and England: alliance with Cromwell 45; English Empire in France 7–8, 18, 22, 28; and the Holy Roman Empire 3–4; Hundred Years War 3; and Louis XIV 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 59–61, 62, 63, 64, 71; and North America 63; and the War of Devolution 51; and the War of the Spanish Succession 66, 69–70, 75, 76
Estates General 1, 29, 72, 74, 142
and the European balance of power, Napoleonic Wars and era 161–74
and European integration 492
First World War see World War, First
and Flanders 74
franchise 212
Fronde 46
and Germany see Germany: and France
Gold Standard 338
Grande Peur 142
and the Habsburgs see Habsburgs: and France
and the Holy Roman Empire 3–4, 11–13, 31, 116, 150–51, 152, 157–8, see also Habsburgs: and France; and the Austrian succession 95, 97–8; French status as Catholic ‘guarantor’ 43; and imperial crown 17–18, 51, 54; imperial war against France 53, 66; and Louis XIV 49–55, 56, 57–9, 60–61, 63, 64, 66–7, 73; Napoleonic Wars and era 154–63; Nine Years War 60–64, 70; and the Revolution/Revolutionary Wars and expansion 146–7, 148–9, 150–51, 153–9; and Russia 132–3; and the War of the Austrian Succession 98; War of the Spanish Succession 65–7
imperialism 6, 109–10, 256, 257, 259 see also French Empire; under Louis XIV 49–54, 57–60, 65–7; Napoleonic 154–74, 178; revolutionary expansion 151–2, 153–4; and the War of the Spanish Succession 65–7
inter-war period 323–4, 329, 333, 351–2
and the Iraq War 515
and the Jews 263–4
and the League of Augsburg 58
under Louis Napoleon 219
and the Low Countries 50–51, 76, 104; Revolutionary Wars and expansion 150, 152; and the War of the Austrian Succession 98
and Luxemburg 56
military 117, 185, 250–51, 286; 1917 mutiny 315, 317; conscription 404; Napoleonic 166, 171; reforms under Louis XIV 49–50; revolutionary 151
monarchy (see also specific kings): absolutist 55, 122, 152, 219; financial footing 125, 132; monarchical power 29; and the Revolution 141–3, 147–8, 150
Napoleonic Wars and era 161–74, 178; and European domestic reforms 165–6, 167–8; European popular resistance 166–7; ‘Hundred Days’ 178, 186; and the Second Coalition 157–8; and the Third Coalition 161–5, 168; and the US 170–71
National Assembly 142, 143, 147–8, 152, 214, 300, 323, 391–2, 420
National Guard 243
nuclear weapons 425
and the Ottomans 21, 61, 193, 202–3; Crimean War 221–5
and Poland 170, 194–5, 214, 329
population 15
post-Second World War domestic politics 391–2
and Prussia see Prussia: and France
Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201
railways 210
réveil national 285
revival of power in the 1730s 86–8
Revolution (1789–99): abolition of feudalism 143, 147; beginnings of revolutionary change in the late eighteenth century 141–3, 174; Burke on 144; Decree of Fraternity and Help to Foreign Peoples 149; destruction of the Vendée 151; and domestic politics 147–9, 151; and émigrés 148; European responses to 144–5, 147; Jacobins 144, 149, 152, 153; and the monarchy 141–3, 147–8, 150; National Assembly see France/the French: National Assembly; National Convention 150, 151, 152; and policy towards the Empire 146–7; power and expansionism in Europe 151–2; Revolutionary Wars 148–9, 150–51; and Russia 149; September massacres 150
revolution of 1830 193–4
revolution of 1848 213
and the Rhenish League 44
Rossbach and its effects on 113–14, 115, 116–17
and Russia/USSR 108, 149, 161, 214, 516, see also Seven Years War; Crimean War 221–5; First World War see World War, First; Franco-Soviet treaty (1944) 385; Glasnost 482; inter-war period 327, 329; and Italy 225–6; London Straits Convention 205; and the Napoleonic Wars and era 157, 158, 159, 161–3, 164, 169, 170, 171–4; Ostpolitik of the Cold War era 438; and partitioned Germany 430; rapprochement of the 1890s 261–3; treaty of mutual assistance (1935) 350; Triple Entente with Britain 279, 283, 285, 294, 298, 302, 306, 312–13, 315, 317, 327, see also World War, First
Second World War 362–3, 364; Vichy regime 364, 392
and Spain see Spain/the Spanish: and France
and Sweden 53
taxation 29, 70, 89, 117, 125, 141, 142
Third Republic proclamation 243
and the Thirty Years War 11, 13, 22, 39
and the Treaty of Vienna 179, 181
and the UN 515
‘Union Sacrée’ 299
and Universal Monarchy 54, 60, 64, 71
and the US see United States of America: and France
after Vienna Settlement 186
War of Devolution 51
and the War of the Austrian Succession 98, 100
and the War of the Bavarian Succession 130
and the War of the Polish Succession 87–8
Franche-Comté 53
franchise
British 194, 256, 282; Reform Act of 1867 239
French 212
for women 282
Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (Francis Stephen) 95, 97, 99–100
Francis I of France 5, 13, 16, 17–18, 21, 40
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor 154
Francis/Franz Joseph I of Austria 226, 234, 240, 242, 250
Franco, Francisco, General 352, 365, 389, 399, 460
Frankfurt 16, 214, 218, 219, 234
Frankfurt Union 99
Franklin, Benjamin 109–10, 128
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria 291
Fraternal Democrats 208
Frederick I of Prussia 66, 67–8, 73
Frederick II of Prussia, Frederick the Great 96–7, 98–9, 102, 103, 108, 110–11, 112, 115, 118, 119–20, 122, 124, 130, 134
Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor 31
Frederick V, Elector Palatine 21
Frederick of Württemberg 153
Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (Great Elector) 45–6, 48, 53, 58
Frederick William I of Prussia 90, 93
Frederick William II of Prussia 135
Frederick William III of Prussia 149, 162, 172–3, 184
Frederick William IV of Prussia 210, 211, 215, 218
Free Democrats (FDP, Germany) 416, 452, 478
Freitag, Gustav 239
French Empire 86, 115, 249, 258, 419–20
and Britain 120, 125–6, 131; and Africa 257, 258, 269; and the American colonies 109–10, 116, 131; Crimean War 221–5; and Gibraltar 77; and Greece 192–3; and the sugar colonies 156; Sykes–Picot agreement 298
Crimean War 221–5
and First World War 302
Franco-Piedmontese war against Austria 225–7
French Acadians 64, 111–12, 118
inter-war period 330
and Italy 329
and the Middle East 298
and the Nazis 349
New France 50, 63, 64, 115, 127, 349
after Second World War 392
and slavery 145, 181, 200, 205
and the US 136–7, 392–3, 419–20
and the War of the Spanish Succession 65–7, 68–70, 71–2, 73–6
French Revolution see France/the French: Revolution (1789–99)
Friedens-Courier 85
Friesland 59
Fronde 46
Froude, James Anthony 247
Fugger, house of 35
Fulham, East, by-election (1933) 347–8
Gabon 258
Gage, Thomas 44–5
Jews 303
Gama, Vasco da, Portuguese navigator 34
Gandhi, Mohandas (Mahatma) 399
Garrison, William Lloyd 200
gas 516
Gastein, Convention of 233–4
GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) 402
Gattinara, Mercurino 17
Gaylani, Rashid Ali al- 367–8
Gaza Strip 442
Gazette de France 218
Gdansk shipyards 472
GDR see German Democratic Republic General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) 402
General Union of Jewish Workers 264
General War Commissariat 48
Geneva
Disarmament Conference (1932) 342
Naval Conference (1927) 338
summit (1955) 422
Genoa 162
Genscher, Hans-Dietrich 466, 478
Gentz, Friedrich von 160
George I of Great Britain, and Elector of Hanover 61, 64, 76, 79, 82
George III of Great Britain, Ireland and Hanover 115, 157
George William, Elector of Brandenburg 31
Georgia (American state) 184
Georgia/Georgians (Caucasian state) 481, 521–2
German Church 23
German Democratic Republic (GDR)
army (NVA) 433
Basic Treaty 451–2
Christian Democrat victory (1990) 486
collapse of 486–7
East German tourists escaping from Hungary 486
emigrations to West Germany 486, 487
flight of refugees from 429
formation of 407
reunification with Federal Republic 487–90, 492–3
socialist Construction Programme 414, 415
Socialist Unity Party 414
and the USSR 412, 413, 414, 415, 422, 429, 432–3, 438, 439, 451–2, 459, 480, 485–6
German Ideology, The 207–8
German Imperial Army 113
German patriotic association for the support of the free press 198
Germany
Allied Control Council of 385
Basic Treaty 451
and the Bosnian War 501
and Britain: and Black Wednesday 490; British Army of the Rhine 417, 426, 443, 444; fears of European domination by reunified Germany 492; First World War see World War, First; German Confederation 217–18; and German reunification 488; and German unification 245, 246; Germanophobia 268; inter-war period 318–19, 333, 346–8, 350, 351, 356, 357–8, 359, 361; and the Munich agreement 357; Naval Agreement 350; naval race 274, 276, 277, 281; and the partitioning of Germany 386; post-First World War German Question 318–19, 333; post-Second World War German Question 384, 395–6, 483; and the rise of Hitler 346–8, 350, 351, 356, 357–8, 359, 361; and the second Berlin crisis 430; Second Reich 266–8, 271, 274, 276–8, 280–81; Second World War 363, 364, 365–6, 367–8, 371–9; and West German rearmament 417
Catholicism 250, 254; Centre Party 262–3, 279–80, 304, 344
Catholic–Protestant balance of power in 20–21
CDU see Christian Democratic Union (CDU, Germany)
Central Administrative Council 173
and China see China: and Germany
collapse of 486–8
communism in see communism: German
as cradle of ideological changes 5, 531
Customs Union (Zollverein) 197, 238–9
East Germany see German Democratic Republic (GDR)
economy see economy: German
education 243
emigration 262; from East to West 486, 487
and England: and the Habsburgs 14–15; and Protestantism 59
and the EU 494, 529; St Malo process 506
and the Euro crisis 528
and the European balance of power 3–4, 11–18, 43, 54, 107, 156–7, 216, 271, 301, 308, 364, 401, 446–7, 487, 530–31
European change driven by struggle for mastery in Empire and 5, 22
and the European ideological struggle 5, 146–7, 153, 233, 249, 261, 287, 328, 356, 360, 433, 531
European integration and the containment of 376–7, 396, 410, 492–3
Federal Constitutional Court 452, 501, 528–9
Federal Republic 1949–90 see Germany: West Germany/Federal Republic
First Reich see Holy Roman Empire
Fischer Doctrine 505
and France 398, see also France/the French: and the Holy Roman Empire; Prussia: and France; and the Balkans 494; after collapse of the English Empire in France 8; conflict during Italian wars 16; crisis of 1839–40 203–4; Élysée Treaty 436, 438; and European balance against the US 516; fear of German nationalism 198; fear of German unity 218–19; and the Franco-Russian rapprochement of the 1890s 261–3; French alliances with German princes 13, 21–2; and the French railway network 210; German Confederation 210, 217; and German reunification 488; and German unity 233–4, 488; inter-war period 326, 329, 330–31, 332, 334, 337, 340–42, 346, 348, 351, 356, 357, 359; joint coal and steel administration 411; joint ‘Eurocorps’ 483, 493, 495; Locarno Treaty 334–5, 336, 350; and Louis XIV 54–5, 57, 58–9, 65–7; and the Munich agreement 357; and the Napoleonic Wars 157–8, 160–64, 165, 169–70, 171–3, 174–5; and the partitioning of Germany 386; post-Second World War German Question 396, 399, 403; and the rise of Hitler 351, 356, 357, 359; Schlieffen Plan 261, 277, 293; Second Reich and Third Republic 243–4, 250–51, 260, 276–8, see also World War, First; and Spanish influence in Germany 37; and the Thirty Years War 13; after Vienna Settlement 185, 186, 190, 193; War of the Spanish Succession 65–7; war scare of 1848 213; West German relations 403, 411, 426–7, 436, 438, 454, 477, 483; First World War see World War, First; Second World War 362–3, 364
German Confederation (Deutsche Bund) 182, 185, 186–7, 190–91, 210, 226, 228–9, 233–4, 235; and Denmark 208–9, 232; and the Habsburgs 217–18; and the Italian War of 1859 227; revolutionary movements of the 1830s 194, 195, 197–9
German Federal Act 182
German ‘freedoms’/‘liberties’ 13, 16, 23, 39, 40, 41, 55, 141
German Question: post-First World War 318–20, 333; post-Second World War 382, 383–7, 391, 395–6, 399, 401, 403, 436, 452, 458–9, 481, 483, 488, 529; today 529; and the Vienna Congress 179
German unity and Prussia 193, 213, 217, 218–19, 220, 227, 228–9, 232, 233–4, 238–9, 241–3
and the Holy Roman Empire 3, 4, 11, 23, 31–2, 33, 36–8, 39–40, 41, 43–4, 51–2, 54–5, see also Holy Roman Empire; fall of the Reich 163–4
humanism 23
humanitarian intervention 505
imperialism and Weltreichlehre 267, 272–3, 278
industrialization 243
and the Iraq War 515
and Ireland 297
and Japan see Japan: and Germany
and the Jews see Jews: and Germany
Kissinger Diktat 252
liberal nationalism 186–7, 195, 198, 204–5, 212, 214, 228
Luftwaffe 346, 350, 366, 368, 378
Marxism see Marxism
mass expulsion of Germans from European countries in and after Second World War 387
military: abstinence 490, 524, 529; Afrikakorps 367, 372; Army Bill 286; Bundeswehr 429, 432, 439, 443, 476, 524; East German NVA 433; and First World War 294–5; German Imperial Army 113; Nazi 349–50, 369, 372, 378, 386; rearmament after Second World War 409–10, 414, 416, 417, 421, 422; Reichswehr 320, 342, 344; Second Reich 249, 280, 286–7, 294–5; Sixth Army 378; weakness in late sixteenth century 33; Wehrmacht 349–50, 369, 372, 379, 386, 414; and the WEU 420–21
National Socialist Party see Nazism/National Socialists
nationalism see nationalism: German; Nazism/National Socialists
Nationalverein 227
and NATO 478, 483–4, 488, 489, 490, 501, 524, 531; and its eastern expansion 502
naval power 267, 274, 276, 281, 283, 316; U-boats 316, 372, 378; Weltmachtsflotte 361
North German Confederation 234, 238–9
and the Ottomans 11, 27, 51, 57
Palatinate see Palatinate
Pan-German League 263
partitioning after Second World War 385; Morgenthau Plan 383–4; under the Potsdam settlement 386–7; Roosevelt’s 1942 proposals for 376; Stalin’s 1942 demands for 376
patriotism 23, 66, 85, 99, 173, 198, 204–5, 302
‘Peasant War’ 19
and Poland see Poland/Poles: and Germany
and the Potsdam settlement 386–7, 389, 459
printing revolution 23
Protestantism 5, 19, 22, 35, 36, 59, 82
Prussia see Prussia
public sphere 198, 210, 250, 285; emergence 23
racial community (Volksgemeinschaft) 344, 373
railways 210–11, 234; Berlin–Baghdad railway 267, 278, 298
reduction of statelets on dissolution of Holy Roman Empire 164
‘re-education’ of Germans away from Nazism 395
Reichstag see Reichstag
Reichsverfassung (constitution after Westphalia) 43
reunification of Federal Republic with GDR 487–90, 492–3
revolutionary movement of 1848 213, 216
and Russia/USSR 5, 214, 217, 218, 251, 278–9, 280, 286, 516, 531; Anti-Comintern Pact 353, 361; armistice of 1917 312; behaviour of Soviet forces in Germany 395; Berlin blockade 401; Berlin crisis of 1958–62 429–30, 432–3, 434; Bolshevism and the German Question after First World War 319–20; Bundeswehr concerns 429, 432, 476; and the Cold War 409–10, 411–14, 531; First World War see World War, First; and the Franco-Russian rapprochement of the 1890s 261–3; and the GDR 412, 413, 414, 415, 422, 429, 432–3, 438, 439, 451–2, 459, 480, 485–6; German partitioning after Second World War 386–7, 401; and German reunification 487–9; Germanophobia 260; Germans living in the USSR 370; and Hitler’s Mein Kampf 335–6, 345; inter-war period 328, 334, 336, 345–6, 360, 361–2; Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 361–2; Nationalkomitee Freies Deutschland 385; Operation Barbarossa 367, 369–70, 372–3, 378; post-Second World War German Question 384–5, 386–7, 395, 401, 452, 481, 488; Reinsurance Treaty of 1887 260, 261; Reinsurance Treaty of 1926 334, 336; ‘Russification’ of Germans 255; Schlieffen Plan 261, 277, 293; Second World War 362, 363, 364–5, 367, 369–70, 372–3, 378, 379, 386; and the ‘Stalin Notes’ 413–14; Three Emperors’ League 250, 255; Treaty of Bjorko 277; and the Turkish Straits 290–91; West Germany 413–14, 422, 428–30, 438, 439–40, 450–52, 459–60, 480–81, 482
Second Reich/United Germany/German Empire 5, 234, 237, 243, 245, 249–51, 261–2, 266–8; build-up to First World War 286–7; Burgfrieden 300; Centre Party 262–3, 279–80, 304, 344; Constitutional and Budget Committees 304–5; Copenhagen Complex 274; Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary 254, 260, 261–2; First World War see World War, First; isolation 277–8, 280, 285; and Mexico 289–90, 291, 298, 299, 308; and Morocco 277, 283, 286; overseas empire 258, 278; Sammlungpolitik 262; Three Emperors’ League 250, 255; Triple Alliance with Austria and Italy 255, 296, see also World War, First; Weltpolitik 267–8, 274, 285
Slavs in 23
Social Democratic Party 254, 259, 286–7, 292, 416, 452, 472, 478
state-building of principalities 62–3
strategic activism of late 1930s 505–6
taxation 286–7
Third Germany 173, 182, 204–5, 228–9, 234
Third Reich see Nazism/National Socialists
and the Thirty Years War 11, 13, 15, 23, 37, 38; and the Treaty of Westphalia 37, 38–9, 41, 42, 43, 45, 55, 107, 130
trade 261–2
Treaty of Moscow 451
Unification War 234
and the US see United States of America: and Germany
Vienna Congress and the ‘German Question’ 179
and the War of the Spanish Succession 65–7
war reparations: First World War 320, 322, 325, 328, 331, 334, 340, 342; Second World War 384, 385, 395, 401
Weimar Republic 322, 326; Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan 353, 361, see also Axis powers; and Austria 345, 355; build-up to Second World War (from November 1937) 355–62; concentration camps 343–4; Cuno strikes 331; and Czechoslovakia 355–6, 357; disarmament 320, 321, 327, 328, 337–8; economy 341; Enabling Act (1933) 344; Four Year Plan 351; and German revisionism 327–8, 343; Gleichschaltung 344; under Hitler’s chancellorship 343–7, 349–51, 353; and Hitler’s Mein Kampf 335–6, 345; and Italy 345, 353, see also Axis powers; Labour Service 344, 345; League of Nations admission 334, 336, 337; Locarno Treaty 334–5, 336, 350; National Socialist Party 335–6, 340, 342, 343; passive resistance 331; racial community (Volksgemeinschaft) 344; rearmament 328, 329, 340, 342, 344, 350, 353; Reichswehrministerium 323, 343; reparations for First World War 320, 322, 325, 328, 331, 334, 340, 342; Ruhr crisis of 1923 331–2, 333–4; Spartacist uprising 323; and the Stresa Front 350; unemployment 341; and the Versailles Treaty of 1919 320–21, 322–3, 325, 326, 327, 328, 332, 337, 343, 345, 350–51
Welsch population 23
West Germany/Federal Republic: Basic Law 402, 421; Basic Treaty 451–2; Bundestag 436, 478; Christian Democratic Union 416, 444, 478; and the Cold War 409–10, 411–14, 421, 422, 428–30, 434–5, 437, 439, 448–9, 531; and Czechoslovakia 451, 452; democracy 402–3; détente 450, 452, 466, 478; Easter Marches (1982) 478; Eastern German emigrations to 486, 487; formation of 402; Free Democrats 416, 452, 478; ‘German autumn’ (1977) 466; Hallstein Doctrine 422, 444; and Israel 414; Kohl’s ten-point programme for Germany 487; and nuclear arms 429, 436–7, 438–9, 443, 472, 478; and Palestine 453; political polarization 416; and the radical struggle against the West 466; rearmament 409–10, 414, 416, 417, 421, 422; reunification with GDR 487–90, 492–3; Rote Armee Fraktion (Baader–Meinhof Group) 448, 466; SDP 416, 452, 472, 478; Spiegel Affair 439; student movement 446–7; and the USSR 413–14, 422, 428–30, 432, 438, 439–40, 450–52, 476; Westbindung (Western alignment) 414; and the WEU 420–21
and the World Wars see World War, First; World War, Second
Gertruydenberg 74
Gervinus, Georg Gottfried 209
Ghent, Treaty of 183
Gibraltar 67, 77, 83, 84, 98, 131, 329, 460
Gladstone, William Ewart 227, 230, 239, 245, 246, 247, 251, 253–4
Midlothian campaign 253
Glorious Revolution (England, 1688) 60, 143
Godoy, Manuel de 165
Goerres, Joseph 186
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 172
Gold Standard 338
Goldwater, Barry 440
Gomulka, Wladylsaw 423
Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergevich 5, 478, 479–81, 482–3, 485, 487–8, 489, 491
Gorchakov, Alexander 223–4, 233, 241, 251–2
Gordon, Charles George 258
Gore, Al 510
Göring, Hermann 351
Gorlice-Tarnow, battle of 295–6
government
and absolutism see absolutism
autocracy see autocracy
autocratic/representative debate 27–8
the Cold War and the shaping of European governmental structures 404
colonial 63
constitutional 138–9
monarchical see monarchy
post-Seven Years War debates and transformations 121–2
Prussian reforms 90
representative see parliamentary/representative government
Gramont, Agenor, duc de 242
Grand Alliance against the Axis, Second World War 371–2, 377–8, 382–6
differences between the powers 375–6, 377
Grand Alliance against Louis XIV 58, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74–5, 76, 77
Great Britain see Britain and the United Kingdom
Great Northern War 68–9, 71, 78–81
Greece
austerity protests 525
civil war (1946) 393
EEC admission 477
formal foundation, Treaty of London 196
KKE (Communist Party) 383, 393, 401
and Macedonia 521
Mussolini’s invasion of 365
nationalists 460
and the Ottomans/Turks 188, 189, 192–3, 284, 465
and the Percentages agreement 383, 401
after Second World War 383, 396
uniting of 196
withdrawal from NATO command structure 460
Gregorius V of Constantinople 188
Grenada 115
Grenville, William, 1st Baron 181
Grey, Charles, 2nd Earl 192
Grey, Sir Edward 271, 277, 293, 294
Groener, William 322
Gromyko, Andrei 440, 451–2, 476
Gross Friedrichsburg 93
Grossjägerndorf, battle of 113
Guadeloupe 114
Summit (1979) 469
Guastalla 103
Guchkov, Aleksandr Ivanovich 286, 288
Guevara, Che (Ernesto) 433, 445
Guevara, Inigo Velez de, 7th Count Onate 21
guild system
guildsmen 1
Prussian abolishment of 167
Guillaume, Günter 466
Guizot, François 212
Gulag 353, 369, 370, 372, 406, 423
Gulf War, Operation Desert Storm 491–2
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden 15, 36
Gutenberg, Johannes 23
gypsies 373
Habsburgs 4, 10, 31, 64, 88–9; see also Austria
absolutism 83
administrative reforms 70
ambition to control Europe 10–12
and Britain 82, 83–4, 86, 87, 88, 95, 100; British alliance with the French 83–4, 86; Imperial Election Scheme 109, 110
Charles V’s rule 8, 10, 11–12, 14
dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire 163
domestic reform under Joseph II 133–4
and the Dutch 14
and France 12–13, 17–18, 21–2, 38–9, 49, 50–51, 82–4, 86–8, 104, 214; and Marie Antoinette 141; Napoleonic Wars and era 155, 156–7, 161, 162, 163, 168–9; Revolutionary Wars and expansion 148–9, 150–51, 154–5; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War; Treaty of Versailles 110; after Vienna settlement 193; and the War of the Austrian Succession 98; War of the Spanish Succession 65–7, 69
gains from Treaty of Utrecht 78, 82
and the German Confederation 217–18
and the Hohenzollerns 105, 146
and Hungary 25, 82, 100, 169, 192, 219, 220, 233, 240; dual monarchy see Austro-Hungarian Empire
and the imperial constitution 134
and the imperial crown 4, 8, 10, 16–17, 21, 24–5, 37, 57, 104, 109, see also specific emperors; in opposition to Napoleon 161; and Universal Monarchy 8, 10, 36, 38–9, 48, 82, 83, 86–7, 134
imperialism 8, 10, 14, 15, 38, 82–4
in Italy 16, 73, 88, 97, 188, 192, 213, 218, 225–6
and the Jews 100–101
nationalist movements across Habsburg Empire 208, 213–14
and the New World 34–5
and the Ottomans 9, 10, 11, 26–7, 32, 40, 51, 56–7, 58, 62, 64, 65, 82, 94
Pragmatic Sanction 86, 87, 93, 97
and Prussia see Prussia: and Austria/the Habsburgs
and the Reformation 20–21
reforms under Joseph II 133–4, 143–4
and religious minorities 26–7
and the revolutionary movement of 1848 213
and Russia 219, 244–5; and the Crimean War 222, 223–4
and the Serbs 291–3
and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
Spanish 8, 12, 17, 26–7, 36–7, 66
and the Spanish Succession 65–7
split into Spanish and Austrian lines 12, 36
troubles with raising taxes 29–30
and the War of the Austrian Succession 97–103
and the War of the Bavarian Succession 130
and the War of the Polish Succession 87–8
Haganah 388
Hague, The 74
1872 Congress 248
1948 Congress 398
Haider, Jörg 508
Haig, Alexander, General 461
Hakluyt, Richard 35
Halberstadt 45
Haldane, Richard, 1st Viscount 280–81
Halifax, E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of 357
Hallstein, Walter 422
Hamas 484–5
Hambach Festival 198
Hamilton, Alexander 136, 137–8, 158
Hankey, Maurice 337
Hanoi 442
Hanover 57, 69, 79, 80, 82, 83, 95, 101, 107, 111, 112, 161, 162, 180, 234, 242
Hanoverian Succession 76
Treaty of 84
Hansemann, David 198, 204, 211
Harden, Maximilian 285
Hardenberg, Karl August von 162, 167
Harmel Report 444
Harrington, William Stanhope, 1st Earl of 101
Hartley, Livingston 354
Hasan Kurdi 92
Hassel, Kai-Uwe von 439
Hatfield, Mark 453
Haudesche Zeitung 96
Haugwitz, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Count 100, 162
Havel, Václav 497
Healey, Denis 404, 405, 417, 472
Heath, Edward 455
Hecker, Friedrich 209
Heinemann, Gustav 416
Hellenic Republic 188
Hellespont see Dardanelles
Helsinki Accords/Final Act 464, 466–7, 472
Helvetic Republic 152
Henderson, Arthur 316
Henri IV of France 13
Henry VI of England 22
Henry VIII of England 5, 14, 16, 18, 19, 28, 40
Henry ‘the Navigator’, prince of Portugal 2
Herat 470
Herder, Johann Gottfried 158
Herrero rising, South-West Africa 280
Herrnstadt, Rudolf 415
Hertling, Georg von, Count 311
Hertzberg, Ewald Friedrich von 135, 143
Herzen, Alexander 224
Herzl, Theodor 264–5
Herzog, Roman 502
Hesse, Philip I, Landgrave of 11
Hesse-Cassel 234
Hezbollah 475
Hicks Pasha 258
Hindenburg, Paul von, Field Marshal 295, 296, 303, 342, 343
Hindenburg Programme 302
Hindu nationalism 297
Hiroshima 390
Hitler, Adolf 331, 340, 342, 355–62
annexation of Austria 355
annexation of Czechoslovakia 355–6, 357
and the Enabling Act (1933) 344
Four Year Plan 351
inter-war period 343–7, 349–51, 352, 353, 354–62
and the Jews 336, 344–5, 353, 358, 361, 363, 369, 371, 375
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 361–2
and Mussolini 345, 353, 357, 359
Second Book 339–40
and Second World War 362–79, 386
suicide 386
Hohenzollerns 172, 227, 228, 242, 244
Holland see Netherlands/the Dutch
denial 520
Holstein, Friedrich von 279
Holstein 208–9, 211, 213, 217, 232, 234
Holy Land 2, 34; see also Palestine
Holy League 57
Holy Roman Empire 3–5; see also specific emperors
and the Austrian succession 86, 97–103; War of the Austrian Succession 97–103
and the collapse of the Byzantine Empire 7–8
and the collapse of the English Empire in France 7–8
dissolution 163
and dynastic succession (1649–1755) 42–105
and England 3–4, 14–15, 22, 40, 86; and the imperial crown 18
and the European balance of power 3–4, 11–18, 43, 54, 86–7
European change driven by struggle for mastery in 5, 22
and France see France/the French: and the Holy Roman Empire
geographical extent 3
German Imperial Army 113
Grand Alliance see Grand Alliance against Louis XIV
and the Great Northern War 68–9, 78–81
and the great standoff of 1725–7 84–5
Habsburg rule see Habsburgs
ideological importance of 16
imperial council 32
imperial crown 4, 8, 15, 16–18, 20–21, 37, 38–9, 42, 51, 57, 58, 95, 100, 101, 104, 109, 111, 130, 146, 153; and threat of Universal Monarchy 8, 10, 36, 38–9, 48, 82, 83, 86–7, 134
imperial Diets 20, 31, 32, 43–4, 51, 52, 54, 86, 87, 112, 132, 154
imperial interventions (Reichsexekutionen) 43
Imperial Recess 160
League of Princes 134
military resources 15–16
National Socialism’s links to 5, 355
neutralization 41
and the Ottomans 10, 11, 16, 24–5, 27, 31, 32–3, 51, 56–7, 65, 86, 135
and Prussia 4, 73–4, 96–7, 99–100, 104, 135–6, 158; see also Prussia: and Austria/the Habsburgs
regeneration attempts by Germany in the fifteenth century 31
Regensburg as constitutional capital 52
regional divisions, Diet of Augsburg 32
Reichskriegsverfassung (imperial military constitution) 55
Reichstag 1, 3, 4, 16, 31, 41, 43, 48, 52, 53, 78, 112, 140
religious confessions and compromise 39
richness of 16
and Russia 57, 65, 78–81, 84, 86, 103, 104, 132–3, 135; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
state reform under Leopold I 62–3
and Sweden 68–9
Thirty Years War see Thirty Years War
trade 55–6
treatment of religious minorities 26–7, 39
and the Treaty of Westphalia 37, 38–9, 41, 42, 43, 45, 55, 130
Union of Electors 32
and the War of the Austrian Succession 97–103
and the War of the Bavarian Succession 130
and the War of the Polish Succession 87–8
and the War of the Spanish Succession 65–7, 68–70, 71–2, 73–6
Hong Kong 372
Horthy, Miklós 383
Hungary under 379
Hötzendorf, Franz Conrad von, Count 284
House, Edward 299
Howe, Geoffrey 489
Hubertusburg, Treaty of 115
Huerta, Victoriano, General 289, 291
Hugenberg, Alfred 340
Hughes, Charles Evans 334
Hugo, Victor 212
Huguenots 45
Hull, Cordell 384
human rights 406, 411, 462, 467–8, 513, 523
abuse 505
and the boundary of the EU 512
humanism 23
humanitarian intervention 44, 101, 256, 499–500, 505, 507, 510, 522, 524, 527
Hundred Years War 3
Hungary
Austrian border opening (1989) 486
battle of Mohacs 32–3
and China 428
communists 485
East German tourists escaping from 486
and First World War 303
and the Habsburgs 25, 82, 100, 169, 192, 219, 220, 233, 240; dual monarchy see Austro-Hungarian Empire
and the Holy Roman Empire 32–3, 62, 63
under Horthy 379
inter-war period 326
and the Ottomans 9, 10, 16, 51, 56, 57, 65
and the Percentages agreement 383
Protestantism 20
and Prussia 234
radicalism 211
revolutions: 1848 movement 213; 1956 revolution 423, 424, 425, 427
and Russia/USSR 219, 383, 388, 390, 393; Percentages agreement 383; revolution of 1956 423, 424, 425, 427; Three Emperors’ League 250, 255
and Second World War 369, 382–3
and Slovakia 358–9
Sylvester Patent 220
taxation 220
Hussein, Saddam 469, 491–2, 498, 514–15
Hussein bin Ali 298
Husseini, Haj Amin al- 367
Hussites 3
Hutten, Ulrich von 19
Huxelles, Nicolas Chalon du Blé, Marquis d’ 83
Iberian peninsula 1, 74, 84, 160, 168, 201, 202, 235
Ibn Abdul Wahhab, Muhammad 92
Ibn Saud, Muhammad 92
Ignatiev, Nikolay Pavlovich, Count 255
IMF (International Monetary Fund) 425, 465, 527–8
Imperial War Cabinet 309
imperialism/colonialism 256–9, 393; see also specific empires
American 160, 394, 445; expansionism and the Indians 123, 127
British 77, 111–12, 133, 257, 349, 353, 475; see also British Empire
‘capitalist imperialism’ 391
colonial government 63
French see France/the French: imperialism
German Weltreichlehre 267, 272–3, 278
Habsburg 8, 10, 14, 15, 38, 82–4; see also Habsburgs
imperial modernization 258
and the Mahdist Revolt 258
Russian 84; see also Russia: Tsarist Empire
Spanish 10–11, 81; see also Spanish Empire
India
British see British Empire: in India
independence 399
partition of 399
Second World War 366
Sino–Indian war (1962) 434
Indians, American 34, 184, 237
Pontiac’s Indian revolt 121
and the Seven Years War 110, 120–21, 123
Indochina 408, 413, 420, 432, 445, 447, 448, 453
battle of Dien Bien Phu 419
Vietnam see Vietnam
Indonesia 393, 408, 409, 432, 461; see also Dutch East Indies
invasion of East Timor 461
industrialization/industry 207, 232, 243
industrial protest 207
Soviet 339
Soviet dismantling of German industry 395
INF Treaty 483
Innocent XI, pope 56–7
interest rates 211
International Bank of Settlements 340
International Committee of the Movements for European Unity 398
International Military Commission 337
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 425, 465, 527–8
International Working Men’s Association 232–3, 248
interventionism 2, 39, 125–6, 190, 201–2, 256, 389; see also humanitarian intervention
and Israel 400
Ireland 130
and Britain 156, 288, 297, 446, 448; 1798 rising 156, 157; Act of Union 157; Easter Rising 297, 309
Catholics 130–31
and England 25–6
and the EU 508
Home Rule: Party 299, 309, 325; Third Home Rule Bill 288
and the Lisbon Treaty 521, 524–5
Napoleonic expedition to 156
Nice Treaty referendum 508
Northern Ireland see Northern Ireland
Parliament 1
Protestant Ascendancy 130
and Second World War 363
United Irishmen 156
Irish Brigade 98
Irish Republican Army 446
iron ore 364
Isabella II of Spain 201
ISI (Pakistan intelligence agency) 471
Islam and Muslims
Albanian Muslims 504
crusades against 2
European opposition to 1
Global War on Terror seen as attack on Islam 519–20
Islamic Revolution in Iran 470, 471
Ottoman radicalization 92
radicalism see Islamism
Slavonian Muslims 57
Srebrenica massacre 497
and the US, late eighteenth century 136
Wahabi movement see Wahabism
Islamism 469–70, 471, 484–5, 503–4, 511–12, 513, 519–20
and anti-semitism 519–20
and the Arab Spring 526–7
and the Bosnian War 503
Hamas 484–5
Hezbollah 475
jihadism 484–5, 503–4, 514, 519
Muslim Brotherhood see Muslim Brotherhood
Wahabism see Wahabism
Ismail Pasha (Khedive) 237, 238, 258
Ismay, Hastings ‘Pug’, 1st Baron 402
Isonzo 311
Israel, state of
and the Arab nations: Arab wars of 1948 400; Lebanon War (1982) 475; Six-Day War (1967) 442; Yom Kippur War (1973) 455–6
birth of 6, 400; and the fuelling of international anti-Semitism 407
and the counter-culture of the ‘Sixty-Eighters’ 445
Suez crisis 424–5
and the US 461, 475–6, 500; CIA 474
and West Germany 414
Istria 163
Isvestia 336
Italy
Abyssinian invasion 265
and Austria 226–7; see also First World War 296, 311, 312; Habsburgs: in Italy; Triple Alliance with Germany 255, 296
and Austria-Hungary 284
and Britain 216; Corfu Incident 329; and the Italian War of 1859 227; Second World War 365
and the Crimean War 225
democracy 324
diplomacy 353
and Ethiopia 350
expulsion of Franco-Italian armies (1746) 103
and First World War 296, 311, 312, 324
and German Weimar Republic 345; Axis alliance 353, see also Axis powers
and Germany, Second World War 367
and Greece, Second World War 365
Habsburgs in 16, 73, 88, 188, 192, 213, 218, 225–6; Spanish attack on 97
and the Holy Roman Empire 16, 73, 103
inter-war period 324, 345, 353
Italian Confederation 226
Italian War of 1859 225–7
and Japan, Tripartite Pact 367
Kingdom of Central Italy 226
Kingdom of Italy proclaimed (1860) 226
liberal nationalism 188, 196–7
liberal revolutions of early 1820s 188
under Mussolini 328–9, 345, 350, 365
Napoleonic Kingdom of 163
National Society 225
nationalism see nationalism: Italian
and Nazi Germany, Tripartite Pact 367
Nine Years War in northern Italy 60
and the Ottomans 284
Plombières Agreement of 1858 225–6
Red Brigades 448
revolutionary movements: of the 1820s 188; of 1831 194; of 1848 213
Risorgimento 187
Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria 255, 296
unification 225–6
and the Utrecht settlement 76
and the Versailles Treaty of 1919 324
after Vienna Settlement 187, 190
Ivan IV, the Terrible 26