz Jodłowski and Tomasz Zwijacz-Kozica examine winter tourism offers in the Tatra National Park in Poland. Even if the winter season lasts more than 4 months, only a relatively small amount of the annual tourists come during this time. Hiking and downhill skiing as well as ski touring seem to be the most popular outdoor recreation activities during winter time in the Tatra National Park. Since the visitor profile is much more heterogeneous than in summer, the national park management is confronted with a number of significant challenges.
The current needs as well as the ongoing expectations challenge the existing recreational system in the nature conservation area. Until now useful distribution studies have been lacking, especially for the winter season. To obtain more information about its visitors the Tatra National Park is currently setting up a visitor monitoring system. Easy access, the possibility of using horse sledges, or the opportunity of consuming warm food and cold drinks explain the likelihood of high visitor numbers. In particular finding the right balance between concentrating versus dispersing recreational use has a high significance in the Tatra National Park. It is also of importance to find out which kind of activity is practised where and which conflicts are related to the respective activity.
For the future the management of the nature protected area needs a mixture of ecological methods and social science approaches to learn more about the necessary operations. The managers need also more knowledge on environmental awareness, the actual behaviour of the different tourist groups and the interests of the locals in the Tatra National Park. This information is needed to maintain the unique natural value of the highest part of the Carpathian Mountains.
Authors: Barbara Haller Rupf, Katrin Schillo, Wolfgang G. Arlt and Reto Rupf
There is no question that China appears to be one of the most important tourist markets of the future, not only in Switzerland. But little is known about the behaviour of Chinese tourists. In consequence, a number of questions arise if one really wants to address and benefit from such a growing tourism market. But it is important that a growing market not only brings more tourists into the country, but also leads to an additional income. In this context, the Chinese market seems to be quite difficult.
Therefore, the authors Barbara Haller Rupf, Katrin Schillo, Wolfgang G. Arlt and Reto Rupf study the Chinese guests as well as the special product and destination development in Grisons/Switzerland addressed to this growing market. The authors try to analyse the expectations and the behavioural intentions of the potential Chinese guests. In addition they discuss whether there are already special products and services attracting Chinese guests in the alpine destinations. It is also of great interest whether the service providers and their employees are well informed and trained to welcome the new guests. The experiences may also be transferred to guests from other new target regions such as India or the Gulf States. The presented findings include expert interviews and are based on a survey of visitors from the People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong and Taiwan in Grisons/Switzerland and potential guests in Beijing/China. The results are presented in Chapter 22.
The Chinese guests highlighted the different experience Switzerland gave them. Switzerland seems to be more natural and less anthropogenically influenced than their home country. However, the Chinese guests are not getting what they really want. Food and information flow are criticized. It may be a lack of understanding of the culture, but one can see that the destinations try to adapt to this new target group. An important first step is the employment of Chinese-speaking staff. Overall, the study reveals that the Chinese tourism market is still not well-known and diverse. Therefore, destinations need support to achieve satisfying results for both guests and hosts. This makes it all the more important to accompany the destinations as well as the service providers when considering the Chinese market.
Author: Joe Pavelka
Whistler is considered a Mecca for winter tourism, which also means that many people, especially young people, are needed here as seasonal workers. A small amount of them would like to stay in Whistler permanently. The author Joe Pavelka deals with this special group of migrants in Chapter 23. He points out the difficulties, but also the importance of this group of workers for a tourist resort such as Whistler.
Although he uses the term 2-Year Tourist in the title, the author deals in his study with people who have been living and working in Whistler for at least 2 years. Using qualitative interviews and a multiple analytical iteration of the transcribed interviews he describes the motivations as well as the challenges for a life in Whistler and analyses why some stay and others leave the ski resort.
Most of the people surveyed say that ‘Whistler is the place to be’ when you are considering a career in the field of snow sports. And it’s more than attractive to be surrounded by a lot of people with the same mind-set. However, the quest for an ideal quality of life confronts them with actual reality such as low income, inconsistent jobs and expensive housing. Normally, you have to be rich to live in a ski resort such as Whistler. But teaching skiing is not the way to get rich and often physical injuries lead to having to leave the resort again because of the inability to earn any money. So they hope to make a career quickly and find better jobs in the touristic structure that will stabilize the life they live. And it seems that this hope depends more on the role of the ski resorts company than on that of the community. In this context, the community obviously forgets that this is of particular importance for its future development, as potential future leaders of the community must be seen within this group of migrants.
Adelman, B.J.E., Heberlein, T.A. and Bonnicksen, T.M. (1982) Social psychological explanations for the persistence of a conflict between paddling canoeists and motorcraft users in the boundary waters canoe area. Leisure Sciences 5 (1), 45–61.
Crompton J.L. (1979) Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research 6 (4), 408–424.
Crompton J.L. and Ankomah, P.K. (1993) Choice set propositions in destination decisions. Annals of Tourism Research 20 (3), 461–476.
DiePresse.com (2017) Reiseströme: Wer warum wohin will. Available at: https://diepresse.com/home/schaufenster/reise/5236041/Reisestroeme_Wer-warum-wohin-will (accessed 17 January 2019).
ETC (European Travel Commission) (2014) Target market – China. Marketing strategies for tourism destinations, a competitive analysis. European Travel Commission, Brussels, Belgium.
Hannich, F.M. (2007) Destinationsmarken im Special Interest Tourismus. Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Henschel, K. (2002) Internationaler Tourismus. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich/Vienna, Germany/Austria.
Jacob, G.R. and Schreyer, R. (1980) Conflict in outdoor recreation: a theoretical perspective. Journal of Leisure Research 12 (4), 368–380.
Leslie, D. (1986) Tourism and conservation in national parks. Tourism Management 7(1), 52–56.
Moutinho, L. (1987) Consumer behaviour in tourism. European Journal of Marketing 21, 5–44.
Pröbstl, U., Wirth, V. and Haider, W. (2014) Wie viel ‘Natur’ suchen deutsche Urlauberinnen und Urlauber in den Alpen? Eine Quellgebietsstudie bezogen auf den Sommertourismus. Natur und Landschaft 89(1), 26–32.