In the United States, widespread, ill-planned development is the greatest cause of species endangerment and extinction, destroying vital habitat for plants ranging from cacti and orchids to wildflowers and native trees and shrubs. Habitat destruction also threatens insects, birds, amphibians, and many other kinds of wildlife. Worldwide, up to 600,000 species have become extinct in just the past 50 years. Some projections warn that if this rate of habitat destruction continues, we could lose half of the earth’s species by 2050.
The most threatened habitat in the world is tropical forestland, which makes up only 6 percent of the earth’s land surface but is home to an estimated 50 to 90 percent of all species. Even though tropical forests may be a long distance from your garden, you can notice one effect of their destruction in your own yard—fewer migratory songbirds. Many songbird species are in decline due to loss of their winter habitat in Central America and South America. Global loss is local loss, and in the long run, what we do locally has global impact as well.
The common theme of natural habitats in most regions is biodiversity. If you want to replicate natural landscapes and help with habitat, create a landscape that combines different kinds of plants that grow compatibly together and benefit birds, butterflies, and other animals. Most natural habitats include groups of trees and shrubs surrounded by perennials, including grasses and groundcovers. A successful habitat garden provides homes for creatures ranging from tiny parasitic wasps and fast-flying hummingbirds to toads, squirrels, and perhaps even a red fox.
Here’s how to get started.
Analyze your site to decide if it’s most suited for a woodland, prairie, wetland, oceanside, or desert plant and animal community.
Choose native trees and shrubs, or other site-appropriate species that benefit wildlife. Plants with berries are often the best choices. Include both evergreen and deciduous plants.
Cluster the trees and shrubs in islands or wide borders and hedgerows around your property. Start with just one plant cluster, and work over time to create an entire landscape of naturalized plant groups.
Cover the areas around the tree and shrub clusters with perennials and grasses. Choose plants that spread (without becoming weedy). Use annuals to fill in while the groundcovers are spreading. Remember diversity—plant a variety of species.
Encourage pollinators and other beneficial insects by choosing many kinds of flowers to provide pollen and nectar. Select flowers that bloom at different times from spring through fall, as well as some that offer generous seed heads toward autumn.
Provide water in as many ways as possible—birdbaths, fountains, streams, water gardens, and dishes of water or shallow pools at the soil level. All creatures need water, and birds are drawn to the sounds of water splashing or dripping. Be sure you arrange to keep the water available in the heat of summer and all through the winter as well, since your habitat will be a year-round home for many species.
Allow plants to grow naturally. While it’s appropriate to prune out the occasional diseased or rubbing branches, a natural landscape is not the place for sheared shrubs. Contrary to classic pruning advice, a few crowding, overlapping, and touching branches on trees and shrubs is natural and desirable. The goal is to provide shelter and safety for many creatures.
Tolerate the litter. In nature, leaves, fruit, and needles fall, cover the ground, and eventually decompose, adding organic matter and nutrients to the soil. Let that happen. (The exception here is diseased or pest-infested litter, which you should destroy rather than leave in place.)
Allow some logs to lie and snags (dead trees) to stand. Dying or dead trees or shrubs provide food and homes for many kinds of creatures and are part of a natural system. Where you can tolerate an untidy look, leave them in place—a pileated woodpecker showing up for an appetizer may be your reward!
Make a brush pile. Perhaps the back of your property is suitable for brush piles. Especially if they are built upon large logs or rocks (so small animals or ground birds can scurry under), brush piles provide dining, safety, or places to raise a family.
Consider the animals you do not welcome. That could mean deer—if so, avoid plants they prefer and choose those they rarely eat. If you are worried about rats, be sure your birdfeeders have catch trays so seed will be less likely to drop on the ground. Embracing diversity doesn’t mean you give up all control over the territory; you just have to be smarter than a rat! You may need repellants, barriers, or fences, for specific reasons. True ecological balance is difficult to achieve, especially because your little habitat lies within an imbalanced world. But in most cases, naturalized landscapes present few problems with pests of any kind.
For more information about and plant choices for habitat gardens, see the Birds, Water Gardens, and Wildlife Gardening entries.
When large tracts of natural habitat are broken up by development, roads, or even farms, it creates big problems for many species of wildlife.
Too small for comfort. Many wild creatures, such as the lovely wood thrush, can thrive only deep within large tracts of woodland. When those interior areas are reduced, populations of these woodland species decline.
Too much edge. Some predatory species that are not so desirable—crows, for example—thrive when there’s lots of edge. (Edge is the boundary between two types of habitat, for example, woodland and open areas such as the cut-grass borders along a roadway.) As buildings, roads, and parking lots break up woods or meadows, the more vulnerable many species become to predators. (The incidence of roadkills increases, too.)
Not enough connections. When appropriate habitat occurs only in isolated “islands,” migratory mammals or birds may not be able to migrate successfully. This can lead to inbreeding and an imbalance in predator/prey relationships. Both situations produce weaker populations or eventual death.
Openings for invasive species. The more the plant life or soil of a natural area is disturbed (by digging, brush mowing, bulldozing, etc.), the more likely aggressive plant species are to invade. Purple loosestrife and giant hogweed colonize roadside ditches; Japanese honeysuckle and multiflora rose thrive where meadows have been cleared.
What You Can Do
Creating wildlife corridors is one way to counteract habitat loss in your area. These corridors allow wildlife to move from one large tract of habitat—such as a park, wildlife sanctuary, or undeveloped private land—to another. They include culverts or overpasses when necessary so that animals can cross highways. Habitat biologists recommend that these corridors between major habitats should be at least 1,000 feet wide to accommodate many species. If you’re lucky enough to live next to one of these existing wildlife corridors, you can be part of the solution by keeping your yard as natural as possible, preventing cats and dogs from roaming free, removing invasive plant species, and minimizing light pollution.
Even if you don’t live next to a large-scale wildlife corridor, you still can work together with your neighbors or local government to provide a smaller-scale sanctuary or corridor, which can provide excellent habitat for wild creatures such as foxes and can encourage migrating songbirds. Imagine if everybody living along your street gave a 20- or 50-foot strip back to nature, and all those strips connected (some with water features, too). That’s a neighborhood wildlife corridor!
Another option is to lobby your local government agencies to create a wildlife corridor or park. Start by finding out whether your community has a plan for providing “green space” and what it entails. Then, talk with local leaders and residents to help them understand that “green space” such as athletic fields and biking trails is not the same as wildlife habitat. By spreading the word, you may help convince local officials to set aside some green space as the kind of undeveloped natural area that will help preserve and encourage native plants and wildlife.
Witch hazel. Deciduous fall- or winter-flowering shrubs and small trees.
Description: Hamamelis vernalis, vernal witch hazel, a native species, grows 6 to 10 feet tall and can spread wider than its height. Fragrant yellow to red flowers appear in late winter to early spring and are showy for almost a month. Golden yellow fall foliage color is very showy. Zones 4–8.
H. virginiana, American witch hazel, another native, grows 15 to 20 feet tall and wide. Its spicy-scented, saffron yellow flowers unfurl as its clear yellow fall foliage is dropping. Zones 3–8.
H. mollis, Chinese witch hazel, reaches 10 to 15 feet tall and wide. It is spectacular in the landscape because its blooms appear in midwinter, often against a backdrop of snow. Zones 5–8.
H. × intermedia, hybrid witch hazel, is a cross between Chinese and Japanese (H. japonica). Its many cultivars are large shrubs or small trees that reach 15 to 20 feet tall and are popular landscape specimens because of their showy and sweet-scented floral displays in mid- to late winter when few other blossoms are to be found. ‘Arnold Promise’ bears bright yellow flowers; ‘Jelena’ has orange blossoms; the flowers of ‘Diane’ are bold red-orange. Zones 5–8.
All species have dull green, 2- to 6-inch leaves. In autumn, seed capsules can catapult seeds many feet.
How to grow: Grow witch hazels in partial shade, especially in the southern end of their range. Common witch hazel grows best in moist, humus-rich soil, with plenty of mulch. Prune only to remove branches that are dead, dying, crossing, or rubbing.
Landscape uses: Witch hazels make good specimens. American witch hazel is lovely in a native planting. Plant winter-blooming hybrids near an entrance or walkway where you can enjoy their fragrance.
See Transplanting
Ivy. Evergreen woody vines.
Description: Hedera helix, English ivy, is a vigorous evergreen vine with shiny three- to five-lobed leaves, 2 to 5 inches long. Although this vine is very well known, it should be planted with caution because it is a nonnative species that can become invasive in some regions. It easily spreads beyond gardens, where it blankets woodlands, outcompetes native wildflowers, and overwhelms trees. Plants spread by stems that twine and attach by rootlets. Zones 5–9; some cultivars are hardy to Zone 4.
H. canariensis, Algerian or Canary ivy, is similar to English ivy but more tolerant of heat. Zones 9–10 and the milder parts of Zone 8. H. colchica, Persian ivy, displays large leaves and coarse growth. Zones 6–9. Both of these species show invasive potential in warmer regions.
How to grow: If you choose to grow ivies, plant them on sites where buildings, paved walkways, or other structures will keep them contained. Start with rooted cuttings or transplants in spring or fall. Plants prefer moist, humus-rich, well-drained soils and tolerate acid or alkaline conditions. Give them partial or dense shade—they won’t tolerate full sun or hot sites. Ivies are relatively free of pest and disease problems. Prune regularly to keep them from spreading.
Landscape uses: Ivies serve well as ground-covers or climbing vines and are valued as low-maintenance plants. They are especially useful in dense shade, where little else will grow. Site them very carefully and keep them away from sites where they can spread to wooded areas. The vines have holdfasts on aerial rootlets that allow them to cling to brick and masonry walls. However, be aware that rootlets can work their way into cracks in the wall and eventually dislodge pieces of brick or stone. Birds feed on the blue-black berries and contribute to the spread of ivies into woodlands, where they may grow unnoticed and unchecked until they have overtaken an area.
Use small-leaved or variegated ivies to grow over topiary forms, plant them in containers or hanging baskets, or grow them as houseplants.
Plant a hedge for a privacy screen to block out unwelcome views or traffic noise or to add a green background to set off other plantings. Hedges also provide excellent wind protection for house or garden. Thick, tall, or thorny hedges make inexpensive and forbidding barriers to keep out animals—or to keep them in. Many plants make excellent hedges. Even tall or bushy annuals can make a temporary hedge; plant herbs such as lavender for an attractive low hedge.
A formal hedge is an elegant, carefully trimmed row of trees or shrubs. It requires frequent pruning to keep plants straight and level. The best plants for formal hedges are fine leaved and slow growing—and tough enough to take frequent shearing. An informal hedge requires only selective pruning and has a more natural look. A wide variety of plants with attractive flowers or berries can be used.
Shaping a hedge. Prune a hedge so that its base is wider than the top. This allows light to reach all parts of the plants and keeps your hedge growing vigorously.
Most hedges are shrub or tree species; this list is a mix of common and uncommon hedge plants. An asterisk (*) indicates a plant that will work well for a formal hedge.
Evergreen Trees
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Lawson cypress)
Juniperus spp. (junipers)
Prunus laurocerasus (cherry laurel)*
Tsuga canadensis (Canada hemlock)*
Deciduous Trees
Carpinus betulus (European hornbeam)*
Crataegus spp. (hawthorns)*
Fagus spp. (beeches)
Evergreen Shrubs
Berberis aquifolium (formerly Mahonia spp.) and other species (holly-leaved barberry)
Buxus spp. (boxwoods)*
Cotoneaster spp. (cotoneasters)*
Ilex crenata (Japanese holly)*
Ligustrum spp. (privets)*
Taxus spp. (yews)*
Deciduous Shrubs
Chaenomeles speciosa (Japanese quince)
Diervilla lonicera (bush honeysuckle)
Forsythia × intermedia (forsythia)
Ligustrum spp. (privets)*
Philadelphus spp. (mock oranges)
Rosa spp. (shrub roses)
Viburnum spp. (viburnums)
It’s best to plant young plants when starting a hedge. Full-grown specimens are more apt to die from transplanting stress in the early years, and finding an exact replacement can be difficult. It’s easier to fill a gap in an informal hedge.
For an open, airy hedge of flowering shrubs, allow plenty of room for growth when planting. For a dense, wall-like hedge, space the plants more closely. You may find it easier to dig a trench rather than separate holes. To ensure your hedge will be straight, tie a string between stakes at each end to mark the trench before digging. See the Planting entry for details on preparing planting holes and setting plants.
Broad-leaved plants used as a formal hedge need early training to force dense growth. For a thick, uniform hedge, reduce new shoots on the top and sides by one-third or more each year until the hedge is the desired size. Cutting a formal hedge properly is a challenge. Stand back, walk around, and recut until you get it straight—just like a haircut. Shear often during the growing season to keep it neat.
Needled evergreens require a different technique. Avoid cutting off the tops of evergreens until they reach the desired height. Shear sides once a year, but never into the bare wood. See the Evergreens entry for more pruning tips.
Prune informal hedges according to when they bloom. Do any needed pruning soon after flowering. Use thinning cuts to prune selected branches back to the next limb. Heading cuts that nip the branch back to a bud encourage dense, twiggy growth on the outside. To keep informal hedges vigorous, cut two or three of the oldest branches to the ground each year.
For fast, dense growth, prune in spring. This is also a good time for any severe shearing or pruning that’s needed. For more about when and how to prune, see the Shrubs and the Pruning and Training entries.
Heirloom plants are most often thought of as old-time varieties of vegetables that come true from seed. That means that they’re open-pollinated, so (assuming you don’t plant other cultivars that could cross-pollinate nearby) you can save seed from your plants every year for the following year’s garden. In addition to wonderful heirloom vegetables, most cottage-garden flowers and herbs fall in this category, too. Of course, many plants have been lovingly passed down through the generations as cuttings, and even the hybrids that replaced most open-pollinated plants in commerce now boast some old “heirloom” cultivars of their own. But usually, “open-pollinated” continues to be the hallmark of herbaceous heirloom plants.
Some famous heirlooms have been sold and passed down in families or communities for hundreds of years; others date just to the early 1900s. What they all have in common is that backyard gardeners have prized them for their beauty, flavor, fragrance, or productivity. Because home gardeners thought highly enough of these plants to save seed from them year after year, we can still enjoy them today.
Characteristics: Heirloom fruits and vegetables are often not suited to large-scale production. Many types don’t ripen all at once so they aren’t easily harvested mechanically. They often don’t keep well during shipping and storage and many of them don’t have a consistent appearance. They may even look a little odd, like some of the warty-skinned melons or striped green tomatoes.
But heirlooms are often ideal for home gardeners. Many heirloom crops have a more pleasing flavor and texture than their hybrid replacements, and many spread their harvest over a longer period so families can enjoy picking just what they need for each day’s meals rather than having to harvest a bumper crop all at once. If grown for years in one locality, the heirlooms have adapted to the climate and soil conditions of that area and may outproduce modern cultivars. Others may be less productive than today’s hybrids but offer greater disease and insect resistance, which is invaluable to organic gardeners. (On the other hand, some heirlooms are less resistant than hybrids bred specifically to resist particular diseases.) Heirloom plants also add interest to garden and table, with a wide range of shapes, colors, and flavors unavailable in modern cultivars.
Heirloom plants are a tangible connection with the past. Like fine old furniture and antique china, the garden plants of earlier generations draw us closer to those who have grown them before us. Some heirloom cultivars have fascinating histories. ‘Mostoller Wild Goose’ bean, said to have been collected from the craw of a goose shot in 1864 in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, was once grown by Cornplanter Indians. ‘Hopi Pale Grey’ squash is a Pueblo Indian legacy that was almost lost to cultivation and remains one of the most sought-after winter squashes. ‘Anasazi’ corn, found in a Utah cave, is thought to be more than 800 years old. And many gardeners have heard the story of ‘Radiator Charley’s Mortgage Lifter’ tomato, a huge, meaty cultivar that helped its discoverer, an unemployed mechanic, pay off his mortgage during the Depression.
Cultivars like these are eagerly sought by both gardeners and collectors, who maintain them for their historic value just as archivists maintain old papers and books. See the list at right for other well-known examples.
Genetic diversity: As fewer seed companies remain in existence and those that survive offer a dwindling number of cultivars, there’s an even more vital reason for growing old cultivars: These open-pollinated heirloom plants represent a vast and diverse pool of genetic characteristics—one that will be lost forever if these plants are allowed to become extinct. Even cultivars that seem inferior to us today may carry a gene that will prove invaluable in the future. One may contain a valuable but yet undiscovered substance that could be used in medicine. Another could have the disease resistance vital to future generations of gardeners and plant breeders.
The federal government maintains the Plant and Animal Genetic Resources Preservation Unit in Fort Collins, Colorado, as part of its commitment to maintaining genetic diversity, but the task of preserving seed is so vast that the government probably cannot do a complete job on its own. Heirloom gardeners recognize the importance of maintaining genetic diversity, and many feel a real sense of urgency and importance about their own preservation work. Thanks to them, to seed companies that remain committed to offering open-pollinated heirlooms to the public, and to organizations like Seed Savers Exchange that are dedicated to maintaining diversity in the garden, the future of heirloom plants looks bright.
Getting started: If you’d like to start growing heirloom plants in your garden, try ordering seed from small specialty seed suppliers that carry old cultivars. Also, you can contact nonprofit organizations that work with individuals to preserve heirloom plants, such as the Seed Savers Exchange. Some gardening magazines also have a seed swap column. See Resources for contact information for seed exchanges. For directions on how to save seeds from your garden, see the Seed Starting and Seed Saving entry.
Here is a sampling of the best-known heirloom cultivars. This selection just skims the surface to whet your appetite.
Beans: ‘Cherokee Trail of Tears’, ‘Dragon Tongue’, ‘Hutterite Soup’, ‘Jacob’s Cattle’, ‘Mayflower’, ‘Old Homestead’
Corn: ‘Black Aztec’, ‘Country Gentleman’, ‘Golden Bantam’, ‘Stowell’s Evergreen’
Cucumbers: ‘Boston Pickling’, ‘Chinese Yellow’, ‘Lemon’, ‘White Wonder’
Lettuce: ‘Amish Deer Tongue’, ‘Black-Seeded Simpson’, ‘Merveille des Quatre Saisons’, ‘Parris Island Cos’, ‘Tom Thumb’
Squash: ‘Rouge Vif d’Etampes’, ‘Turk’s Cap’, ‘White Scallop’, ‘Winter Luxury Pie Pumpkin’
Tomatoes: ‘Amish Paste’, ‘Bloody Butcher’, ‘Brandywine’, ‘Cherokee Purple’, ‘German Lunchbox’, ‘Green Zebra’, ‘Mule Team’, ‘Persimmon’
Watermelons: ‘Charleston Gray’, ‘Dixie Queen’, ‘Georgia Rattlesnake’, ‘Moon and Stars’, ‘Stone Mountain’
Sunflower. Summer- to fall-blooming annuals and perennials.
Description: Helianthus annuus, common sunflower, is an annual that lights up gardens with single or double daisies in shades of cream, yellow, orange, and red-brown on plants 2 to 10 feet tall or taller. For more details, see the Sunflower entry.
H. × multiflorus, many-flowered sunflower, is a perennial that bears 3- to 5-inch golden blooms on upright, bushy plants to 5 feet. Blooms appear from late summer to fall. Zones 4–8.
How to grow: Start annual sunflowers indoors a few weeks before the last frost, or sow directly in full sun and average to rich, moist but well-drained soil. Water and fertilize regularly. Provide similar growing conditions for perennials; plant in spring. Divide overgrown clumps in fall every 3 or 4 years. Sunflowers are usually drought tolerant once established.
Landscape uses: Grow in borders for summer and fall color, in informal and meadow gardens, and in cutting gardens.
Hellebore. Winter- to early-spring-blooming perennials.
Description: Hellebores bear 2- to 3-inch, shallow bowl-shaped flowers and 1-foot palm-shaped evergreen leaves. Helleborus foetidus, green-flowered or stinking hellebore, bears striking clusters of chartreuse flowers held well above blue-gray or dark forest green leaves. ‘Wester Flisk’ is an outstanding cultivar. Zones 5 (with protection) and 6–9.
H. niger, Christmas rose, bears white flowers in winter or early spring among 1-foot mounds of foliage; ‘Potter’s Wheel’ and ‘Nell Lewis’ are outstanding cultivars; ‘Blackthorn Strain’ is a selection of the hybrid H. × sternii. Zones 3–8.
H. orientalis, Lenten rose (more often orientalis hybrids, H. × hybridus), blooms in early spring, with white, green, pink, yellow, purple, maroon, or almost black flowers among handsome, 1½-foot shiny green leaves. Flowers are often speckled with a contrasting color, and some cultivars, such as ‘Party Dress’, have double flowers. Many outstanding cultivars and strains are available. The hybrid Lenten rose (H. × hybridus) was named Perennial Plant of the Year for 2005 by the Perennial Plant Association. Zones 4–9.
How to grow: Set out pot-grown or small plants in the spring or fall. Divide these slow-to-establish but long-lived plants in spring, but only when you want new plants. They thrive in partial to full shade and well-drained, moisture-retentive, humus-rich soil. Keep out of drying winter winds. Established hellebores can self-sow profusely; transplant seedlings to their permanent positions in spring. (Note that a seedling may take 2 to 5 years to reach flowering size, so be patient. These long-lived plants are worth the wait.)
Landscape uses: Allow to naturalize in woodland plantings and among shrubs. Feature with early snowdrops and crocuses. A perfect complement to other shade plants such as hostas, ferns, wild gingers (Asarum spp.), bleeding hearts (Dicentra spp.), heucheras, and astilbes, hellebores are deer resistant. Contact with hellebores’ foliage can cause skin irritation. Wear gloves and long sleeves when working with hellebores, and avoid planting them where you are likely to brush against the plants. All parts of hellebore plants are poisonous.
Daylily. Mostly summer-blooming perennials; some bloom in spring and fall.
Description: Daylilies (Hemerocallis spp.) bear 2- to 8-inch-wide trumpet-shaped flowers in tones of almost every floral color except pure white and blue. Individual blooms last for only 1 day, though plants produce many buds, which provides a long display period. Flowers are borne on 1- to 6-foot (but usually 2½- to 3½-foot) top-branched, strong stems above fountainlike clumps of strap-shaped, roughly 2-foot-long, medium green leaves. Famous cultivars include the classic tall, fragrant, yellow ‘Hyperion’, compact, gold-flowering ‘Stella de Oro’, and reblooming, lemon-yellow ‘Happy Returns’. Zones 3–9.
How to grow: Plant or divide daylilies any time from spring to fall, though early spring and early fall are best. Divide 4- to 6-year-old clumps by lifting the entire clump from the ground and inserting two digging forks back-to-back, pulling them apart to split the tight root mass. Replant as single, double, or triple “fans.” (A fan is a division of a daylily plant, consisting of fleshy roots, a crown, and leaves.) Daylilies grow in sun or partial shade. Plant in average to fertile, well-drained, moisture-retentive soil (though plants will tolerate drought). Routinely deadhead spent blooms, which otherwise collect on the stalks and spoil the display. Watch for thrips, which brown and disfigure the buds; control them with soap spray or by removing infested flowers.
Landscape uses: Grow as specimens or groups in borders, or showcase daylilies in beds of their own. Many tougher, older cultivars make excellent groundcovers and bank plantings to control erosion and weeds. They also look beautiful planted along a fence or stone wall. Try showy rebloomers (like the ‘Returns’ series) as specimen plants in half-barrel containers.
See Tsuga
Every gardener should grow at least a few herbs, even if only in pots on a sunny porch. Herbs contribute to our cuisine and our well-being; serve as decorative additions in gardens, bouquets, and wreaths; and fascinate us with their rich history and lore.
The word herb means different things to botanists and gardeners. For the botanist, an herb is basically any seed-bearing plant that isn’t woody; it’s where our word herbaceous comes from, as in herbaceous perennial. But for herb gardeners, what distinguishes an herb from other plants is its usefulness. As Merriam-Webster’s dictionary puts it, an herb in this sense is “a plant or plant part valued for its medicinal, savory, or aromatic qualities.”
Above all, whether used for flavorings, fragrances, medicines, crafts, dyes, or teas, herbs are truly useful plants. They’re also among the most familiar garden plants, because they have been part of daily life since the dawn of human history, long before humans began intentionally planting gardens. From the beginning, people recognized certain plants’ abilities to heal and to promote health. From there, it was a short step to using those plants for flavoring food and scenting the dwelling place.
There are nearly as many ways to incorporate herbs into your garden as there are herbs to choose from. A traditional herb garden is delightful, but herbs add interest to flower gardens, too. You can mix herbs into plantings of perennials or annuals, for example. One advantage of growing herbs apart from ornamentals, though, is that you won’t spoil the flower garden display when you harvest your herbs.
Herb growing can be as simple or as complicated as you choose to make it. Most herbs are easy to grow—they demand little (typically full sun and good drainage) and give a lot. You can grow herbs successfully in anything from a simple arrangement of pots to a stylized formal garden. Only a few types of herbs are prima donnas that demand coddling. Also, some that are not hardy in the North must be brought indoors for winter or treated as annuals and replaced each year.
If your goal is to grow herbs in quantity, it makes sense to plant them in rows or beds in your vegetable garden for ease of care and harvest. Plants such as oregano, savory, santolina, thyme, culinary sage, and lavender do best in full sun in well-drained soils to which lime and grit have been added. Place them on specially prepared ridges or in raised beds. Angelica can be settled into a wettish spot. Dill, cilantro (coriander), parsley, chives, garlic chives, French tarragon, mints, and basils will thrive in a sunny site in well-drained soil containing lots of organic matter.
Herbs are often used as companion plants in the vegetable garden. According to folklore, in some cases backed by scientific studies, certain herbs can either aid or hinder vegetable growth. Herbs also help deter pests. And of course, they add beauty to your vegetable beds. See the Herbs for a Mixed Border sidebar and the Companion Planting entry for more details.
Many herbs are suitable for a mixed border or bed—a flower garden that combines perennials, annuals, and shrubs. You may already have some herbs in your garden, although you may think of them as flowers or foliage plants. In fact, roses such as the apothecary’s rose (Rosa gallica var. officinalis) and damask rose (R. × damascena) have been grown for centuries for their medicinal and fragrant qualities.
English lavender cultivars such as ‘Hidcote’ or ‘Munstead’ are always welcome among the flowers in beds or borders. Pure blue, silky flowers on delicate wiry stems make blue flax (Linum perenne) a favorite in flowerbeds. Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) is another herb often used in mixed borders. Its lacy, bright green foliage sets off small, pure white single or double daisies. Catmints (Nepeta spp.), with sprays of blue-lavender flowers, pungent, gray-green leaves, and a tufted habit, are lovely with lilies and roses.
Many gray-leaved herbs, such as the artemisias (Artemisia spp.), lamb’s ears (Stachys byzantina), and Russian sage (Perovskia atriplicifolia), with its silvery foliage and misty blue flowers, are useful for separating and blending colors in the garden. Even a culinary workhorse like dill can be used to fine effect in the mixed border. Its delicate, chartreuse flowers and lacy foliage add an airiness to any planting.
Herbs and containers are a happy combination, especially for a gardener short on space, time, or stamina. Maintenance chores—except for watering—are eliminated or much reduced. Even if your garden has plenty of space, a potted collection adds interest to a sunny porch, patio, or deck. Keep that “sunny” aspect in mind when planning your container herb garden—most herbs need full sun and good drainage whether they’re grown in pots or in the ground. (Mints are an exception, fond as they are of moist soil.) In fact, one great reason to grow herbs in containers is if much of your yard is in shade but your patio, deck, or dooryard is sunny.
An assortment of terra-cotta pots brimming with herbs used for cooking makes a charming— and useful—addition to a kitchen doorstep. Or try a sampler of mints in a wooden half barrel—the notorious perennial spreaders stay in control, will come back year after year, and are handy when you’re ready to brew a pot of tea. Hanging baskets of nasturtiums will add delightful color to your collection of container herbs, and the leaves, flowers, and spicy buds are all edible. For information on potting soil mixes for container plants, see the Container Gardening and Houseplants entries.
Some tender herbs are often grown—or at least overwintered—in containers because they aren’t hardy and won’t survive northern winters. These include rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sweet bay (Laurus nobilis), myrtle (Myrtus communis), pineapple sage (Salvia elegans), and lemon verbena (Aloysia triphylla). See Overwintering Tender Perennials for directions on keeping these tender herbs from year to year.
Many herbs will thrive in a sunny mixed bed or border with average to rich, well-drained soil. These herbs are showy enough to hold their own in any garden. Plants are perennials unless otherwise noted.
Achillea spp. (yarrows): Yellow, white, red, or pink flowers; used medicinally and dried for herbal crafts
Calendula officinalis (pot marigold): Annual with bright orange or yellow daisy-like flowers; used medicinally and in cooking
Digitalis purpurea (common foxglove): Biennial with tube-shaped pinkish purple or white flowers; formerly used medicinally (do not try this today!)
Echinacea purpurea (purple coneflower): Rosy purple daisies with high, bristly centers; roots used medicinally
Lavandula angustifolia (lavender): Lavender or purple flowers; flowers and foliage used for fragrance and herbal crafts
Linum usitatissimum (common flax): Blue flowers; used medicinally
Monarda didyma (bee balm): Shaggy rose or pink blossoms; dried blossoms and foliage used for tea, fragrance, and herbal crafts
Tropaeolum majus (garden nasturtium): Annual with abundant flowers in shades of orange, yellow, and red; used in cooking and as a companion plant
Most gardeners would probably include an exquisitely groomed formal herb garden on their wish list. But if you have the impulse to make a formal herb garden, bear in mind that they’re not for everyone. These carefully planned gardens with their neatly trimmed, geometric arrangements require intensive management to keep them looking their best.
Knot gardens, in which miniature hedges in different colors and textures create the look of intertwining strands, are a classic feature of formal herb gardens. Dwarf boxwoods (Buxus spp.), lavender (Lavandula spp.), lavender cotton (Santolina rosmarinifolia and S. chamaecyparissus), and germander (Teucrium chamaedrys) are popular knot-garden plants. You can also mix textures and colors of mulches—brown cocoa shells, white marble chips, gray-blue crushed granite, and so on—to elaborate the knot garden. However, while knot gardens can be an intriguing challenge to plan and plant, even a modest version requires constant maintenance. Everything must be kept under control—constant trimming and shaping are essential, and all the plants must be in top-notch health if the knot pattern is to remain attractive.
If you’re ambitious enough to try a knot garden, keep it small, so that replacements and maintenance aren’t overwhelming. You’ll need to replace individual specimens in the clipped hedges that don’t make it through winter. Replacements can be hard to find in the same size as the plants that remain intact. If you have space, keep a few extra plants growing in a nursery bed or other out-of-the-way spot for just such emergencies.
Another type of formal herb garden consists of a pattern of squares or diamonds with contrasting borders. You can grow a different herb in each square, or grow alternating squares of the same herb—the key is to grow just one herb in each square—to make a pattern. The squares are tied together with either edgings of knot-garden plants forming a low, meticulously groomed hedge around each square, or by narrow pavings of bricks between the squares with wider brick paths typically dividing the garden into quadrants. Like a knot garden, a garden of this type requires a great deal of grooming and attention to detail.
Although most herbs require a sunny site, there are some herbs that will grow in shade. Provide these shade-loving herbs with loose, rich soil and plenty of moisture. This list includes herbs grown for fragrance, culinary uses, and teas. Many are American natives that were used medicinally. Grow them from seed or buy plants from nurseries that propagate their own stock, rather than gathering them from the wild.
Actaea racemosa (black snakeroot): Spikes of small white flowers; roots used medicinally
Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil): White-flowered annual; culinary herb
Asarum canadense (Canadian wild ginger): Attractive groundcover; used medicinally
Caulophyllum thalictroides (blue cohosh): Blue berries (poisonous); roots used medicinally
Coptis trifolia (three-leaf goldthread): Small shiny-leaved plant with threadlike yellow creeping roots used medicinally and for dye
Galium odoratum (sweet woodruff): Low-growing plant with white flowers; excellent groundcover; dried foliage and flowers used for fragrance
Gaultheria procumbens (wintergreen): Creeping evergreen with tasty leaves and berries; used medicinally and for teas
Hamamelis virginiana (American witch hazel): Shrub with autumn flowers with petals like small yellow ribbons; used medicinally
Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal): Thick yellow root used medicinally and for dye
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm): White-flowered mint-family member; used for fragrance and teas
Mentha spp. (mints): Rampant-growing herbs with pungent foliage used medicinally and for fragrance and teas
Myrrhis odorata (sweet cicely): Ferny, fragrant foliage; smells of licorice; culinary herb
Polygonatum spp. (Solomon’s seals): Dangling bell-like flowers; roots used medicinally
Sanguinaria canadensis (bloodroot): White flowers in early spring; used medicinally
Viola odorata (sweet violet): Violet, white, purple, rose, or blue flowers in spring; will spread; used for fragrance
Perhaps one of the easiest and most rewarding ways to use herbs in the landscape is in an informal herb garden. An informal garden can be a free-form island bed, with the tallest herb plants in the center and the shortest around the edges. Or it could be more like a perennial border, set against a background such as a wall, hedge, fence, or building and defined with either straight or curved lines.
So many flowering plants have been used as herbs that even the most rigid purist—one who plants a garden of only traditional herbs—could enjoy plenty of color and texture. Such a garden also would have an abundance of fragrances, plus an added bonus of plenty of herbs to use in wreaths, potpourris, or other projects.
An informal garden of ornamental herbs could feature billows of poppies, yarrows, and lavenders (one herb nursery offers 46 species and cultivars!). Masses of painted daisies (Tanacetum coccineum), catmints (Nepeta spp.), artemisias, and flax (Linum spp.) might be backed by white spikes of Culver’s root (Veronicastrum virginicum), tall foxgloves (Digitalis spp.), or Canadian burnet (Sanguisorba canadensis). For further textural interest, try the elegant leaves and umbels of angelica (Angelica archangelica), the shaggy blossoms of bee balm (Monarda didyma), and the fragrant, frothy plumes of white mugwort (Artemisia lactiflora), one of the few artemisias with green leaves.
Gray-leaved plants provide good contrast but use caution when choosing artemisia cultivars unless you will confine them with a physical barrier. Many, such as ‘Silver King’, are determined spreaders and quite aggressive. By comparison, ‘Powis Castle’ is a large, attractive silver-leaved artemisia that grows well without becoming rampant. ‘Powis Castle’ is not reliably hardy north of Zone 6, but cuttings root easily during summer and can be kept in pots indoors during winter.
Yarrows (Achillea spp.) have been used medicinally for ages and fit well in any herb garden. Cultivars now offer wonderful colors—shades of rose, buff, apricot, and crimson, as well as their usual yellows, white, and pink. Still pretty in the garden are the well-known selections ‘Coronation Gold’, in deep yellow, and the pale lemon ‘Moonshine’. The flowers of ‘Coronation Gold’ dry particularly well for winter bouquets.
Include hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) and anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) in an informal garden, too. Although members of the mint family, they spread by means of seeds instead of stolons. The ordinary hyssop is a bushy, 2-foot plant whose flowers come in blue, pink, or white. Anise hyssop is taller and produces dense spikes of bluish lavender flowers in August when perennial flowers are scarce.
Culinary sage and other salvias, rue, and orris (Iris germanica) are other good choices for an informal garden.
Use low-growing or mat-forming herbs to front the tall and midsized plants. Try clove pinks (Dianthus caryophyllus), chives, santolinas (both green and gray), and thymes.
Herbs are generally undemanding plants. Given adequate light and good soil, they will produce well and suffer from few problems. Some herbs are perennials; others are annuals. Keep in mind that tender perennial herbs will behave like annuals in the northern states unless you grow them in containers and bring them indoors for winter.
Common annual herbs are basil, chervil, cilantro (coriander), dill, summer savory, and parsley, which is actually a biennial that is grown as an annual. More-exotic annuals include Jerusalem oak goosefoot (Dysphania botrys, also called feather-geranium), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), sweet Annie (Artemisia annua), and sweet-scented marigold (Tagetes lucida), a tender perennial that can substitute for French tarragon. Sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana) is not hardy north of Zone 6, but it lives through winter in the South.
Plant seeds for chervil, cilantro (coriander), and dill outdoors where they are to grow, in spring or fall. These herbs are extremely difficult to transplant successfully. If you want a head start on outdoor planting, sow them in peat pots for minimum root disturbance at planting time. Sow sweet Annie and Jerusalem oak goosefoot outdoors in autumn.
Herb seedlings are often tiny and slower-growing than weeds, so it makes sense to start them indoors if you can. Start basil, marigolds, marjoram, and summer savory indoors in flats or pots, and move them to the garden when no more cold weather is expected. Parsley takes so long to come up that you might be better off starting it indoors, too. Outdoors, you will be down on your knees every day trying to sort out the baby parsley plants from the weeds, which germinate quickly and will always have a head start.
Some annual herbs, such as dill, self-sow so generously there is little need to plant them year after year if the plot where they are growing is kept weeded. If you allow a parsley plant to remain in the garden the second year and set seed, it, too, will self-sow. This makes for convenience and good strong plants as well, because self-sown plants are almost always sturdier than those started indoors under lights. For more information on starting herb seeds, see the Seed Starting and Seed Saving entry.
Herb wheel garden. Planting herbs in a wagon wheel frame creates a garden that’s as attractive as it is productive. Plant each wedge-shaped section with a single type of herb, repeating sections for herbs you like best. If you like, choose a theme such as pizza, salsa, or salad herbs, or herbs for dips.
Perennial herbs can be grown from seed, but they take longer to germinate than the annuals. It’s better to start out by buying young plants of perennial herbs such as mints, sages, and thymes. If you’re growing named cultivars that may not come true from seed, it makes even more sense to buy plants. Once you’ve gotten started, increase your supply by dividing plants such as mint or by taking cuttings, which works well for rosemary and myrtle. For more on propagating herbs, see the Division and Cuttings entries.
Many perennial herbs need no help once they’re established in your garden. Sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum) will supply you with bushels of foliage for potpourri while it covers the ground. Chamomile, chives, feverfew, garlic chives, lemon balm, and winter savory will self-sow seemingly eternally.
Horehound, oregano, and thyme usually sow some seedlings, but fennel and lovage seem to stay in one place without multiplying. Some of the catmints (Nepeta spp.) self-sow; others don’t.
You may prefer to propagate certain perennial herbs by means of cuttings because they are especially beautiful, fragrant, or flavorful forms or cultivars. (Plants propagated from seed don’t always resemble their parents, whereas those from cuttings do.) If you have a fine lavender such as ‘Hidcote’ and you would like to have more without paying for more plants from the nursery, take 3- to 4-inch cuttings of the semihard tips and gently remove the lower leaves, Press the cuttings into a mixture of damp peat and sand in a light but not sunny spot, cover with a cloche or jar, and start yourself some new plants. You can also do this with thymes, taking cuttings from a silvery or variegated plant or any one that you especially like. Lemon verbena is sterile and must be propagated this way. Luckily, it roots readily.
French tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus var. sativa) must also be purchased as a plant, since it never sets viable seed. The so-called Russian tarragon offered as seed has no culinary value. When French tarragon is grown in sun or part sun and in light, well-watered but well-drained soil, it usually thrives and spreads enough to divide one plant into many each spring. It is hardy at least through Zone 5. However, if you do not succeed with it, due to severe cold or to high summer temperatures in your area, try the annual marigold from Mexico and South America called sweet-scented marigold (Tagetes lucida). It makes an excellent substitute.
Like nearly all plants, herbs require well-drained soil. While most do best in full sun, they will accept as little as 6 hours of sunlight a day. Incorporate compost or other organic matter into the soil, and cultivate carefully to keep out weeds. Mulch everything except the Mediterranean plants (marjoram, oregano, rosemary, sage, winter savory, and thyme) with a fine, thick material such as straw that neither acidifies the soil nor keeps out the rain. Avoid pine bark (chipped or shredded) and peat. Mediterranean plants prefer being weeded to being mulched, since they are used to growing on rocky hills with no accumulation of vegetable matter around their woody stems. In the colder areas of the country, protect your plantings of catmint, horehound, lavender, rue, thyme, winter savory, and sage with evergreen boughs in winter.
Gardeners who grow their plants out in the sun and wind will have little trouble with disease or insect damage. Basil is sometimes subject to attack by chewing insects, but if you follow good cultural practices and grow enough plants, the damage can be ignored. You’ll rarely have the need to take measures to control insect pests on herbs, but if you do, opt for handpicking pests or knocking them from plants with a strong spray of water. It’s best to avoid applying even organic insecticides to culinary herbs, since any residues may affect flavor and fragrance.
To overwinter frost-tender herbs such as rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sweet bay (Laurus nobilis), myrtle (Myrtus communis), pineapple sage (Salvia elegans), scented geraniums (Pelargonium spp.), and lemon verbena (Aloysia triphylla), you can either grow them permanently in pots or take cuttings of plants at the end of the season, root them, then pot them and hold them over winter indoors until the following spring. This latter method works well for nonwoody herbs like basils and pineapple sage.
Shrubby or woody plants, like sweet bay or rosemary, are best grown in pots so they can be moved indoors when winter cold threatens. In summer, set them in a spot outdoors where they get morning but not afternoon sun. Some gardeners take their tender herbs out of their winter pots and put them into the ground for summer. However, this is an extremely stressful procedure for the plants, because the roots they send out in garden soil have to be chopped back in fall and forced into pots for winter.
During winter months indoors, keep herbs in a cool, sunny window, and make sure they never dry out. Rosemary especially must be watered frequently, although never left to sit in water. Verbenas will shed most or all of their leaves during winter. Water them very sparingly until early spring, when tiny leaf buds begin to appear along their branches.
These plants don’t really object to being grown in pots, but they don’t tolerate being indoors very well. You may have to help them fight off bugs and diseases during winter months. Potted herbs in the house may become afflicted with scale, aphids, or other pests. (Scented geraniums are the exception; these plants tend to shrug off pests.) Keep a close watch for signs of infestation. See the Houseplants entry for information on controlling these pests. In spring, move the plants outside. Within a few days, their relief will be visible, and they’ll start growing happily again.
Before bringing herbs in for winter, turn them out of their pots and put them into larger ones, adding new soil mixed with compost. When, after some years, the pots have reached the limit of what you want to lift, turn out the plants and root-prune them. If the roots form a solid, pot-shaped lump (as they certainly will in the case of rosemary), take a cleaver or large kitchen knife and slice off an inch or two all the way around. Fill in the extra space with fresh soil and compost. Cut back one-quarter to one-third of the topgrowth to balance what you have removed from the bottom.
Cut and use your herbs all summer while they are at their very best. The flavor of the herb leaves is at its peak just as the plants begin to form flower buds. Cut herbs in midmorning, after the sun has dried the leaves but before it gets too hot. You can cut back as much as three-quarters of a plant without hurting it. (When harvesting parsley, remove the outside leaves so that the central shoot remains.) Remove any damaged or yellow foliage. If the plants are dirty, rinse them quickly in cold water and drain them well.
You will want to preserve some herbs for use during winter months. Drying is an easy way to preserve herbs, although you can also freeze them in plastic bags or preserve them in olive oil.
Air-drying: Dry herbs as quickly as possible in a dark, well-ventilated place. Attics and barns are ideal, but any breezy room that can be kept dark will do. Hang the branches by the stems, or strip off the leaves to dry them on racks through which the air can circulate. Drying on racks is the best way to handle large-leaved herbs such as sweet basil or comfrey. It’s also good for drying rose petals or other fragrant flowers for potpourris.
To keep air-dried herbs dust-free and out of the light while drying, you can cover them with brown paper bags. Tie the cut herbs in loose bunches, small enough so that they don’t touch the sides of the bag, then tie the bag closed around the ends of the stems. Label each bag.
After a few weeks, test for dryness. When the leaves are completely dry and crisp, rub them off the stems and store them in jars out of the light.
Dehydrating: If you have an electric dehydrator, it’s an easy, ideal tool for drying your herbs. Strip off the leaves and place them on the dehydrator trays so they’re not touching, and follow your dehydrator’s instructions for the appropriate time and setting.
Oven drying: You can also dry herbs on racks made of metal screening in a gas oven that has a pilot light. Turn them twice a day for several days. Or dry in an oven at very low heat—150°F or lower. When herbs are crisp, remove the leaves from the stems and crumble them into jars.
Microwave drying: Microwave-dried herbs retain excellent color and potency. Start by laying the herb foliage in a single layer on a paper towel, either on the oven rack or on the glass insert. Cover the leaves with another paper towel and microwave on high for 1 minute. Then check the herbs, and if they are still soft, keep testing at 20- to 30-second intervals. Microwave ovens differ in power output, so you’ll have to experiment. Keep track of your results with each kind of herb.
Microwave drying is a bit easier on plant tissue than oven drying, because the water in the herb leaves absorbs more of the energy than the plant tissue does. The water in the leaves gets hot and evaporates—that’s why the paper towels become damp during the drying process—leaving drying plant tissue behind. The plant tissue heats up a little because of the contact with the water, but the water absorbs most of the heat. In a conventional oven, all the plant material gets hot, not just the water.
If you have only a tub or two in which to grow herbs, you might plant a few culinary herbs or lavender for fragrance. If you have a big garden, you can experiment with medicinal plants as well as with material to dry for teas, colorful, fragrant bouquets, wreaths, and potpourris.
If you’re not accustomed to using herbs in cooking, start out by exercising restraint. If you overdo it, you might find you have overwhelmed the original flavor of the meat or vegetable whose flavor you meant to enhance. Remember that ounce for ounce, dried herbs have more potent flavor than fresh ones. Study cookbooks’ herb recommendations, and when you’ve learned the usual combinations (French tarragon with fish or chicken, or basil with tomatoes and eggplant, for instance), experiment on your own. You could invent some new and wonderful dishes. See the list above for ideas to get started.
There’s a wide range of herbs for adding flavor to everything from salad dressing to dessert. This list includes popular herbs for livening up your meals.
Angelica (Angelica archangelica): In salads, soups, stews, desserts
Caraway (Carum carvi): With vegetables or in soups, stews, or bread
Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium): In soups and stews, or with fish or vegetables
Chives (Allium schoenoprasum): In soups, salads, and sandwiches
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum): In salads, stew, or relish; popular in Thai and Mexican cooking
Dill (Anethum graveolens): With fish or vegetables; in salads or sauces; seed used for pickling
French tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus var. sativa): In salads or sauces; with meat, fish, or vegetables
Garlic (Allium sativum): In all kinds of dishes, except desserts
Garlic chives (Allium tuberosum): In soups, salads, and sandwiches
Lovage (Levisticum officinale): Used like celery, in soups, stews, salads, or sauces
Mints (Mentha spp.): In jellies, sauces, or teas; with meats, fish, or vegetables
Oregano (Origanum vulgare subsp. hirtum): In sauces, or with cheese, eggs, meats, or vegetables
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum): In all kinds of dishes, except desserts
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis): With meat or vegetables; in soups or sauces
Sage (Salvia officinalis): With eggs, poultry, or vegetables
Savories (Satureja spp.): In soups or teas, or with vegetables, especially beans
Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum): With meats or vegetables, in sauces, pesto, and salads
Sweet bay (Laurus nobilis): In soups, stews, or sauces
Sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana): Used like oregano
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris): With meat or vegetables
While you’re gathering herbs for the kitchen, include some to use for tea. Herbal teas can be soothing, stimulating, or simply pleasant. Many of them are wonderful aids to digestion or for allaying cold symptoms. Some, such as lemon balm, pineapple sage, and lemon verbena, make refreshing iced teas or additions to iced drinks.
You can make herb tea with dried or fresh leaves, flowers, or other plant parts. To make herb tea, place leaves into an herb ball in an earthenware or china pot or mug. Start with 1 tablespoon of dried herbs or 2 tablespoons of fresh herbs per cup, and adjust the quantity to suit your own taste as you gain experience. Then add boiling water and steep for 5 to 10 minutes before removing the herb ball and serving the tea.
One word of caution: Not all herbs are suitable for making tea. If you’re experimenting with making herbal teas, remember that some herbs can make you ill if ingested. Research before you brew. See the list at right of herbs you can safely brew and sip.
Flowers release their perfume into the air so freely, you need only walk past them to enjoy the scent of roses, lilacs, honeysuckle, clove pinks, or any other highly fragrant flower. Occasionally, we can detect the scent of lavender or thyme when they are baking in the hot sun. But plants with aromatic leaves do not, as a rule, release the odor of their oils unless you rub a leaf or walk on the plant or brush against the branches while working around them.
The leaves of scented geraniums (Pelargonium spp.) (just one example of the many fragrant-foliaged herbs) are wonderful to rub between your fingers. They come in a wide variety of scents, including lemon rose, lemon, mint, nutmeg, rose, and ginger. Their many different fragrances, and their leaf and flower variations, make them fascinating to collectors and gardeners alike.
Lavender, lemon balm, lemon verbena, scented geraniums, rosemary, and sweet woodruff are among the best-known herbs grown for fragrance. All can be preserved by air-drying (see Air-drying for directions). For more suggestions of herbs to grow for fragrant flowers, foliage, or fruit, see the list below.
Making sachets and potpourri are two good ways to preserve the scent of herbs to add fragrance to linens or to the rooms of your house. Sachets are made with combinations of dried herb leaves and, frequently, lavender blossoms as well as rose petals, crumbled or ground. You can dry rose petals by spreading them on sheets or screens in a dark, airy place. Petals of apothecary’s rose (Rosa gallica var. officinalis) are the most fragrant.
Potpourri is a mix of flower petals and leaves used whole for decorative effect; it can be made with fresh or dried leaves and petals. Some potpourris include dried orange or lemon peel and spices such as cloves and allspice. Experiment with different combinations and see which ones you prefer. The fragrance is usually set with a fixative, such as orris root. Or simply enjoy the fragrance of your potpourri while it lasts, stirring occasionally to release more scent. When a batch of potpourri loses its color and freshness, compost it and replace with freshly made mix.
Of all the uses for herbs, the one many people enjoy most is making and drinking herb tea. Historically, herb teas were used as medicines, and many people still brew and drink them today for their medicinal effects. For others, herb tea is simply the beverage of choice. Brew a tasty pot from any of the following herbs. The herb’s name is followed by the parts to be used for brewing.
Angelica (Angelica archangelica): Leaves
Bee balm (Monarda didyma): Leaves
Catnip (Nepeta cataria): Leaves and flowers
Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile): Flowers
Costmary (Tanacetum balsamita): Leaves
Elderberry (Sambucus spp.): Flowers
Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis): Leaves
Lemon thyme (Thymus citriodorus): Leaves
Lemon verbena (Aloysia triphylla): Leaves
Mints (Mentha spp.): Leaves
Roses (Rosa spp.): Hips and petals
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis): Leaves
Sage (Salvia officinalis): Leaves
Scented geraniums (Pelargonium spp.): Leaves
Here are some of the fragrant herbs that can be used, fresh or dried, for herbal crafts such as wreaths, potpourri, sachets, or arrangements. Plant name is followed by common uses.
Aloysia triphylla (lemon verbena): Highly prized for potpourri and tea
Artemisia abrotanum (southernwood): Dried branches traditionally hung in closets to repel moths
Artemisia annua (sweet Annie): Sweetly aromatic flowers and foliage make good filler for herbal wreaths
Dysphania botrys (Jerusalem oak goose-foot): Fluffy gold branches good for herb wreaths
Galium odoratum (sweet woodruff): Leaves especially fragrant when dried; used in potpourri, wreaths, and as a tea
Lavandula angustifolia (lavender): Flowers and foliage used in many herbal crafts
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm): Used in teas, food, potpourri, and commercially in soap and toilet water
Mentha spp. (mints): Fragrant foliage used in teas, potpourris, wreaths, and other herbal crafts; orange mint probably best for fragrance
Monarda didyma (bee balm): Blossoms and foliage used in wreaths, potpourris, and teas
Pelargonium spp. (scented geraniums): Wide variety of its fragrant leaves used in sachets and potpourris; edible flowers
Rosmarinus officinalis (rosemary): Fragrant, needlelike leaves used for tea, cooking, and winter sachets
Salvia elegans (pineapple sage): Wonderfully fragrant leaves and scarlet flowers used in wreaths and other herbal crafts; edible flowers
Santolina chamaecyparissus (lavender cotton): Used in herb wreaths; odor of gray foliage may be too medicinal for sachets or potpourri
Thymus spp. (thymes): Leaves and tops used in sachets and wreaths
Planting herbs as companion plants in the vegetable and flower garden is a time-honored but not infallible way of helping to deter some pests. See if your most troublesome pests are on this list, and if so, give companion planting with the appropriate herbs a try.
Allium sativum (garlic): Useful against aphids, Japanese beetles
Artemisia spp. (artemisias): Repel flea beetles, cabbage worms, slugs
Coriandrum sativum (coriander): Discourages aphids
Lavandula spp. (lavenders): Repel moths; combine with southernwood, wormwood, and rosemary in a moth-deterring sachet
Mentha spp. (mints): Deter aphids, cabbage pests, flea beetles
Nepeta cataria (catnip): Useful against ants, flea beetles
Ocimum spp. (basils): Deter flies and other insects
Pimpinella anisum (anise): Repels aphids
Rosmarinus spp. (rosemaries): Repel moths; use in sachets
Satureja hortensis (summer savory): Protects beans against Mexican bean beetles
Tanacetum coccineum (painted daisy, pyrethrum): Dried flower heads can be used as insect repellent
Tanacetum parthenium (feverfew): Repels many insects
Tanacetum vulgare (common tansy): Discourages Japanese beetles, ants, flies; can be invasive, so best for a large container
Many herbs are used as companion plants for vegetables and ornamentals. The herbs may help confuse or ward off harmful insects, or they may even act as trap plants to attract harmful insects, which can then be picked off and destroyed. The numerous, small flowers of herbs such as dill, cilantro, and mints provide nectar to tiny beneficial wasps that help protect the garden from several troublesome pests. Companion herbs may be used to attract bees for pollination or because of a benign effect on neighboring plants. You may want to try planting your basil by your tomatoes; mint by the cabbages; and catnip, which discourages flea beetles, by the eggplant. Or try putting a few garlic plants near roses or anything else victimized by Japanese beetles.
Some plants may be detrimental to another’s growth; keep dill away from the carrots, fennel away from beans, and garlic and onions away from all legumes. As you carry out experiments in your garden, keep records for your own benefit and perhaps for that of other gardeners. See the list in Fragrant Herbs and the Companion Planting entry for more suggestions about helpful and harmful plant companions.
A standard plant is one trained to a single stem, with leaves and branches only at the top. Standard roses, sometimes called tree roses, are used in formal gardens or designs. Herbs are sometimes trained as standards to serve as accents in herb gardens, particularly in formal ones. Standard herbs make charming table decorations, especially at holiday time.
A simple design of a rounded head atop a single stem is a classic. You can also create multilayered standards or train herbs into upright wreath shapes. Here’s how to train a basic herb standard.
1.Insert a slim bamboo stake of the height you want your standard to attain, pushing the stake in until it touches the bottom of the pot.
2.Cut back all side branches below the desired height to 1½ inches. Allow leaves that grow from the main stem to remain.
3.Tie the stem to the stake with slender strips of raffia or twist-ties at 2-inch intervals.
4.As new shoots appear at the top, clip the tips to encourage branching and to make a bushy head.
5.When your plant reaches the desired height, pinch off the tip of the top shoot and remove all the lower leaves and branch stems to within 4 to 5 inches of the top. Shape the head with clippers to form a rounded globe.
Choose herbs with a sturdy stem that can support the weight of the full, rounded head. Lemon verbena, myrtle, rosemary, scented geraniums, lavender, and sweet bay can be trained into attractive standards. The main stem will thicken with age, but standards should remain tied closely to their stakes to protect them from damage. Running children and animals or high winds can easily tip them over.
Scented geraniums with a compact growth habit and tightly packed leaves make excellent candidates. With the small-leaved types, aim for a tight globe of foliage and pinch off the flowers. The larger-leaved ones are suitable for a less-formal effect; allow them to decorate themselves with flowers if they wish. In fact, they look splendid when blooming.
If you want a scented geranium standard to be 3 feet tall, remove all side shoots from the bottom 2 feet of stem. When the central stem has reached 3 feet, pinch the tip. As the crown burgeons, keep it trimmed to encourage branching.
Training an herb standard. Choose a young, straight, single-stemmed plant for making an herb standard. Attach the plant to a stake and pinch new shoots at the tip as they appear. Over time, your herb plant will fill out to the form of a miniature tree.
Heuchera, coralbells, alumroot. Spring-to summer-blooming perennials.
Description: Heuchera micrantha and its hybrids (chiefly with H. americana and H. villosa) are noted more for their foliage than their airy sprays of small, unobtrusive flowers. Plants form showy 1-to 2-foot clumps of maplelike leaves in shades of purple, garnet, chartreuse, silver, and peach, and there are many cultivars with foliage that is variegated with contrasting veins. Some choice selections include ‘Garnet’, with brilliant red-purple autumn color; ‘Pewter Veil’, with smoky gray and purple leaves; ‘Amber Waves’, with gold and pink leaves; ‘Palace Purple’, with purple-brown foliage; ‘Peach Melba’, with peach-colored leaves; ‘Creme Brulee’, with burnt orange foliage; and ‘Key Lime Pie’, with chartreuse foliage. Zones 4–8.
Heuchera sanguinea, coralbells, and hybrid coral bells, H. × brizoides, bear clouds of delicate ½-inch hanging bells in shades of white, pink, red, and green. Flowers are borne on thin, 1½-foot stems above low mounds of rounded to maplelike 2-inch evergreen leaves. Zones 3–8.
How to grow: Plant in spring. Grow in partial shade in moist but very well-drained, humus-rich soil. Plants tolerate full sun in the North if kept moist. Good drainage and loose mulch help reduce freeze-and-thaw winter damage to the fragile roots. Support weak stems with thin, twiggy branches. Divide in spring when the centers die out.
Landscape uses: Mass in open woodlands, in borders, and among rocks. Contrast with hostas, ferns, columbines, iris, bleeding hearts, or wild-flowers.
Amaryllis. Winter- and spring-blooming bulbs for pots.
Description: Hippeastrum hybrids, commonly called amaryllis, bear flamboyant 4- to 12-inch-wide, trumpet-shaped blooms in white, pink, red, and salmon, usually in clusters of four on leafless stems normally rising 1 to 3 feet. Cultivars may have petals that are striped, streaked, or outlined with a second color, and many newer cultivars bear double flowers. Arching fans of broad, straplike leaves appear during or after flowering. Hardy in Zones 8–10, amaryllis plants are usually grown indoors as showstopping container plants.
How to grow: Choose a pot that will allow about 1 inch of growing space between the bulb and the rim. For a suitable soil mix, see the Houseplants entry. Plant with one-third to one-half of the bulb above the soil line. Water slightly until growth starts, then water often. Grow in a warm (65° to 70°F) spot in a sunny window, especially after the leaves develop. Most bloom 4 to 8 weeks after growth begins. Once the flowers open, moving the plant to a cool spot out of direct sun will lengthen the life of the flowers.
When the flowers fade, cut off the flowerstalk close to the bulb. Return the plant to a sunny window and water regularly. You may keep the plant inside all year, feeding every 2 to 3 weeks with liquid seaweed, fish emulsion, or other organic fertilizer. You can put your amaryllis outside after danger of frost is past in a spot with morning sun or under the shade of tall trees, or knock them out of their pots and grow them in the open ground. Gradually reduce water in late summer to encourage dormancy. After a few months’ rest, replace the top few inches of soil or repot and begin again.
See Ilex
See Alcea
See Lonicera
Armoracia rusticana
Brassicaceae
This pungent root crop makes a wonderful sauce for meat and fish and a great addition to mustards and other condiments, but beware—it’s a vigorous perennial that can quickly spread beyond the boundaries of its planting area.
Planting: Horseradish seldom produces seeds, so you’ll need to start plants from root cuttings in moist, rich soil. Horseradish roots can grow several feet deep; good soil preparation will encourage thick, straight roots. Plant in early spring by digging a trench and laying the root cuttings in it. Position the large end of each cutting slightly higher than the small end. Cover the roots with 6 to 8 inches of soil; space 1 foot apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart.
To prevent your horseradish patch from becoming a weedy nuisance, either plant it in an out-of-the-way area, or dig it up completely each year and replant only a few of the roots. Another method is to plant it in a bottomless bucket that you’ve sunk into the soil.
Growing guidelines: Horseradish plants are usually problem-free. Water when needed, particularly in late summer and fall, when the plants do most of their growing.
Harvesting: Pick a few spring leaves as needed for salads; use a spading fork to dig roots in October or November, after active growth has stopped. The hardy roots will keep in the ground for several months; unharvested pieces will sprout the following spring.
Horticultural therapy involves the cultivation and appreciation of plants and nature to relieve an illness or disability. In a sense, all gardeners practice it when they enjoy working in the garden. People with mild to severe physical, developmental, emotional, and mental disabilities also benefit from the therapeutic effects of plants.
Horticultural therapy is practiced in such diverse settings as rehabilitation and mental health centers, nursing homes, schools, and hospitals. Many older and disabled people practice horticultural therapy in their homes. Sometimes teachers use horticultural therapy in the classroom.
Horticultural therapists make gardening accessible by creating gardens with wide, wheelchair-friendly paths, raised beds and containers for easier access, and specially adapted tools. They may choose plants based on color, fragrance, and/or texture to enhance the sensory experience of gardening.
Many universities now offer classes and degrees in horticultural therapy. The American Horticultural Therapy Association lists accredited programs on their Web site, so you can find a college or university near you offering a degree or certificate in horticultural therapy. For more information, contact the association or visit their Web site (see Resources).
Hosta, plantain lily, funkia. Summer- and fall-blooming perennials grown primarily for their foliage.
Description: Hostas display 6- to 48-inch-wide mounds of lancelike to broad, long-stemmed leaves in green, white, yellow, and bluish solid colors and variegations. Distinctive venation patterns on many varieties’ leaves create a quilted appearance. Trumpet-shaped white to pale lavender flowers, sometimes fragrant but often not very showy, are borne on stalks above the leaves. Many of the famous hosta cultivars, such as the huge blue-leaved ‘Krossa Regal’ and massive chartreuse-leaved ‘Sum and Substance’, are hybrids.
Hosta fortunei, Fortune’s hosta, grows into a clump, 1 to 2 feet tall and wide, of 5- to 6-inch oval leaves. Zones 3–8.
H. plantaginea, August lily, holds 6-inch, sweetly fragrant white trumpets 2 feet above bold, 8-inch, light green leaves in 2- to 3-foot-wide clumps in late summer. Zones 3–8.
H. sieboldiana, Siebold’s hosta, bears quilted bluish 1-foot leaves in 2- to 3-foot mounds up to 4 feet wide. ‘Frances Williams’, with huge gray-green leaves with wide yellow margins, is one of the most famous of all hostas. Zones 3–8.
Grow H. ventricosa, blue hosta, for its 3-inch hanging blue-violet bells on 3-foot stalks above rich green, 8-inch leaves in 2-foot-wide mounds. Zones 3–9.
H. venusta, miniature hosta, and its hybrids and cultivars produce petite 3- to 6-inch-tall mounds of wavy green to blue-green leaves that are perfect for tucking into a rock garden or at the edge of a shady border. With time, plants spread to no more than 1 food in diameter. ‘Blue Mouse Ears’ was named 2008 Hosta of the Year by the American Hosta Growers. Zones 3–8.
How to grow: Plant or divide hostas in spring or fall. They prefer partial to deep shade and moist, well-drained soil with some organic matter. Some can take full sun in the North if they are kept moist. Yellow- and blue-leaved cultivars color better if given morning sun. Some older cultivars of Fortune’s hosta and blue hosta withstand very dry soil and deep shade. Slugs and snails can chew holes in emerging leaves in spring; otherwise, hostas are quite durable and easy to grow.
Landscape uses: Grow in groups or, in the case of showy cultivars, as specimens. Hostas cover dying bulb foliage, so they’re excellent companions for spring-blooming bulbs. They lighten up dark, shady areas under trees or in corners. These shade-garden staples look gorgeous with ferns, wild gingers (Asarum spp.), hellebores, heucheras, and other shade plants.
Houseplants add beauty to our homes, filter pollutants from the air, and have been shown to promote feelings of calmness. The term houseplants encompasses hundreds of species and thousands of cultivars, from exotic orchids and cacti to the familiar and beloved African violet. Succeeding with—and enjoying—houseplants comes down to choosing plants that are suited to the conditions in your home and understanding and providing for their basic needs.
When you buy a new plant, it should include a label with information about its light, moisture, soil, and temperature requirements. Check this before you buy the plant—some need high humidity, strong light, or other conditions that may be difficult to provide in a normal household environment. Buy plants from a reputable plant store, houseplant catalog, or Web site.
If you’re unsure what a plant is or whether it would thrive in your conditions, ask a store clerk, check out a houseplant book from the library, or do a little online research before you buy. To learn about plants you’re considering for your home, look on a houseplant database such as Tropicopia (see Resources).
Choose plants that look well taken care of and vigorous. Inspect plants closely for signs of insects or disease, making sure to check the undersides of leaves and stems. If you see any insects or signs of insect feeding such as holes, punctures, or deposits of leaking sap, don’t buy. Portions of the plant that are wilted or discolored, or leaves that are speckled or have dead areas, also may indicate disease or insect damage. If you see anything suspicious, don’t buy the plant. If you do not know what the plant should look like, ask a knowledgeable salesperson.
When selecting a plant, be sure its light requirements match your proposed location. A plant that needs direct sun, like a cactus and many herbs and orchids, will slowly die in a dim corner.
Analyzing light levels: The number and position of the windows in a room and the location of a plant determine the amount of light it gets. Light intensity drops off rapidly as you move away from a window. Plants that aren’t receiving enough light often become elongated and pale. Or they may just fail to grow at all and drop their lower leaves. (A plant moved from a greenhouse into your home may also drop some leaves at first as it adjusts to the lower light levels.) Too much light, on the other hand, may burn the leaves of lowlight plants like African violets and phalaenopsis (moth) orchids.
Most houses have many good locations for plants that need low light, and fewer suitable locations for plants that need moderate to bright light. Place light-loving plants as close to windows as possible; south-facing windows will provide the most light. Remove sheer curtains and keep windows clean to maximize light. Wash plants regularly to remove dust.
Rotate plants that need moderate light between a low- and a high-light location every few days. You should also rotate plants as they come into bloom, moving them to a table or other area where you can enjoy the flowers, then back to a higher-light area when bloom has passed.
Maximizing window space: To give your plants more light, add shelves or plant hangers to windows or provide plant stands to increase the amount of space you have available. If your windowsills are narrow, you can install shelf brackets under the sills and add boards to widen the windowsills. You can also install several shelves across a window and create a curtain of plants. Heavy Plexiglas is good for upper shelves. Use wood screws to mount brackets to wooden window frames. To mount brackets on the wall next to the window, use appropriate wall anchors.
Adding artificial light: Plant stands with attached light fixtures are another option. There are tabletop setups with a single light or two- and three-tiered stands with multiple lights. A three-tiered plant stand is the perfect setup for a large collection of houseplants, giving them the light they need without blocking your windows or taking up table or counter space. You can adjust the height of the lights to suit plants’ needs, and use regular fluorescent lights (pairing warm and cool bulbs is best) or special full-spectrum or grow lights. Growing plants together like this also raises the humidity around the plants, especially if you put them on trays filled with pebbles and water. And it makes watering easy since the plants are all in one place.
Summering outdoors: An excellent way to increase the amount of light your plants receive is to use them to decorate your patio or garden in summer. Direct sunlight can easily burn leaves of houseplants accustomed to low light levels. Always place them in the shade at first and gradually move only those that like direct light out into sunnier locations. You may need to water smaller plants daily during hot spells, especially those in clay pots.
Various factors—including size of containers, season, rate of growth, light, and temperature—will affect how much water each plant requires. Some plants need water only when the soil surface has dried out, while others need to be kept constantly moist. You shouldn’t follow a strict schedule year-round, because you may overwater or underwater. Learn each plant’s preference, and check each pot before you water.
There are various ways of determining how much moisture is in the soil. Don’t wait until the plant wilts to water it. Looking at the surface color of the soil helps, but doesn’t tell the whole story. Learn to judge how moist the soil is by hefting the pot. Or push your finger into the soil an inch or so and feel for moistness. Avoid overwatering, which can suffocate the plant’s roots; if in doubt, wait.
Always water thoroughly, until water seeps out the bottom of the pot. Use pots with drainage holes and saucers, but never allow plants to sit in water. If the soil becomes very dry, it may shrink away from the pot sides, allowing water to run through rapidly without being absorbed. If this happens, add water slowly until the soil is saturated, or set the pot in a tub of water for a few minutes. Water will also run out rapidly if the plant is rootbound, in which case it needs repotting in fresh potting medium and a larger container.
Plants growing in a rich organic potting mix containing organic matter and bonemeal need little additional fertilizer if repotted regularly. During active growth in spring and summer, most plants appreciate regular doses of a liquid organic fertilizer such as fish emulsion (if you can stand the smell—this is a better choice for houseplants summering outdoors) or liquid seaweed. Mix at half the strength recommended on the label, and apply at the recommended frequency or more often as needed. You can also find a selection of organic fertilizers designed for houseplants, including composted manure pellets and guano; use them according to package directions. Fertilize less during winter, when lower temperatures and light levels slow most plants’ growth.
Many popular houseplants are well suited to the warm, dry conditions found in most homes. Others, including many ferns, will only do well if you provide extra humidity. Place a large saucer or tray filled with water and pebbles under the pot, but be sure the pot doesn’t sit in water. Mist plants often, run an electric humidifier, or group several plants together to increase humidity.
It’s important to know what temperature your plants prefer. Some plants require cool winter temperatures either to bloom or to overwinter successfully. South African plants like clivias need a cool, dry rest period to bloom. Overwintering herb plants such as rosemary and sweet bay do best with cool winter temperatures.
Killing a houseplant that was billed as “foolproof” can leave you despairing that your home decor will ever include anything leafy and green that’s not made of synthetic fibers. But having a black thumb is not a permanent condition, and keeping houseplants happy and healthy is mostly a matter of avoiding these all-too-common pitfalls.
Wrong plant for your place: Not every species will work in every home. A plant’s light, temperature, and moisture needs should be within the range of what you can reasonably provide. Knowledgeable employees at garden centers can help guide you to the right plant for your conditions. If you’re buying a plant as a gift or are looking for something that’s especially hardy, consider philodendrons. Newer varieties have red, yellow, or orange foliage.
The light’s not right: Aloe, cacti, Boston ferns (Nephrolepis exaltata), and crown of thorns (Euphorbia milii) require a lot of light, so a cubicle or the corner of your living room isn’t the right place for them. On the flip side, split-leaf philodendron, aka Swiss cheese plant (Monstera deliciosa), begonias, and epiphyllums (such as Christmas cactus) thrive in low-light or filtered-sun environments. Simply moving the plant to another spot in the house could work wonders.
Over- or underwatering: Since succulents and cactus plants prefer dry soil, watering daily will harm them. Once a week is plenty. Another option for the forgetful: the ZZ plant (Zamioculcas zamiifolia), which requires water only once every 2 weeks or so. Plants that are blooming require watering more often than when they’re in a dormant period. If you know your plants’ needs, you can develop a schedule for watering; otherwise check to see if the soil is dry before you water—overwatering kills just as surely as under-watering. When you water plants, avoid wetting the leaves; this promotes fungal growth. If you’re truly hopeless about watering, look for helpful reminder apps, soil monitors, or even terra-cotta worms that make it easier to see when plants are getting thirsty.
Summer exposure: Moving houseplants outdoors for the summer seems logical, but it can cause harm even to plants with high light requirements. After months indoors, exposure to direct sun can burn tender leaf tissues. And overwatering by rainfall can promote rot in the pot. If you want to move your plants to the open air, make the transition gradually, start them in a sheltered spot, and keep tabs on moisture levels. Be on the lookout for pests that may flock to houseplants visiting the outdoors, too. Spider mites, mealybugs, and scale insects prey on houseplants and tend to cluster on undersides of leaves and stems. Check these areas carefully and wipe clustered pests away with a mild soap solution (rinse with clear water afterward) or wash mites away with a spray of water. For persistent or extensive infestations, spray with insecticidal soap or neem oil, according to label directions.
Problems in the pot: Plastic pots tend to retain moisture, so they’re best for plants that like a lot of water. Porous clay pots, on the other hand, are the perfect choice for plants that prefer drier conditions, like cacti, orchids, and succulents. Also, consider the size of the pot. Don’t choose a pot thinking that the plant will grow into it—extra room in the pot can lead to moisture problems. When you’re transplanting, select a pot that’s 2 to 4 inches larger in diameter than the current one. Pay attention to what you fill the pot with, too. Dirt from your yard and packaged topsoil will become compacted in a container. Instead, use an indoor potting mix that is loose enough to allow the roots to grow easily, but not so loose that the water just runs right through to the bottom. You can purchase mixes specifically for the type of plant you’re growing (ask someone at the garden center if you’re not sure what mix to choose), and there are many organic choices available, too. Refresh the potting mix every year or two.
Good soil structure and fertility are maintained outside by the addition of organic matter, and by freezing, thawing, and earthworm activity—conditions that don’t occur in the containers of indoor plants. For that reason, a good organic potting mix is important for houseplants. As they grow, your plants should be repotted into fresh soil in larger containers. Use commercial organic potting soil (read the label if it doesn’t say “organic,” as it may contain synthetic chemical fertilizers and very little organic matter) or blend your own. If you have a lot of plants, you may want to make your own mix, both to save money and to provide a rich organic soil.
To prepare a good potting mix, combine one to two parts commercial organic potting soil or good garden soil; one part builder’s sand or perlite; and one part coir fiber or peat moss, compost, or leaf mold. Add 1 tablespoon of bonemeal per quart of mix.
Each of these components provides specific benefits to the plants: Soil contains essential minerals. Sand and perlite assure good drainage, which prevents disease and allows air to reach the roots. Sand will make the mix much heavier. Perlite, an expanded volcanic rock with many tiny air spaces, will make it lighter. Compost or leaf mold (organic matter) makes the mix rich. Both release nutrients slowly, help maintain proper soil pH, improve soil drainage, and hold moisture. Peat moss is acidic and has few nutrients, but greatly increases the water-holding capacity of a mix. Coir fiber, made from coconut hulls, doesn’t acidify the soil and isn’t endangered, as some sources of peat moss may be, and it also retains moisture, so it’s an excellent peat replacement in soil mixes.
For plants that need extra-rich soil, double the amount of compost or leaf mold. If the plant needs acid soil, double the amount of peat moss. For cacti and succulents that like drier conditions, add an extra half to one part coarse sand.
You may want to add other organic amendments such as bloodmeal, guano, pelletized manure, rock phosphate, or greensand. See the Fertilizers entry for the specific nutrient content of each. See the Container Gardening entry for more information about adding soil amendments to potting mixtures and for blending potting mixtures to use in large pots.
From low-light to outright neglect, these tough-but-attractive houseplants will carry on without complaint. Those with asterisks (*) are first-rate for cleaning indoor air, too!
Aglaonema commutatum (Chinese evergreen)
Aloe vera (aloe; prefers moderate to bright light)
Aspidistra elatior (cast-iron plant)
Beaucarnea recurvata (ponytail palm; prefers bright light)
Chlorophytum comosum (spider plant)*
Cissus rhombifolia (grape ivy)
Crassula ovata or C. argentea (jade plant; prefers filtered sunlight)
Dracaena marginata (dragon tree)
Epipremnum aureum (golden pothos)*
Ferns (various species, including Nephrolepis exaltata, Boston fern)*
Hedera helix (English ivy)*
Philodendron spp. (philodendrons)*
Saintpaulia ionantha (African violet)
Sansevieria trifasciata (snake plant)
Spathiphyllum spp. (peace lilies)*
Repotting—moving a plant into a larger pot—keeps the root system in balance with the foliage and adds fresh soil and nutrients. Generally, the best time to do your repotting is in spring, when most plants resume active growth. It’s a great outdoor activity for a sunny spring day. Remember not to put your newly repotted plants in full sun right away, though. If you’re setting them outside for the growing season, keep them in partial shade for at least a week to give them time to settle in to their new pots before gradually moving them to a sunnier site. If you’re returning them to the house, place them where they were previously growing.
Don’t overpot. Move a plant to a pot only a few inches larger in diameter—enough to allow about 1 inch (or 2 inches for larger plants) of fresh soil around the rootball in the new container. If you repot in a container that’s too big, the extra soil may hold too much moisture, or the plant may not flower.
To determine if it’s time to repot, place one hand on the surface of the soil with the stem between your fingers, flip the pot upside down, and tap the bottom of the pot to loosen the root-ball. If lots of roots are visible on the rootball and beginning to circle the pot, it’s time to repot. For large plants that are harder to remove from their pots, check for roots coming up to the surface—this is also a sign that the plant is due to be repotted. For any size plant, water running rapidly through the rootball can indicate that roots have filled the pot, leaving very little room for water-retaining soil.
To repot, work any encircling roots loose. Place the plant’s rootball in the new pot, and fill around it with fresh potting mix. Keep the plant at the same depth in the soil, placing it so that the soil surface is 1 inch below the pot’s rim. Don’t push the new soil down too firmly, just water thoroughly after repotting to firm it.
Whatever containers you choose, be sure they have holes in the bottom, and use saucers to catch the excess water. If you use unglazed clay saucers, be sure to use plastic liners to protect furniture and floors. Or set pots and saucers on trivets or trays for protection.
Clay: Clay pots are porous. Air can pass through them to plant roots, and excess moisture can evaporate more easily. They are a good choice for plants that like dry conditions, like cacti and succulents. They are also heavy, which can help prevent top-heavy plants from tipping over but makes larger plants difficult to move. Should a clay pot topple, it is likely to smash into numerous pieces, so if you choose clay, make sure it’s stable once you’ve set it in place.
Plastic: Plastic is lightweight and a good choice for plants that might dry out too easily in clay pots. It also stays clean, while clay pots may become discolored with use. Air can’t pass through plastic to roots, but this won’t be a problem if you use a good commercial mix or add plenty of sand or perlite to ensure good soil aeration.
Decorative: Many beautiful ceramic and glazed clay containers are available at home and garden centers. Some have holes in the bottom and matching glazed saucers, while others, called cachepots, have solid bottoms. If you choose a cachepot, you’ll need to set a second container in which you’ve planted your houseplant inside the cachepot. The actual plant pot should have drainage holes to allow water to drain out, but of course it can be very plain since it will be concealed inside the ornamental pot. Be sure to allow space below the inner pot for drainage within the cachepot, and don’t let water stand in the bottom of the decorative pot.
Special containers: Some plants benefit from special containers, such as orchid pots or glass terrariums. Orchid pots or containers may be clay, wood, or plastic, but usually have many openings to allow air to reach the roots and water to run out quickly. Moisture-loving ferns and other terrarium plants thrive in enclosed terrarium conditions. If you decide to set up a terrarium, make sure you choose plants that will remain in scale with your container. Bulb pots are also different from ordinary pots, usually being taller and thinner. And, of course, bonsai require special shallow trays to keep their roots confined. But for most houseplants, you can select the type and style of container that suits the size and kind of plant you’re growing without worrying too much about your choice.
If you grow your plants in a good organic potting mix, give them the correct amount of water and light, and repot regularly, you shouldn’t have many insect or disease problems. Inspect any new plants to avoid bringing problems in.
It’s a good idea to inspect your plants regularly to catch developing problems early. Isolate suspect plants. Yellowing or discolored leaves may mean disease or incorrect light or watering practices. Overwatering probably kills more houseplants than anything else does. Double-check the plant’s requirements, remove damaged areas, and watch for developments.
Yellowing leaves or a general chlorotic (yellowed or pale) color may also indicate that your plant has been in its pot too long and needs to be repotted in fresh organic soil or fed with a good organic fertilizer. But don’t overfeed, since that can also lead to poor plant health. Keeping a good balance, both in terms of water and fertilizer, is the key to healthy plants.
Damaged or deformed plants or sticky deposits may indicate insect problems. These pests are common on indoor plants:
Mealybugs: These insects look like tiny tufts of white cotton. They are often found under leaves and in sheltered areas of stems. Both the immature stage and the adults can crawl but often cluster together in one place. Remove each insect with rubbing alcohol on a cotton swab, or spray with insecticidal soap.
Whiteflies: These ubiquitous pests are about 1⁄16 inch long. They fly around in a cloud whenever an infested plant is disturbed. Wipe crawling young off of the undersides of leaves, vacuum up the flying white adults, spray with insecticidal soap, or place a yellow sticky trap on a stake in each pot to catch them.
Mites: Mites are tiny pests about the size of a grain of salt. You are likely to notice plant symptoms before you actually see the pests themselves. Leaves attacked by mites are stippled or mottled; flowers may be deformed. Wash plants with a hose or shower to remove pests, mist daily, and spray with insecticidal soap. Spider mites get their name because of the webs they build under plant leaves and on connecting branches where they meet the stem. If you see yellow stippling on leaves, check under them for signs of webbing. Control as you would any mite, but be sure to spray the undersides of the leaves.
Aphids: Aphids are small, translucent, pear-shaped insects. They may be many colors, including white, green, and black. Sticky deposits of plant sap in growing tips may indicate aphid activity. Remove these soft-bodied sucking insects by hand or wash them off with sprayed water. If you see ants on your plants, it may also be a sign of aphid infestation, as ants are aphid “shepherds” who herd the aphids in return for the tasty honeydew they excrete.
Scale: Plants such as citrus and bay trees may also be prone to scale, which you typically see as hard or soft brown or black bumps on stems. Like aphids, they suck plant sap and excrete sticky honeydew, which can then turn black with mold and prevent leaves from photosynthesizing effectively. You can scrape off minor infestations with a fingernail. For more serious problems, apply horticultural oil spray.
Whatever treatment you use for any of these pests, repeat it several times to control later hatchings. Follow label instructions for any pesticides you apply.
Hyacinth. Spring-blooming bulbs
Description: Hyacinthus orientalis, garden hyacinth, bears many 1-inch starry flowers in white, pink, red, yellow, blue, and violet. The sweetly fragrant flowers are borne in loose to dense upright clusters about 1 foot above straplike leaves. Nearly all hyacinths offered for sale are hybrid cultivars. Zones 3–8; give winter protection in Zones 3–5.
How to grow: Plant bulbs with the tops about 5 inches belowground in a sunny spot with average, well-drained soil enriched with rotted manure or compost. Fertilize lightly when shoots emerge in spring. After flowering, allow the foliage to yellow before removing it. If rodents dig and eat the bulbs, plant bulbs in wire mesh cages.
Landscape uses: The biggest bulbs produce the largest, densest spikes for formal beds and forcing in pots. Smaller bulbs produce more graceful stems that are lovely in borders, shrub plantings, and woods. As bulbs grow and reproduce over the years, hyacinths’ flower spikes tend to become more open—the individual flowers become less tightly crowded on the upright flower heads. Some gardeners prefer the looser look that comes with age, while others feel it spoils the formal effect hyacinths give in a spring garden.
Hydrangea. Deciduous summer-blooming shrubs or small trees.
Description: Hydrangea arborescens, smooth hydrangea or hill-of-snow, a native species, forms a 2- to 5-foot spreading mound. It has large (3- to 6-inch), deep green oval leaves. Dense, flat, or rounded flower clusters grow on the current season’s wood. Zones 4–8.
H. macrophylla, bigleaf hydrangea or florist’s hydrangea, reaches 3 to 6 feet tall. It bears pink flowers when grown in near-neutral soils and blue in acidic soils. There are two types of cultivars: Hortensia types form round flower clusters; lacecap types have flat clusters of small, fertile flowers surrounded by an outer circle of larger, showier, sterile flowers. Most cultivars bloom on the previous year’s wood, but newer introductions bloom on both old and new wood for a summerlong display. Zones 6–8.
H. paniculata, panicle hydrangea, grows in tree or shrub form to a height of 4 to 15 feet. It blooms on the current season’s wood, with pyramidal clusters of creamy white, mostly sterile flowers. Zones 4–9.
H. quercifolia, oakleaf hydrangea, reaches 6 feet tall and has rich, cinnamon brown, layered bark when mature. This native species bears showy 10-inch flower panicles that change from white to pink to brown. Large, lobed leaves turn red to burgundy in fall. Zones 5–8.
How to grow: Hydrangeas prefer evenly moist, humus-rich soil with good drainage. They will grow in partial shade or in full sun, provided they receive adequate soil moisture. Prune big-leaf hydrangea after blooming and the others in winter. Unless you have a tree form, cut older branches to the ground.
Landscape uses: Smooth hydrangea and oak-leaf hydrangea are most at home in a woodland garden; they also look attractive in massed plantings and foundation plantings. Large plants make striking specimens. Bigleaf hydrangea and panicle hydrangea have strong form and color; use them sparingly as specimens.
Stonecrop. Perennial flowers or groundcovers.
Description: Stonecrops in the genus Hylotelephium were formerly classified as Sedum, and these fleshy, succulent plants are similar to the closely related sedums. Stonecrops, so called for their native habitats among rocks, are drought-tolerant perennials that produce upright mounds of fleshy green to glaucous foliage. Some species have blue-green, reddish, purple, or variegated foliage; leaves of many species turn red in late fall. Showy pink, red, or purple flowers open from pinkish buds in summer into fall.
Hylotelephium telephium, stonecrop or live-forever, is a fleshy, upright, herbaceous perennial. It and the species H. spectabile, showy stonecrop, are the likely parents of popular hybrid stonecrops. Despite the change of genus name, hybrid stone-crops remain favorites in the perennial garden for their ease of care and long season of interest.
H. ‘Autumn Joy’ (formerly Sedum ‘Autumn Joy’ or ‘Herbstfreude’) grows upright, producing 2-foot bushy plants. Its 5- to 6-inch flower clusters bear starry blooms that open coral pink in summer, then deepen to copper in fall, while the leaves turn brilliant red.
H. ‘Vera Jameson’ grows 9 to 12 inches tall, with blue-green leaves and pink flower clusters borne in late summer.
H. erythrostictum ‘Frosty Morn’, ‘Frosty Morn’ garden stonecrop, bears foot-tall clumps of blue-green leaves with white edges and is covered with starry light pink or white flowers in late summer and early fall. Zones 3–9.
How to grow: Stonecrops are easy to grow in any well-drained, average to gravelly soil in full sun or light shade (in hot summer conditions). They are tolerant of poor soil and hot, dry weather, but may grow floppy in rich soil or shady locations. Cut back leggy plants in late spring to control height. Propagate them in spring or summer by division or cuttings. Detached leaves may be rooted to make new plants.
Landscape uses: Stonecrops are striking in beds and borders. ‘Autumn Joy’ is a useful all-season plant; its persistent rusty brown dried flower heads add interest to the winter garden. Feature it with ornamental grasses and other tough perennials like daylilies and Rudbeckia fulgida var. sullivantii ‘Goldsturm’.
