Europe

German: Berlin attacks of 1969 453; First World War 303; and Hitler’s Mein Kampf 336; Hitler’s pre-war actions 344–5, 353, 358; Holocaust 371, 375, 387, 388; Kristallnacht 358; Second World War 363, 369, 371, 375, 387, 388

of Hamas 484–5

Holocaust denial 520

Islamist 484–5, 519–20

propaganda 447

Russian pogroms 255, 264, 273

Soviet 406–7, 447

Ukrainian pogroms 303

Antoine, Duke of Montpensier 208

Antonescu, Ion, Romania under 379

Antwerp, siege of (1832) 196

ANZUS 400

Appomattox 231

Arab League 527

Arabs

Arab Spring 459, 526–7

and First World War 298

and Islam see Islam and Muslims

and Israel see Israel, state of: and the Arab nations

and the League of Nations 322

nationalism 367

OPEC 456

Palestinian 352–3, 400, 442, 471, 475

and Second World War 367–8

slave trade 257

and the US 461, 500

Arafat, Yassir 442, 475

Aragon 30

union with crown of Castile 72, 81

Aranjuez, Treaty of 110

Arbatov, Georgy 452

Argenson, René Louis de Voyer de Paulmy d’ 100

Argentina 475

Falklands War 474–5

aristocracy/nobility

Croatian 57

French 50, 70, 117, 142, 143, 147, 165

Hungarian 57, 63, 134

and Joseph II 134

Mecklenburgian 79

medieval 1

Polish 67, 80

Prussian 90

revolt against Charles XI of Sweden 63

Russian 89

Armenians 298, 303–4, 481

arms control see under military

arms races 279, 287, 390, 455, 482

Army Reform Bill (Britain, 1901) 271

Arnhem, battle of 382

Ashton, Catherine 525

Asia 408, 418; see also specific countries Far East see Far East

Asia Minor/Anatolia 196, 290

Asiento 77

Aspern-Essling, battle of 169

Asquith, H. H., 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith 300

Assad, Bashar al- 526

Assad, Hafez al- 456

Assekuration 27

Athens 460, 525

Atlantic, Battle of the 378

Atlantic Charter (1941) 370

atomic weapons see nuclear weapons

Auerstedt, battle of 167

Aughrim, battle of 61

Augsburg 35

Diet of 32

League of 58; Nine Years War 60–64

Treaty of 36–7

Augustus II, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland 67, 68–9, 80, 87

Aulic Council 73

Auschwitz concentration camp 375

austerity

measures 525, 527–8

protests 525

Austerlitz, battle of 162

Australia 133, 271–2, 399, 430

and First World War 297, 302, 309

and the Nazis 349

and Second World War 363, 366

Austria

annexation by Hitler 355

Anterior 180

Austro-Spanish attempt to dominate Europe 10–11; see also Habsburgs

and Britain see Britain and the United Kingdom: and Austria

and Bukovina 125

bureaucracy 169

Crimean War 222, 223–4

Customs Union 341, 342

dual monarchy see Austro-Hungarian Empire

and the EU 495, 508

exclusion from Germany at Treaty of Prague 234

fiscal-political gridlock 211, 212

and Flanders 84, 87

and France see France/the French: and Austria; Habsburgs: and France; Seven Years War

Frankfurt Union against 99

Freedom Party 508

Habsburgs see Habsburgs

Hungarian border opening (1989) 486

imperial crown, in opposition to Napoleon 161

and Italy see Habsburgs: in Italy; Italy: and Austria

Landwehr (national militia) 169

Münchengrätz Agreement 199

nationalist movements across Habsburg Empire 208, 213–14

Nazi party in 345

neo-absolutist modernization 219–20, 227

partitioning after Second World War 387

and the Poles 57, 124, 208

Pragmatic Sanction 86, 87, 93, 97

Privy Council for Financial Affairs 88

and Prussia see Prussia: and Austria/the Habsburgs

Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180

railways 211

and Russia see Russia: and Austria

and the Second Coalition 157–8

and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War

socio-economic and politico-diplomatic crises of 1847 211–12

and Spain 37; Austro-Spanish alliance 83; and the Quadruple Alliance 81–2

and the Spanish Netherlands 76, 77–8

Staatsrat (State Council) 169

succession issue to Charles VI 86, 96–7; War of the Austrian Succession 97–103

Swiss crisis of 1847 211–12

and the Third Coalition 161–3

and the Treaty of Vienna 179–80, 182–3

Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy 255, 296; see also World War, First

Turkish War 56–7, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65

and the War of the Polish Succession 87–8

and the Weimar Republic 345, 355

Austrian Netherlands 82, 88, 98, 129–30, 134, 144

Austro-Hungarian Empire 244

and Bosnia-Herzegovina 253, 279

Dual Alliance with Germany 254, 260; Caprivi’s New Course 261–2

First World War see First World War

formation of the dual monarchy 240

and Italy 284

and the Magyars 286

and the Serbs 291–3

Three Emperors’ League 250, 255

autocracy

autocratic/representative government debate 27–8

Russian 30, 273, 280, 305, 309; see also Russia: Tsarist Empire

Avertinus, Johannes 23

Avignon 78

Axis powers 353, 354

Anti-Comintern Pact 353, 361

Second World War see Second World War

Tripartite Pact 367

Azeris 393, 481

Azov 65

Azzam, Abdullah 484

Baader–Meinhof Group (Rote Armee Fraktion) 448, 466

Baathists 515

Baden, Ludwig Wilhelm von 64, 66

Baden 163, 173, 180, 198, 203, 209, 213, 239, 386

Baghdad 367–8

Bahrain 526

Bakunin, Mikhail 248

balance of power in Europe see European balance of power

Baldwin, Stanley 346–7, 348

Balfour, Arthur 277, 313, 314

Balfour Declaration 6, 308, 313, 322

Balfour government 280

Balkans 57, 64, 134–5, 146, 155, 192, 205, 240–41, 251, 252–3, 259–60, 284

Balkan League’s attack on Ottomans 289

Bosnian War 493–5, 497–8, 499, 500, 501, 503

ethnic cleansing 494, 497, 503

First Balkan War 289, 290

impact of crises on European integration 506

Kosovo War 504–5, 506

nationalism 259–60, 481–2, 487

and Russia/USSR 155, 192, 240–41; Second World War 365

Second Balkan War 295

Second World War 365

Stability Pact 505, 507

Ball, George 431

Baltic 26, 45, 63, 68, 78, 79, 80, 84, 219, 362, 387, 485, 518; see also specific states

Banat 82, 482

Bank of England 61, 75, 77

Bank of France 351

banking 35, 212, 341; see also specific banks

crisis of 2008 522

run on the pound 490

Bar, Confederation of 124

Barbarossa, Operation 367, 369–70, 372–3, 378

Barbary corsairs 29, 136, 184, 193

Barcelona 64, 71

Barra, Franciso León de la 284

Barthou, Louis 346

Basel 75

Treaty of 154

Basques 72

Bassermann, Ernst 286

Bastian, Gert 476

Bastide, Jules 214, 218–19

Batavian Republic 152, 160

Battle of Dorking, The 246

Bauer, Otto 289

Bautzen, battle of 174

Bavaria, Maximilian I, Duke and Elector of 20, 21, 37

Bavaria 51, 57, 74, 98, 129–30, 134, 163, 173, 180, 181, 197, 203, 213, 239

Bavarian Republic 323

War of the Bavarian Succession 130

Bayreuth 73

Bebel, August 287

Bechuanaland 258

Begg, Moazzam 503

Begin, Menachem 336

Beirut 475

Bekaa Valley 475

Belarus 491, 509, 516

Belgium/Belgians 149, 150, 152, 180, 258, 351, 456; see also Flanders

Brussels Pact 398

economy 526

First World War 294

and France 195, 329, 351

and Germany: Locarno Treaty 334–5, 336; Ruhr crisis of 1923 331

railways 242

revolt and declaration of independence (1830) 194

Second World War 364

separation from Holland 195–6

Belgrade 9, 57, 64, 82, 290, 291–2, 401

Belleau Wood, battle of 317

Benelux countries see Low/Benelux Countries

Beneš, Edvard 387

Benghazi 527

Benin, Africa 258

Bennigsen, Rudolf von 260

Bentov, Mordechai 400

Berchtold, Leopold, Count 292

Berg 146, 163

Beria, Lavrenti 415, 416

Berlin 53, 68, 115, 199, 209–10, 213, 234, 237, 436, 451–2, 456

anti-Semitic attacks of 1969 453

blockade 401

Congo Conference (1884) 257–8

Congress of 252–3

crisis of 1958–62 429–30, 432–3, 434

Decrees (1806) 165

East 413, 486

partitioning of 386–7

Peace of 99

student demonstrations 446–7

Wall 434, 463, 486

and the World Zionist Executive 264

Berlin–Baghdad railway 267, 278, 298

Berliner Privilegierte Zeitung 96

Berliner Tageblatt 260

Berlusconi, Silvio 515

Berne 197, 212

Bernis, François-Joachim de Pierre de 113

Bernstorff, Christian Günther von, Count 193, 199

Bert, Paul 256

Berthold von Henneberg 31

Bessarabia 124, 179, 365, 387

Betar 352

Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von 283, 285, 294, 311

Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von, Count 240, 244

Bevan, Aneurin 416, 417

Beveridge Report 373–4

Bevin, Ernest 392, 399, 404

Bidault, Georges-Augustin 403

Bilderberg group 410

Bin Laden, Osama 470, 491, 503–4, 511

Bismarck, Otto von 5, 220–21, 228–9, 231–2, 233, 234, 238, 240–42, 243, 244, 245, 248–9, 250–51, 252, 254–6, 258, 259, 260, 261, 531

influence on Kissinger 449

Bizonia 396, 401

Bjorko, Treaty of 277

Black Hand 290, 291

Black Sea clauses, Treaty of Paris 225, 240, 244, 246

Blair, Tony 498, 500, 505, 510, 511, 514, 519

Blaker, Peter, Lord 474–5

Bleichroeder, Gerson 264

Blenheim, battle of 67

Blomberg, Werner von 355

Blondel, Louis-Augustin 108

Blum, Léon 333, 351, 352

Boers 258, 265, 267, 268, 269–70

Boer War 270, 272

Bohemia 21, 24, 89, 99, 100–101, 234, 358

Hussites 3

Protestantism 20

and the Seven Years War 112–13

and the Thirty Years War 24; see also Thirty Years War

Boleyn, Anne 19

Bolingbroke, Henry St John, 1st Viscount 76, 77

Bolshevism/Bolsheviks 312, 314, 319–20, 327, 329

Judaeo-Bolshevik–plutocrat alliance 371

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 314–15

Bonaparte, Napoleon see Napoleon I

Borodino, battle of 171

Bosnia-Herzegovina 221, 251, 253, 279, 487, 491, 521

Bosnian Muslims 497, 503, 504

Bosnian War 493–5, 497–8, 499, 500, 501, 503

and Russia 496–7

Bosphorus 3, 205, 290; see also Straits, Turkish

Boswell, James 125

Boulanger, Georges Ernest, General 260

Bourassa 349

Bourbons 65, 67, 75, 77, 87, 120, 128, 131

Bourbon France 89, 107, 141–2, 177, 181, 186, 193–4

Habsburg–Bourbon coalition 110, 116; see also Seven Years War

Habsburg–Bourbon/Valois enmity 110

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 226

restoration of monarchy under Louis XVIII 177, 181

and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War

War of the Spanish Succession see War of the Spanish Succession

bourgeoisie 207, 216, 288

Bourquenay, Adolphe de 198, 227

Boxer Rising 270, 274

Boyne, battle of the 61

Brabant 14, 74

Law of Devolution 51

Braddock, Edward 110, 123

Bradley, Omar 415

Brandenburg, Mark 30–31

Brandenburg–Prussia 30–31, 45–6, 48, 51, 53, 58, 386

Brandt, Willy 448–9, 450, 451, 452, 466

Brauchitsch, Walter von 355

Brazil 200

Breisach 13

Breitenfeld, battle of 15

Bremen 80, 170

Bremner, Robert 201

Brest-Litovsk 387

Treaty of 314–15

Brezhnev, Leonid 441, 454

Brezhnev Doctrine 448, 485

Briand, Aristide 333, 334, 338, 340–41

Brienne, Henri-Auguste de Lomenie, Count of 13

Brihuega, battle of 75

Britain, Battle of 366

Britain and the United Kingdom (see also England/the English; Northern Ireland; Scotland)

Act of Union of 1707 (England and Scotland) 71, 138

Act of Union of 1800 (Great Britain and Ireland) 157

and America see British Empire: and North America; United States of America: and Britain

and Austria: British occupied zone after Second World War 387; London Straits Convention 205

and the Baltic 79

Beveridge Report 373–4

blue water policy 109, 133, 348

British Secret Intelligence Service 410

Brussels Pact 398

and Bulgaria 259–60

Catholicism 157, 168, 192

Chartists 208

Committee of Imperial Defence 271, 337

Conservative Party 272, 280, 281–2, 391, 403–4, 417, 489, 498; see also Tories

constitutional freedoms and European balance of power 76

Convention of Westminster 111

Corn Laws 202, 209

Crimean War 221–5

and Denmark 168

diplomacy 91

domestic politics: in Cold War era 416–17; and First World War 316; after French 1871 collapse 246; and the rise of Hitler 347–8, 357, 359; after Second World War 391

domestic reform, early nineteenth century 167–8

and the Dutch 77, 85, 104–5, 109, 130; Triple Alliance with Prussia 135

East India Company 61

economy see economy: British

and the EEC 427, 430, 435, 443, 454–5, 465, 477–8

effects of global crises on foreign and domestic politics at start of 20th century 270–71

empire of see British Empire

and the ERM 489–90

and the European balance of power 76, 104–5

and European integration 533; after Second World War 398–9

Eurosceptics 498

Falklands War 474–5

First World War see World War, First

Foreign Office 225; Information Research Department 411, 455

and France see France/the French: and Britain; French Empire: and Britain

franchise 194, 239, 256; for women 282

and Germany see Germany: and Britain

and Gibraltar 67, 77

and Greece 383, 396, 424

and the Habsburgs see Habsburgs: and Britain

and Hanover 82, 83, 84, 100, 101, 107, 111, 112, 161, see also George I of Great Britain, and Elector of Hanover; Hanoverian Succession 76

House of Commons 288

House of Lords 281

Imperial Election Scheme 110

imperialism 77, 111–12, 133, 257, 349, 353, 475

industrialization 207

inter-war period 318–19, 323–4, 325, 329, 333, 346–8, 350, 351–2

Iraq War 514–16

and Ireland see Ireland: and Britain

Islamists in 503, 504

and Italy see Italy: and Britain

Jacobites 82

Joint Intelligence Committee 404, 405

and the Korean War 416, 417

Labour Party 357, 373, 392, 403–4, 416–17, 455, 465, 466, 476, 477–8

Liberal Party 253–4, 280–82, 288, 301

liberalism 199, 200–202, 246, 249, 280–82

Midwives Act 282

military 183–4, 209, 247, 271; Army of the Rhine 417, 426, 443, 444; conscription 301, 404; Eighth Army 378; Expeditionary Force 295, 364; National Service 272, 301; Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 281

Militia Bill (1757) 113

Ministry of All the Talents 168

Ministry of Munitions 301

monarchy 303

National Baby Week 282

national efficiency movement 272

National Health Service 373

National Service 272, 301

naval power 84, 95, 120, 130, 131, 158, 168, 208, 261; see also Royal Navy

non-interference but supportive foreign policy 199

nuclear weapons 390, 416, 430

and the Ottomans 205, 252; Crimean War 221–5

Parliament 85, 91, 92

patriotism 251, 303, 304, 477

and Poland 334–5

and Prussia see Prussia: and Britain

public sphere 75, 92, 109, 120, 224

Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180

Reform Act of 1867 239

Royal Air Force 366, 377, 426

Royal Commission for defence 225

Royal Navy see Royal Navy

and Russia/USSR 278–9; and the Anglo-Japanese alliance 271; armistice of Malmo 219; and Bulgaria 259–60; colonial entente of 1907 278–9; and the four-power agreement of July 1840 202–3; and the German Question at end of First World War 319–20; Glasnost 482, 483; and Greece 192–3, 383; inter-war period 329; London Straits Convention 205; and the Napoleonic Wars and era 157, 158, 161–3; and the Ottomans 252; Percentages agreement 383, 401; after Second World War 404; Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180; Soviet covert funding of groups 472, 476; and Thatcher 466, 471; Triple Entente with France 279, 283, 285, 294, 298, 302, 306, 312–13, 315, 317, 327, see also First World War; First World War see First World War; Second World War 365, 372–3, see also Grand Alliance against the Axis; Second World War

and the Second Coalition 157–8

Second World War 363, 364, 365–6, 367–8, 371–9

Secret Service Bureau 281

Septennial Act 91

and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War

and slavery see slavery/slave trade: and Britain/British Empire

social welfare 373–4

socialism 404

and Spain see Spain/the Spanish: and Britain

and the Spanish Civil War 352

statehood 92, 131; fiscal-military 122, 131, 151–2, 183; laissez-faire 183–4

and the Stresa Front 350

and Sweden 95

tariff reform 272, 280; Tariff Reform League 272

taxation see taxation: British

Tea Act 127

Thatcherism 471, 489; see also Thatcher, Margaret

and the Third Coalition 161–5, 168

Tories see Tories

and the Treaty of Vienna 179, 180, 181

Triple Alliance with Holland and Prussia 135

and the US see United States of America: and Britain

volunteering movement 227

and the War of the Austrian Succession 97–9, 101

and the War of the Polish Succession 88

and the WEU 420, 427

Whigs see Whigs

British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society 200

British Commonwealth of Nations 398, 411, 426, 443

British Empire 120–21, 247–8, 268, 271–2, 278–9, 411

and Africa 257, 258, 269

and Australia 133

and the Axis 353

building of the second empire 133

and Canada 133, 137, 171, 178, 183, 240, 349; and First World War 302; and Second World War 363, 366

Crimean War 221–5

and Cuba 191, 200, 230

and Cyprus 253, 425–6, 456, 465

decolonization 425–6

equality of the dominions 337

Falklands War 474–5

First World War see First World War

and the French Empire see French Empire: and Britain

and Germany 356, 361

and Gladstone’s Midlothian campaign 253

Imperial War Cabinet 309

in India 121, 159, 221, 225; and the Congress Party 349; East India Company 61, 77, 121, 127, 225; and First World War 295, 297, 309; and independence 399; India Act (1935) 349; Mutiny of 1857 225; and Second World War 366; Victoria made ‘Empress of India’ 247

inter-war period 326, 330, 336–7, 356, 361

and Italy see Italy: and Britain

and Japan 271

and the Middle East 298, 322, 326, 399, 417; Palestine see Palestine: and Britain; Second World War 298, 311, 317; Suez crisis 424–5, 426

and Nazism in the mid-1930s 349

and North America 107, 108, 109–10, 116, 121, 123, 137, 175, 238, 240, see also United States of America: and Britain; 1812 War 171; and American Independence 107, 126–9, 131–2; battle of New Orleans 178; in early nineteenth century 170–71, 177, 178, 183; thirteen colonies 107, 109, 112, 123, 126–32

and Palestine see Palestine: and Britain

partitioning at Treaty of Paris 131

Second World War 363, 365–6, 367–8, 371–9; and aftermath 392

and the Seven Years War 112, 114, 116

and slavery see slavery/slave trade: and Britain/British Empire

and socialism 404

and South Africa 269–70

Stamp Act 123

taxation 123

trade 272

and the Treaty of Vienna 180

and the USSR 365

British National Union of Miners 472

British South Sea Company 77

Brittany 125, 151

Broglie, Victor-François, Count 108

Brown, Gordon 500

Brown, John, Revd 113

Brüning, Heinrich 340, 342

Brunswick 58, 194

Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of 148, 150

Brusilov offensive 312

Brussels 100

Brussels Pact 398

Brzezinski, Zbigniew 469, 470, 486

Buchanan, James 223

Buda 57, 72

Budapest 219, 424

Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (1994) 497

Buenos Aires 170, 188

Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich 332, 338

Bukovina 125, 365

Bulganin, Nikolai, Marshal 422

Bulgaria 221, 251, 252–3, 259–60, 279, 358, 485–6, 522

collapse of communism in 486

EU admission 507, 517, 520

and First World War 295, 317

NATO admission 512

and the Ottomans/Turks 284, 482

and the Percentages agreement 383

and Second World War 379, 382

Bulletin of the Army of the Reserve 159

bullion 6, 35, 83, 93, 117

Bülow, Bernhard von, Count 274, 277, 283, 341

Bund (political party) 264

Bundesbank 490

Bunker Hill, battle of 127

Burbulis, Gennady 496

Burdett, Sir Francis 168

bureaucracy 94; see also civil service

Austrian 169

Burgundy/Burgundians 11, 31

dawning of national consciousness 2

England’s breach with Duke of Burgundy 3–4

Burke, Edmund 125, 144

Burr, Aaron 171

Bush, George H. W. 491, 495, 498

Bush, George W. 510, 511, 513–14, 518–19, 522

Bute, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of 120

Butler, Pierce 138

Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell 202

Byng, John, Admiral 112

Byrnes, James F. 395

Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron 189

Byzantine Empire/Byzantium

collapse of 7–8

fall of Constantinople 8

and the Ottomans 3

Cabet, Étienne 209

Cadiz 188

Cadogan, Sir Alexander 356

Caillaux, Joseph 315

Calais 18, 22

Callaghan, Jim 465–6

Calonne, Charles Alexandre de 141

Calvary, Moses 265

Calvinism 20, 21, 39

Calvinist International 20

Cambodia 420

Cambon, Pierre-Joseph 149

Cambrai 53

Cameron, David 522

Cameroon 258

Campo Formio, Treaty of 155, 156

Canada 115

and Britain 133, 137, 171, 178, 183, 240, 349; and First World War 302; and Second World War 363, 366

Dominion of 240

economy 366

and the European balance 399–400

and First World War 309

and the Nazis 349

New France 50, 63, 64, 115, 127, 349

and Second World War 363, 366

Canadian Expeditionary Force 302

CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) 427

Cape Colony 180

Cape Province 247, 257, 258

capitalism 159, 211, 273–4, 302

‘capitalist imperialism’ 391

and communism 207–8, 329–30, 396–7, 479

capitation (tax) 70, 117

Caporetto, battle of 311

Caprivi, Georg Leo von, Count 261–2

Captive Nations Day 474

Carbonari 187, 188

Cardwell, Edward 247

Caribbean 34, 44, 64, 115, 117–18, 121, 156

slave revolt 145

Caribs 126

Carlos II of Spain 65

Carnot, Lazare 151

Carranza, Venustiano 291

Cartagena 95

Carter, Jimmy 467, 468, 469, 470–71, 472

Carteret, John, 2nd Earl Granville, Lord Carteret 101

Casablanca Conference (1943) 377

Casale 56

Casimir, John, of the Palatinate 14

Castile 29–30

Cortes 1, 29

dawning of national consciousness 2

union with crown of Aragon 72, 81

Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount 178, 179, 180, 181, 189, 190–91

Castro, Fidel 428, 433

Catalonia 30, 64, 72

Catherine I of Russia 84, 85

Catherine II, the Great 115, 119, 123, 124, 130, 132, 134–5, 140, 149

Catherine of Braganza 51

Catholic League 20, 21

Caucasus/Caucasians 193, 312, 393, 491, 521–2; see also Georgia/Georgians (Caucasian state)

Caucasus Summit 489

Cavaignac, Louis-Eugène, General 218

Cavour, Camillo Benso di, Count 225, 226

Caymans 120

CDU see Christian Democratic Union

Ceauşescu, Nicolae 482, 486

Cecil, Robert 313

Cecil, William, 1st Baron Burghley 14, 20, 25–6

CENTCOM 475

Central America 93, 177, 183, 199–200, 235

central Europe (see also specific countries and peoples)

and the control of Europe 5

and Eastern Crises of 1839–40 202–4

Holy Roman Empire see Holy Roman Empire

political culture in late Middle Ages 1–2

Thirty Years War see Thirty Years War

unified ‘Mitteleuropa’ 244

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 404, 410, 418, 445, 470, 474

Ceuta 2

Ceylon 180

CFE (Conventional Forces Europe) Treaty 489

Chamberlain, Austen 318–19, 333, 334–5

Chamberlain, Joseph, Tariff Reform League 272

Chamberlain, Neville 356, 357, 358, 359, 366

Chambers of Reunion 56

Chambord, Treaty of 13

Charleroi 53

Charles, Duke of Vieuville 23

Charles I of England 5, 24, 40

Charles II of Great Britain and Ireland 45, 51, 52, 54, 59 Charles II, Elector Palatine 58

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and I of Spain 5, 8, 10, 11–12, 16–17, 18, 21, 24, 29–30, 35, 36–7, 40

and the Spanish colonial empire 34–5

Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria 65, 67, 73, 76, 78, 79–80, 82, 83, 84–5, 86, 88, 95

Charles VIII of France 12, 17

Charles X of France 193

Charles XI of Sweden 62, 63, 65

Charles XII of Sweden 65, 68–9, 73, 78

Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria 97–8, 99, 101

Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia 214, 219

Charles of Austria see Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria

Charles Ludwig, Elector Palatine 38

Chartism 208

Chatham, William Pitt the Elder, Ist Earl of 5, 6, 114

Chechnya/Chechens 370, 375, 497, 503, 509–10, 511

Chernenko, Konstantin 478

Chesme, battle of 124

Chesney, G. T. 246

Chiang Kai-shek 408

Chicago Democratic Convention (1968) 446

China 2, 79, 265, 267, 270, 271, 274–5, 284, 326

Civil War 408

and Germany 516; GDR 428, 429, 432

and Hungary 428

Japanese invasion (1937) 354

Kuomintang 408

nuclear weapons 434

People’s Republic of (1949–) 408, 427–8, 429, 432, 434, 445, 449, 454, 469, 485, 495, 516, 523; see also Mao Zedong

Republic of (1912–49) 284, 407–8

Sino-Indian war (1962) 434

Tiananmen Square massacre 485

and the US 454, 495, 523

and the USSR: and Mao 408, 427–8, 429, 432, 434, 439, 450; Sino-Soviet split 434, 445, 449; Sino-Soviet Treaty (1950) 408

and Vietnam 469

Chios 188

Chirac, Jacques 515

Choiseul, Étienne François, Duc de 115, 116, 117

Chou En-lai 428

Chouans 151

Christendom 2, 36

and the Holy Roman Empire 4; see also Holy Roman Empire

Christian Democratic Union (CDU, Germany) 416, 444, 478

1990 victory in East Germany 486

Christian I of Denmark, Norway and Sweden 9

Christian VIII of Denmark 208–9

Christopher, Warren 497

Church

clergy see clergy

German 23

lands 19, 143, 151

Orthodox see Orthodox Church

property 19, 143, 166

Protestant see Protestantism

Roman Catholic see Roman Catholicism

and state: and the French Revolution 143; and the Reformation see Reformation, Protestant

Churchill, John, later Duke of Marlborough 53

Churchill, Lord Randolph 256

Churchill, Winston 285–6, 297, 300, 319–20, 346, 357, 366, 367, 370, 371, 376–7, 383, 384, 391, 398, 417

‘Sinews of Peace’ speech 394

CIA see Central Intelligence Agency

Ciano, Galeazzo, Count 353

Cincinnati, Society of the 139

Cisalpine Republic 152

Cispadane Republic 152

cities 1, 3 (see also specific cities) of the Holy Roman Empire 16

Civil Constitution of the Clergy 143, 147

Civil Rights Act (US, 1964) 440

civil service 90

Clarendon, George Villiers, 4th Earl of 222

Clarkson, Thomas 180–81

class

aristocratic see aristocracy/nobility

conflict 207

and First World War 304

German transcending of class distinctions 344

middle see middle classes

solidarity 248

in tension with nationality 254

working see working classes

Clay, Lucius D., General 395

Clemenceau, Georges 315, 318, 324

Clémentel, Étienne 324

clergy 1, 11, 134, 142, 143, 145

Civil Constitution of the Clergy 143, 147

German 250

Cleveland, S. Grover 266

Cleves 13, 14, 30–31, 53

Clinton, Bill 495–6, 498, 500

Clinton, Hillary 523

coal 411

European Coal and Steel Community 411, 412, 421

Cobden, Richard 201–2, 209

Cohn-Bendit, Daniel 446, 524

Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 50, 55

Cold War 404–6, 407–16, 418–20, 422–35, 438–41, 447–52, 456–7, 462–9, 531

and the Cuba missile crisis 433–4, 439

and détente 444, 447, 450, 452, 454, 458, 459, 461, 462, 473

and domestic politics 406, 409–10, 414–17, 419–20, 422, 430–32, 439–41

emergence in Soviet–western post-war relations 393–7, 398, 400–401, 403–4

and the second Berlin crisis 429–30, 432–3, 434

‘Second Cold War’ 459, 469–77

and the shaping of European governmental structures 404

and the Suez crisis 424–5, 426

and the Third World 418

Cologne 16, 57, 58, 74

colonial government 63

colonialism see imperialism/colonialism

Columbus, Christopher 33–4, 41

Cominform 400–401

Comintern 319, 346

Anti-Comintern Pact 353, 361

Committee for Union and Progress 279

Committee of Imperial Defence 271, 337

Committee on the Present Danger 467

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 427

Commonwealth of Nations, British 398, 411, 426, 443

communism

and capitalism 207–8, 329–30, 396–7, 479

Chinese 408, 427–8

clash of national socialism, democracy and 308–80

collapse with democratic revolution of 1989–90 485–7

democratic–communist partitioning 382–457

French Communist Party 363, 392

German: East German 412, 413, 414, 415, see also German Democratic Republic (GDR); German Communist Party 327, 331, 342–3, 344, 385

and The German Ideology (Marx and Engels) 207–8

global battle against world communism 409

Greek 383, 393, 401

Hungarian 485

Italian 403, 460

League of Communists 215

Marxist see Marxism

in Portugal 465

Soviet 353–4, 400–401, 487; see also Comintern; Soviet Union; Stalinism US concern with advancing global communism 464–5

Communist manifesto 215, 216

concentration camps 343–4

Second World War death camps 375

Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund) 163, 164, 169, 173, 177

Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) 459, 464

Congo Basin 257–8

Congress of Cultural Freedom 410

Congress System 180, 196

conscription, military 50, 151, 166, 185, 276, 301, 309, 404

Constantine Pavlovich of Russia 135

Constantinople

fall of 8–9

Janissary revolt 72–3

Ottoman retention of 289, 290

Ottoman rule from 9

and Russia 135, 196, 223, 245, 252

constitutionalism 138–9

Conti, François Louis, Prince of 67

Continental System/Blockade 165, 169–70

Conventional Forces Europe (CFE) Treaty 489

Cooke, Edward 157

Copenhagen 79, 168

Copenhagen Complex 274

Coral Sea, battle of the 378

Corfu 295

Incident 329

Corn Laws 202, 209

Corsairs 10, 29, 136, 184, 193

Corsica 125, 126

Cortés, Hernán 34

Cosgrave, W. T. 337

Cossacks 47, 124

Coudenhove-Kalergi, Richard, Count 332, 333

counter-culture 445

counter-reformation 54

Cracow 201, 212, 213

Creel, George 316

Crémieux, Adolphe 206

Crépy, Peace of 11

Crimea 57, 135

Crimean War 221–5

Khanate 124

Croatia/Croats 32, 65, 487, 491, 493, 494, 497–8

EU admission 521; candidate status 517

and the Habsburgs 25

nobility 57

Pavelić’s Croatian state 379

Cromwell, Oliver 5, 24, 40, 44–5

Crowe, Eyre 278

Cruise missiles 469, 472, 478, 479

crusades 2

CSCE (Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe) 459, 464

Cuba 118, 191, 200, 229–30, 238, 266, 268–9

Castro’s seizure of power 428

missile crisis 433–4, 439

Ostende manifesto 223

Cuno, Wilhelm 331

Cuno strikes, Germany 331

Curtius, Julius 341

Curzon, George Nathaniel, Marquis 271, 295, 333

Customs Union, Austrian 341, 342

Customs Union, Prussian (Zollverein) 193, 197, 238–9

Cyclone, Operation 471

Cyprus

and Britain 253, 425–6, 456, 465

EU admission 517

and Greece 460, 465

NATO admission 503

and the Turks 10, 460

Czechoslovakia 326, 341, 388

annexation by Hitler 355–6, 357

anti-Semitism 407

Charter 77 initiative 467

collapse of communism in 486

Czech Republic 502, 503, 522; EU admission 495, 507, 517

Hitler’s occupation of Prague (March 1939) 358, 359

‘Little Entente’ 329

NATO admission 502

and Poland 358

Prague Spring 447–8

refugees 452

Sudeten Germans 452

and the USSR 388, 390, 393, 485–6; Czech government-in-exile/Soviet treaty (1943) 385; and Helsinki Final Act 467; and the Prague Spring 447–8

and West Germany 451, 452

Daily Mirror 357

Dalai Lama 523

Dalberg, Karl von 140, 162–3

Dalmatia 163, 180

Dalton, Hugh 417

Damascus Affair 202–3, 206

Danes see Denmark/Danes

Danilevich, Andrian A. 459

Danilov, Yuri 291

D’Annunzio, Gabriele 324

Danubian principalities 188, 190, 214, 221, 303; see also Bosnia-Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Moldavia; Serbia/Serbs; Wallachia

Danzig 170, 320

Dardanelles 205, 294, 297, 300; see also Straits, Turkish

Dashichev, Vyacheslav 481

Davies, Sir John 24

Dawes, Charles 334

Dawes Plan 334, 335, 336, 339

Dawson, William Harbutt 319

Dayton Agreement 498

D-Day 379

de Gaulle, Charles 385, 392, 393, 396, 428, 430, 435, 436, 438, 441–2, 443, 446, 448, 454

de Witt brothers see entries at Witt

Déak, Ferenc 233

Debray, Régis 447

Decembrist movement, Russia 187, 192

de-colonization 5

Deladier, Édouard 398

Delcassé, Théophile 277

Delors, Jacques 483

democracy

American 405, 473–4, 495–6, 500

clash of communism, national socialism and 308–80

communist–democratic partitioning 382–457

‘democratic deficit’ 506, 508, 517, 525

democratic enlargement 496, 497, 500, 501–2, 504, 513–14, 523

‘democratic peace’ theory 473–4

democratic revolution of 1989–90 485–7

and the EU boundary 512

federal 399

and franchise see franchise

French 209

German 402–3, 490

imposed democratization 291

and Indian independence 399

Italian 324

National Endowment for Democracy 474

Russian ‘sovereign democracy’ 510–11, 516

social see social democracy

southern European democratization 465

Spanish 465

and stability 505

and the USSR 482

Denmark/Danes 9, 65, 68, 158, 168, 182

and Germany 208–9, 232

rejection of Euro 508

and Sweden 179

Derby, Edward, 15th Earl of 239

Derby, Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of 246

Desert Storm, Operation 491–2

despotism 85, 100, 141, 259; see also autocracy

domestic 91

Dettingen, battle of 98

Deutsche Zeitung 210

Devolution, War of 51

Dewey, Thomas 403

Díaz, Porfirio 284

Dien Bien Phu, battle of 419

diplomacy 20, 85, 183, 189, 221 (see also specific treaties)

Anglo-Hanoverian 83

British 91

Diplomatic Revolution 107, 110, 114

Dutch 61

English 61; Anglo-Hanoverian 83

French 51

Italian 353

‘leapfrog’ 11, 49, 56–7

parliamentary release of diplomatic papers 91

Polish diplomatic service 122

Russian 65, 132

disarmament

European Nuclear Disarmament (END) 472

Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932) 342

movement 472, 478

Soviet encouragement of western disarmament 472, 476

unilateral 478

after First World War 320, 321, 327, 328, 337–8, 342

Disraeli, Benjamin 229, 234, 245, 247, 251, 252, 253, 254

Dodecanese islands 284

Dollfuss, Engelbert 345

Don Carlos, later Charles III of Spain 83, 88, 98

Don Carlos, pretender Carlos V 201

Don Philip, later Duke of Parma 98

Dönitz, Karl, Admiral 386

Douglass, William 109

Dover, Treaty of 52

Drake, Sir Francis 35

Dreadnought battleships 277, 281, 283

Dregger, Alfred 484

Dresden 173

battle of 174

Treaty of 100

Dreyfus, Alfred 264

Drouyn de Lhuys, Édouard 214

Drumont, Édouard 263

Du Buat-Nançay, Louis-Gabriel 116

Dubček, Alexander 447–8

Dubrovnik 494

Duisenberg, Wim 503

Dulles, John Foster 401, 418, 419, 430

Dumouriez, Charles-François 148, 149

Dunes, battle of 45

Dunkirk 45, 51, 77, 86, 364

Duras, Jacques Henri de Durfort de 58

Dutch see Netherlands/the Dutch

Dutch East Indies 371, 372, 393

Dutch Republic see United Provinces/Dutch Republic

Dutschke, Rudi 446–7

East Africa 248, 257, 258

East Germany see German Democratic Republic (GDR)

East India Company (British) 61, 77, 121, 127, 225

East Timor 461

Eastern Rumelia 253, 259

Ebert, Friedrich 322

ECB (European Central Bank) 503, 508, 522–3, 528

economy

austerity measures 525, 527–8

Austrian 211–12

British 411, 416–17, 426, 443, 454, 465, 500; Black Wednesday 490; and the ERM 490; sterling crises 425, 426, 443, 465, 490

Canadian 366

economic liberalism 167

Euro debt crisis 525–6, 527–8

European economic integration see European integration: economic

European Monetary Union 493, 500, 508–9; see also Euro

financial crisis of 2008 522

French 86

German: and European integration 533; German Mark 493; Nazi 372; Second Reich 243; Weimar Republic 341; West Germany 403, 410, 426; and the western financial crisis 522–3

Italian 525, 527

Marshall Aid and the economic regeneration of Europe 397, 399, 401, 403

of occupied Europe, Second World War 379

PIIGS crisis 525, 527–8

protectionism 340

recession 522

Russian 89

Soviet 372, 441, 479

Spanish 525, 527

US: and the 1992 election campaign 498; Cold War era 419; crisis starting with Lehman Brothers’ collapse 522, 523; Great Depression 341–2, 349; New Deal 349, 372; protectionism 340; socio-economic modernization 431; Wall Street Crash 340

ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) 411, 412, 421

EDC (European Defence Community) 412–13, 417, 419, 420

Eden, Anthony 357, 420

EDI (European (space) Defence Initiative, ‘EUREKA’) 477

Edirne 72

education 243

EEC see European Economic Community

Egypt 156, 202, 230, 248, 258, 276, 329, 513

Arab Spring 526, 527

and Israel 400; Six-Day War 442; Yom Kippur War (1973) 455–6

and the Suez crisis 424–5

and USEUCOM 475

and the USSR 423

Einstein, Lewis 297

Eisenhower, Dwight David 415, 417–18, 419, 422, 425, 435

Eisner, Kurt 323

El Alamein, battle of 378

Elektron incendiary bombs 316

Elizabeth I 5, 14, 29, 35, 40

Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine 58

Elizabeth Farnese, Queen consort of Spain 81, 83

Elizabeth of Russia 102–3, 112, 115

Ellsberg, Daniel 453

Élysée Treaty 436, 438

Encounter 410–11

Engels, Frederick 207–8, 215, 216

England/the English

Act of Settlement 71

American colonization 36

beginning of national consciousness 2

Catholicism in 52

Civil War (Great Rebellion) 23–4, 36

Cromwell’s Protestant crusade in Europe 44–5

and the Dutch 44, 53, 60; Triple Alliance with Dutch Republic and Sweden 52

East India Company 61, 77, 121, 127, 225

English Reformation 19

and France see France/the French: and England and

Germany see Germany: and England

Glorious Revolution 60, 143

and the Habsburgs 14–15, 36

and the Holy Roman Empire 3–4, 14–15, 22, 40, 86; and imperial crown 18

House of Commons 28, 62

House of Lords 28

and Ireland 25–6

Jacobites 61

Lollards 3

Navigation Act 44

Parliament 1, 28–9, 54, 62, 71, 85, 91, 92

and Portugal 51

Protectorate and Commonwealth 24, 44–5

Protestantism 19, 20, 59–60; Calvinist International 20; and the English Civil War 24

public sphere 61; emergence 22

Royal Navy see Royal Navy

and Scotland 25–6; Act of Union (1707) 71, 138

and Spain see Spain/the Spanish: and England

and the Spanish Empire 35–6, 44–5

statehood 61–2

stock market 61

and the struggle for mastery in Europe 40, 41

Stuarts see Stuarts

and Sweden 52

taxation 28

and the Thirty Years War 11, 24, 35

Tories see Tories

Triennial Act 62

Triple Alliance with Dutch Republic and Sweden 52

Tudors 25–6

War of the English Succession 60

and the War of the Spanish Succession 66, 69–70, 73, 75, 76

Whigs see Whigs

English Commonwealth and Protectorate 24, 44–5

Entebbe hostage affair 466

Entente Cordiale 276, 359

EPC (European Political Community) 412

Erfurt 164

Erhard, Ludwig 403, 437, 439, 443

ERM (European Exchange Rate Mechanism) 489–90

Erzberger, Matthias 311

Espionage Act (US, 1917) 316

Estonia 26, 80, 481, 487, 491

EU admission 507, 517

NATO admission 503, 512

Ethiopia 350

ethnic cleansing 494, 497, 503

EU see European Union

Eupen-Malmedy 320, 387

Eurasianism 499

EURATOM 421

‘EUREKA’ (European (space) Defence Initiative) 477

Euro 500, 508

debt crisis 525–6, 527–8

Eurocorps 483, 493, 495

European Advisory Commission, Second World War 376

European ancien régime states 146, 156, 174, 211, 212

French 100, 103, 116–17, 132, 141–2, 144, 147–8, 174, 211, 212

European balance of power 530–34

and Britain 76, 104–5

and Canada 399–400

and the Congress System 180

and the Crimean War 221–5

and the decline of the Dutch Republic 91

and drives for Universal Monarchy see Universal Monarchy

and the ‘European Federation’ proposal 391

and France 54, 65–7, 68–70, 73–6, 157; Napoleonic Wars and era 161–74

and German hegemomy, Second World War 364; see also World War, Second

Germany as the crux of 3–4, 11–18, 43, 54, 107, 156–7, 216, 271, 301, 308, 364, 401, 446–7, 487, 530–31

and the Great Northern War 68–9, 71, 78–81

and the great standoff of 1725–7 84–5

and the Holy Roman Empire 3–4, 11–18, 54, 86–7, see also War of the Spanish Succession; and the Reichsverfassung (German constitution after Westphalia) 43

and imperialism see imperialism/colonialism

and the inter-war rearmament of Germany 350

and the League of Nations 321

and naval power 35, 95

and the revolutions of the 1830s 193–202

and the revolutions of 1848 212–19

following Seven Years War 116

and the slave trade 77

and Suez 426

and trade 55–6, 77

and the Treaty of Utrecht 76–8, 81–2

and unification of the two Germanies 488

and the US 284, 301, 396, 531–2

and the Versailles Treaty of 1756 110–11

and the Versailles Treaty of 1919 320–21, 326 see also Versailles: 1919 Treaty of

after the Vienna settlement 179–90

and the War of the Austrian Succession 97–103

and the War of the Spanish Succession 65–7, 68–70, 73–6

and world dominance 5, 107

and First World War 299; see also World War, First

and Second World War 362, 364–5, 368l see also World War, Second European Central Bank (ECB) 503, 508, 522–3, 528

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 411, 412, 421

European Commission 463

European Convention on Human Rights 406, 411

European Council 463, 493, 495

European Defence Community (EDC) 412–13, 417, 419, 420

European (space) Defence Initiative, ‘EUREKA’ 477

European Economic Community (EEC) 427, 430, 435, 437, 438, 443, 463

and Britain 427, 430, 435, 443, 454–5, 465, 477–8

‘empty chair’ crisis 438, 443

and France 430, 435, 436, 438, 443

Greece’s admission 477

and Palestine 471

Portugal’s admission 477

Single European Act 477

Spain’s admission 477

European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) 489–90

European expansion 5, 33–5, 41, 93

colonial see imperialism/colonialism

European integration

Action Committee for a United States of Europe 421

and Britain 398–9, 533

and CAP 427

and the ‘capability–expectations gap’ 502–3

and the Cold War era 410, 411–12, 417, 420, 421

and the collapse of communism 492–3

and the containment of Germany 376–7, 396, 410, 531

customs union/common market 421, 427

Draft Treaty on Union (1984) 477

economic 377, 421, 427, 493; European Central Bank 503, 508, 522–3, 528; European Monetary Union 493, 500, 508–9, see also Euro; single currency 493, see also Euro

and the ECSC 411, 412, 421

and the EDC 412, 417

and the EEC 427, 437, 463–4, 477

and emancipation from American tutelage 492

and the EPC 412

and the ERM 489–90

and the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy 437, 493, 502–3, 508

and EU establishment 493

and EU Security and Defence Policy 507

and EU Treaty for the Constitution of Europe 517–18

and the European Council 463

and the European Monetary System 468

and the European parliament see European parliament

Fouchet plan 435

and the future 533–4

impact of Balkan crises 506

Maastricht Treaty 493, 495

and NATO 421; see also NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

and the reunification of Germany 492–3

after Second World War 382, 397–9, 410

as a solution to war 506–7

Treaty of Amsterdam 502–3

and the Treaty of Rome 427

and the US 377, 436, 437, 468, 492

and the WEU 420, 427, 477

European Monetary System 468

European Monetary Union 493, 500, 508–9; see also Euro

European Nuclear Disarmament (END) 472

European parliament 412, 437, 463, 477, 506, 508, 509, 517, 521

European Political Community (EPC) 412

European Security Strategy 514

European Union (EU)

admission 495, 507, 517

and Austria 495, 508

Capabilities Action Plan 512

Common Foreign and Security Policy 437, 493, 502–3, 508, 528

conflicting priorities in 512

and the ‘democratic deficit’ 506, 508, 517, 525

Draft Treaty (1984) 477

European Security Strategy 514

and the future 533–4

and Germany 494, 506, 529

and Ireland 508

and the Kosovo Assembly declaration of independence 521

Lisbon Treaty 521, 524–5

Membership Action Plans 507

Military Committee 507

military impotence 494

moves towards a Union see European integration

Nice Treaty referendum 508

origination/establishment 5, 493

paralysis over War on Terror 513

Political Security Committee 507

Rapid Reaction Force 507

revised constitution 520–21

Security and Defence Policy 507

Stability Pact 505, 507

Treaty for the Constitution of Europe 517–18

and the US 506

and Yugoslavia 493–5

Eurozone 522–3

economic crisis 525–6, 527–8

Evangelical Union 20

Eyskens, Mark 493

Fadeyev, Rostislav, General 245

Falkenhayn, Erich von 296, 302

Falkland Islands 127

Falklands War 474–5

Fanon, Frantz 445

Far East 265, 270, 326, 390, 500; see also specific countries

fascism 324, 348–9, 351, 352, 389

Fashoda 269

Favier, Jean-Louis 114–15

Fawcett, Millicent 282

FDP (Free Democrats, Germany) 416, 452, 478

federalism 138–9, 151, 179, 195, 249, 341, 398

federal democracy 399

German Federal Act 182

Federalist papers 138

Fehbrellin, battle of 53

feminism 445

Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick 113

Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor 11, 24–5, 27, 32, 37

Ferdinand I of Naples and Sicily 188

Ferdinand II of Aragon 33, 34

Ferdinand II of Styria, Holy Roman Emperor 20–21

Ferdinand IV, King of the Romans 44

Ferdinand VII of Spain 188, 201

Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 259

Ferry, Jules 259

Fesch, Joseph, Cardinal 163

feudalism 1, 48, 117, 153

French abolition of 143, 147

Napoleonic refeudalization 165

Fez 283

Finland 63, 170, 179, 362, 369, 382, 393

EU admission 495

under Mannerheim 379

First International 249

First World War 293–318

Allied Supreme War Council 314

build-up to 286–93

French casualties 318

maritime blockade 296, 305, 309, 317–18

post-war German Question 318–20, 333

reparations 320, 322, 325, 328, 331, 334, 340, 342

shell crisis 300, 301

social effects of 303–4

and state power 302

and the Straits 293, 294, 295, 300

submarine warfare 295, 299, 305, 308, 310, 316

Fischer, Joschka 501, 506, 512, 524

Fischer Doctrine 505

Fisher, Warren 349

Fiume (Rijeka) 324

Flanders 18, 60, 73, 74, 76

and Austria 84, 87

Dutch rebels in 11

Spanish 12, 16, 38

First World War 295, 296, 302

Fleury, André-Hercule de, Cardinal 93, 95

Florida 116, 131, 136, 158, 171, 184

Foch, Ferdinand, Marshal 317, 318, 323, 329

Fontainebleau, Treaty of 177

Fontenoy, battle of 98, 100

Foot, Michael 416, 472, 475, 477

Ford, Gerald 461, 465, 467

Foreign Legion 201

Formosa 408

Fort Sumter, battle of 230

Fouchet, Christian 435

Fox, Charles James 168

France Juive, La 263

France/the French

absolutism 55, 122, 152

and the American war of Independence 130, 131–2

ancien régime 100, 103, 116–17, 132, 141–2, 144, 147–8, 174, 211, 212

aristocracy/nobility 50, 70, 117, 142, 143, 147, 165

ascendancy in Europe 40

Assembly of Notables 141

and Austria 51, 56, 85–7, 110, 114–15, 116, 201, 240, see also Habsburgs: and France; Seven Years War; Austrian partitioning after Second World War 387; Franco-Piedmontese war against Austria 225–7; French Revolutionary Wars 148–9, 150; London Straits Convention 205; Napoleonic Wars and era 157, 158, 160–61, 162, 163, 168–9, 170

Bastille stormed 142

beginning of national consciousness 2

and Belgium 195, 329, 351

border security 49, 51, 56

Bourbon France 89, 107, 141–2, 177, 181, 186, 193–4; see also Bourbons; Seven Years War

and Britain (see also French Empire: and Britain): alliance against the Habsburgs 83–4, 86; and the American War of Independence 130; collaboration against Spain 81–2; and the Continental System 165; Crimean War 221–5; and EEC entry 430, 435, 443; Entente Cordiale 276, 359; First World War see World War, First; and the French collapse of 1871 245–6; French Revolutionary Wars 150; inter-war period 329, 333; and invasion by Charles Edward Stuart 98; liberal alignment 200; London Straits Convention 205; and the Low Countries 76, 98, 104; Napoleonic Wars and era 155, 156, 157, 158–9, 161–2, 165, 167–8, 175, 177, 178; and NATO 428; and naval power 95, 109, 120, 208; and Orders in Council 165, 170; and the Ottomans 202–3; Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201; Second World War 362; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War; Suez crisis 424–5; trade 165, 166; Triple Entente with Russia 279, 283, 285, 294, 298, 302, 306, 312–13, 315, 317, 327, see also World War, First; and the USSR 327, 329; after Vienna Settlement 185; and the War of the Austrian Succession 98, 100

Brussels Pact 398

Catholicism 43, 143, 165

Chambers of Reunion 56

Civil Constitution of the clergy 143, 147

Communist Party 363, 392

Constituent Assembly 214

Constitution of Europe rejection 517–18

Continental System/Blockade 165, 169–70

Crimean War 221–5

‘Declaration of the rights of man and the citizen’ 143

democracy 209

destruction of Second Empire 243, 245

diplomacy 51

domestic politics 147–8, 348, 359, 419–20

and the Dutch see Netherlands/the Dutch: and France

economy 86, 125

and the EEC 430, 435, 436, 438, 443

and Egypt 156, 202, 230, 276

empire of see French Empire