Nitti, Francesco 324
Nitze, Paul 467
Nixon, Richard 431, 449–50, 452, 453, 454, 455
impeachment 461
and Mao 454
Watergate cover-up 453–4
Nixon Doctrine 449–50
NKVD 362
nobility see aristocracy/nobility
Non-Proliferation Treaty 444, 531
Nootka Sound 147
Normandy 379
North, Frederick, Lord North 127
North Africa 9, 27, 33, 271, 372, 378, 503, 512
Barbary corsairs see Barbary corsairs
Ottomans 193
North America
Albany Congress 110
American Civil War 229–31, 235, 236
and the British Empire see British Empire: and North America
centralizer/representative contention 63
and the creation of the USA 107, 126–9
and the European Seven Years War and aftermath 109–10, 111–12, 120–21, 123
and the French threat 109–10
Indians see Indians, American
public sphere 61
Revolution 127–9, 130, 131, 174; debts 137; impact on European politics 132–3
thirteen colonies 107, 109, 112, 123, 126–32
USA see United States of America
North Atlantic Treaty Organization see NATO
North German Confederation 234
North Vietnam 420, 437, 455, 461, 465; see also Vietnam: War
Ulster see Ulster
Novgorod 68
Novikov, Nikolai 394
Novotný, Antonin 447
NPT (Nuclear Partial Test Ban Treaty) 436–7, 443
nuclear weapons 389, 390–91, 431–2, 467
activists against 472
American 390, 408, 419, 430, 431–2
arms race 390–91
Bermuda agreement 430
Chinese 434
and the Cuba crisis 433–4, 439
and EURATOM 421
European Nuclear Disarmament 472
French 425
INF Treaty 483
Japanese cities bombed by 390
‘missile gap’ 431
Multi-Lateral Force 435, 436, 437
Non-Proliferation Treaty 444, 531
Nuclear Partial Test Ban Treaty 436–7, 443
Soviet 390, 407, 433, 439, 459, 473, 476, 480
Soviet encouragement of Western disarmament 472, 476
‘Star Wars’ Strategic Defence Initiative 473, 476, 477, 479, 480, 482, 483
Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement: SALT I 454; SALT II 467, 471
unilateral disarmament 478
US Atomic Energy Act 390
Vladivostok Agreement 459
and West Germany 429, 436–7, 438–9, 443, 472, 478
Yom Kippur War alerts 456
NUWSS (National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies) 282
Nystad, Treaty of 80
O’Connell, Daniel 202
Octobrist party, Russia 280, 305, 309
Odessa 255
crisis of Yom Kippur War 456
Oldenburg 170
oligarchy 102
Oliva, Treaty of 45
Olivares, Gaspar de Guzmán, Count 12, 23
Ollivier, Émile 242
Olympic boycott (1980) 471
Omar Pasha of Algiers 184
Omar Saeed Sheikh 503
Onate, Inigo Velez de Guevara, 7th Count 21
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Nations) 456
Operation Barbarossa 367, 369–70, 372–3, 378
Operation Cyclone 471
Operation Desert Storm 491–2
Operation Muskateer 424–5
Oppenheim, Max von 297
Orange, House of 135
Orange Free State 269
Orders in Council (Britain 1807) 165, 170
Ordin-Nashchokin, Afanasin 47
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe 497
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Nations (OPEC) 456
Orlando, Vittorio 324
Orléans, Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of 203
Orlov, Yuri 467
Orwell, George: Animal Farm 411
Osiander, Andreas 19
Osnabrück, Treaty of 38
Ostend Company 83
Ostende manifesto 223
Ostermann, Andrei Ivanovich, Count 84
Ottomans
advance into Europe 8–10, 40–41, 56, 64
and the Armenians 303–4
in Bosnia-Herzegovina 251
and Britain 205
Committee for Union and Progress 279
Crimean War 221–5
end of Ottoman Empire in Europe 289
and European expansion 33–4
and the fall of Constantinople 8–9
and First World War 295, 298, 312, 317
and the four-power agreement of July 1840 202–3
and France 21, 61, 193, 202–3; Crimean War 221–5
and Greece 188, 189, 192–3, 284
and the Habsburgs 9, 10, 11, 26–7, 32, 40, 51, 56–7, 58, 62, 64, 65, 82, 94
and the Holy League 57
and the Holy Roman Empire 10, 11, 16, 24–5, 27, 31, 32–3, 51, 56–7, 65, 86, 135
and Hungary 9, 10, 16, 51, 56, 57, 65
Islamic reform 92
Janissary revolt 72–3
and the Jews 202–3
and Lutherans 22
Orthodox Church in Ottoman Empire 135
Porte (government) 84, 92, 108, 124, 221, 222, 252, 289
and Prussia 145
public sphere 92
and the Reformation 19
and Russia see Russia: and the Ottomans
slavery abolition 223
and the Slavs 251
in Spain 26–7
Vienna battle defeat 57
and the War of the Spanish Succession 72
Young Turks 279
Oudenaarde, battle of 73
Oxenstierna, Axel 15
Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza, Shah of Iran 469
Paine, Thomas 128–9, 147, 151–2
Painlevé, Paul 315
Pakistan 399, 460, 470, 503 intelligence agency (ISI) 471
Palatinate 21, 24, 36, 38, 57–8, 320, 331, 386
John Casimir of the Palatinate 14
Nine Years War 60–64
Palatine Protestants 83
and the War of the Polish Succession 88
Paléologue, Maurice 294
Palermo 213
Palestine
and al-Qaeda 513
and the birth of the state of Israel 400
and Britain 298, 322, 388, 393; Arab revolt (1936–9) 352–3; Balfour Declaration 6, 308, 313, 322; First World War 311, 317; Peel Commission 352; withdrawal 400
and the EEC 471
Gaza Strip 442
Holy Land as centre of the world 2
Palestinian Arabs 352–3, 400, 442, 471, 475
Palestinian guerrillas 466
and the ‘Sixty-Eighters’ 445, 446
and the UN 400
and West Germany 453
and Zionism see Zionism
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) 442, 452–3, 471, 475, 484
Palm, Johann Philipp 164
Palmerston, John Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount 199, 200–201, 202, 205–6, 208, 216, 217, 224
Paneuropa 332–3
Pan-European Union 332–3
Pan-German League 263
Pankhurst, Christabel 282
Panther (cruiser) 283
restoration of pope by Napoleon III 215
Papen, Franz von 342
1763 Treaty of 115
1783 Treaty of 131
1814 Treaty of 177
1856 Treaty of 222; Black Sea clauses 225, 240, 244, 246
Accord (1973) 455
Commune revolt 244
crowning of Napoleon 161
revolution of 1848 213
riots of 1968 446
Parkes, Sir Henry 271
parliamentary/representative government 1, 18
versus autocracy 27–8
constitutionalism 138–9
English Parliament 1, 28–9, 54, 62, 71, 85, 91, 92
and external weakness 29–30
and the monarchy 28–9, 47–8, 52, 54, 59–60, 94, 131
parliamentary release of diplomatic papers 91
post-Seven Years War debates on 122
spread through enlargement of NATO 501–2
Parthenopean Republic 152
Passarovitz, Treaty of 82
Passchendaele campaigns 316
Patriot Party 135
patriotism
and criminality 166
French 196
German 23, 66, 85, 99, 173, 198, 204–5, 302
Italian 187
Polish 124
Russian 305
Patten, Chris 506
Paul I of Russia 157
Paul-Boncour, Joseph 346
Paulus, Friedrich 385
Pavelić, Ante 367
Croatian state under 379
Pearl, Daniel 503
Pearl Harbor attack 371
‘Peasant War’, German 19
peasantry 1, 3, 19, 47, 48, 89, 90, 118, 134, 166, 167, 218, 220, 251, 330, 339
Peel Commission 352
‘Pentagon Papers’ 453
Percentages agreement 383, 401
Perle, Richard 467
Pershing, John J. 299
Pershing II missiles 469, 472, 478, 479
Persia 278–9
Persian Gulf War, Operation Desert Storm 491–2
Peru 35
Pétain, Philippe, Marshal 364, 392
Peter III of Russia 115
Peter the Great 65, 67, 71, 78–80
reforms under 89–90
Peyssonnel, Claude-Charles 146
Pfeiffer, Christoph Ludwig 140
Philadelphia 137–8
Philip I of Hesse 11
Philip II of Spain 10, 12, 17, 25, 26–7, 35, 37, 40, 61
Philip III of Spain 12, 20, 27, 40
Philip IV of Spain 50
Philip V of Spain, Philip of Anjou 65, 71–2, 74, 77, 81–2, 83
Philip of Spain, Don Philip, Duke of Parma 98
Philippines, Spanish colonization 10
Piacenza 103
Piedmont 98, 162, 179, 188, 213, 219, 222, 225
Franco-Piedmontese war against Austria 225–7
Plombières Agreement of 1858 225–6
PIIGS economic crisis 525, 527–8
Pillnitz, Convention of 147
Pinerolo 56
Pinsk 387
Piontkovsky, Andrei 486
Pitt, William, the Elder 5, 6, 114
Pitt, William, the Younger 5, 157, 161, 162, 167
government of 157
Plantation of Ulster 26
Plehwe, Vyacheslav 275
Plevin, René 412
PLO see Palestine Liberation Organization
Ploetz, Hans-Friedrich von 502
Plombières Agreement (1858) 225–6
Poland/Poles
and Austria 57, 124; revolt in Galicia 208
Belarus and the ‘Union of Poles’ 516
and Britain 334–5
civil war following Bar Confederation 124
Commonwealth of Poland 26, 46–7, 67, 81, 87–8, 92, 121, 123–4, 140
Confederation of Bar 124
and Czechoslovakia 358
dawning of national consciousness 2
diplomatic service 122
end of revival under Jan Sobieski 65
and France 170, 194–5, 214, 329
and Germany 150, 320; Hitler’s 1934 non-aggression pact 345; Hitler’s attack of September 1939 362; inter-war period 336, 345, 346, 361; rejection of Hitler’s approach (1938) 361; Second World War 373; after Second World War 387; Treaty of Warsaw (1970) 451
Grand Duchy of Warsaw 163, 164, 169, 170
Great Northern War 68–9, 80–81
inter-war period 326, 336, 345, 346, 361
Kingdom of Poland 187
liberum veto 46–7, 121, 122, 149
monarchy 80
Orthodox 123
and the Ottomans 57
Parliament (Sejm) 46–7, 80, 90
partitioning of Poland 124–5, 149–50, 173, 362
Polish deportations, after Second World War 387
Polish succession 67–8, 87–8; War of 87–8, 89, 93
and Prussia 67–8, 80, 110–11, 124, 149–50, 387
‘reform’ party 90
refugees 452
and Russia/USSR 26, 67–8, 80–81, 121–2, 123–4, 140, 149–50, 179, 187, 196, 215–16, 360, 387, 522; executions under Stalin 354; Katyn Wood massacre 363; partitioning 124–5, 149–50, 173, 362; Perpetual Treaty 124; Red Army 327; revolt of 1863 231–2; riots and reforms (1956) 423; ‘Russification’ 255; Second World War 379; after Second World War 393; and Solidarity 472–3, 474; treaty of 1945 385; Warsaw uprising (1830) 194
and Saxony 67–9
and the Seven Years War legacy 121–2
Solidarity 472–3, 474, 477, 485
taxation 123
and the Treaty of Vienna 179
Uniates 123
and Second World War 373
Pole, William de la, 1st duke of Suffolk 22
political culture
and the counter-culture of the ‘Sixty-Eighters’ 445–6
emergence of the public sphere 22–3; see also political public sphere
late medieval 1–2
and the relation of representative and monarchical government 28–9
political public sphere 53, 61, 85, 141, 186, 210
American 109
emergence of 22–3; pan-European liberal 188
English 22
Jewish 201
liberal nationalist 186, 198, 210
and newspaper readership 85
Ottoman 92
pan-European liberal 188
proto-nationalist 23
Prussian 96
Polk, James 206
Polo, Marco 2
Pomerania 38, 39, 45, 58, 80, 110, 113, 387, 452
Pompadour, Madam de 115
Pontiac, Chief 121
Poos, Jacques 493
Portland, William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of 168
Portobello 95
Portugal/Portuguese
and Ceuta 2
civil war 201
and communism 465
EEC admission 477
and England 51
and the Moors 33
and Napoleonic France 165
Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201
revolution of 1974 460
and slavery 200
and Spain 10, 52; Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201; War of the Oranges 160
Potsdam settlement 386–7, 389, 459
power balance in Europe see European balance of power
Pragmatic Sanction, Habsburg 86, 87, 93, 97
Prague 213
expulsion of Jews 100–101
Hitler’s occupation of (March 1939) 358, 359
‘Prague Spring’ 447–8
Presbyterianism 25
press see newspapers
Pressburg
Diet of 169
Treaty of 162
‘Prester John’, legendary ruler 2
Preuss, Hugo 323
priests see clergy
printing revolution 23
Prittwitz, Ernst von, General 218
Prodi, Romano 514
proletariat 232, 289, 319; see also working classes
anti-Semitic 447
Nazi 379
Protestantism
Cromwell’s Protestant crusade in Europe 44–5
in England 19, 20, 59–60; and the English Civil War 24
Evangelical Union 20
German 5, 19, 22, 35, 36, 59, 82
Irish Protestants 288
Lutheranism see Lutheranism
Palatine Protestants 83
Presbyterianism 25
Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland 130–31
Reformation see Reformation, Protestant
Silesian Protestants 69
Sweden as Protestant ‘guarantor’ 43, 52
Toleration Edict (1781) 133
‘Protocols of the Elders of Zion’ 264, 520
Prussia
abolition of state (1947) 399
absolutism 48
army size 120
and Austria/the Habsburgs 66, 73–4, 99–100, 130, 145, 233–4; Austrian succession 96–7, 98–9; Austro-Prussian War of 1866 234; Congresses in early 1820s 190; Convention of Gastein 233–4; Convention of Reichenbach 146; and the four-power agreement of July 1840 202–3; Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
and Bohemia 99
Brandenburg–Prussia 30–31, 45–6, 48, 51, 53, 58
and Britain: armistice of Malmo 219; and the four-power agreement of July 1840 202–3; Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180
cantonal system 90
Customs Union (Zollverein) 193, 197, 238–9
Diet 210–11
domestic reforms 167
Ducal (East) 48
fiscal-political gridlock 210
and France 56, 58, 150, 193, 198, 215, 228, 241–3; Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 242–3, 245, 246–7; Napoleonic Wars and era 155, 160–61, 162, 163, 167, 172, 173–4
franchise 305
General Directory 90
and German unity 193, 213, 217, 218–19, 220, 227, 228–9, 232, 233–4, 238–9, 241–3
governmental reforms 90
Hohenzollerns see Hohenzollerns
and the Holy Roman Empire 4, 73–4, 96–7, 99–100, 104, 135–6, 158; see also Prussia: and Austria/the Habsburgs
and Hungary 234
Jewish emancipation 211
Karlsbad Decrees 187
Landtag 220, 228, 229, 232, 239
and the leadership of Germany 209–10
liberal nationalism 198
and Luxemburg 197
Münchengrätz Agreement 199
nobility 90
and the Ottomans 145
partitioning after Second World War 386–7
and Poland 67–8, 80, 110–11, 124, 149–50, 387
Provinziallandstände 184
public sphere 96
Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180
railways 210–11
revival of power, 1813 172
and Russia see Russia: and Prussia and Saxony 67–8, 97, 110, 112
and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
Staatschuldengesetz (State Indebtedness Law) 184
and the Third Germany 173, 204–5, 228–9, 234
and the Treaty of Vienna 180, 181
Triple Alliance with Holland and Britain 135
and the United Provinces 135, 141
and the Versailles Treaty of 1919 320
and the War of the Bavarian Succession 130
Prutz, Robert 205
public sphere see political public sphere
Pueblo 123
Pufendorf, Samuel von 55
Pulteney, William 94
Puritans 36
Putin, Vladimir 510–11, 516, 520
Pyrenees, Peace of the 45
Qaeda, al- 484, 504, 511, 513, 514
Quadruple Alliance against Spain 81–2
Quadruple Alliance of 1815, and the Congress System 180
Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201
Quebec Act (1774) 127
Québecois 121
Quito 123
Radek, Karl 345
Radetzky von Radetz, Joseph 218
Radio Free Europe 410
Radziwill, Michael 121
railways 207, 210, 211, 234, 242, 261, 267, 278, 298
Rákosi, Mátyás 423
Raleigh, Sir Walter 35
Ramadan, Said 418
Rapallo, Treaty of 328
Rastatt 182
Congress of 155
Treaty of 76
Reagan, Ronald 467, 472, 473–4, 476, 478, 482, 483
Realpolitik 260, 418, 449, 527
Red Army 327, 353, 357, 370, 379, 382, 388, 479, 487
Redmond, John 288
Reform Act (1867, Britain) 239
Reformation, Protestant 19–22
and the ‘culture of persuasion’ 19–20
English 19
and the Ottomans 19
Reichenbach, Convention of 146
Reichsexecutionsarmee 113
Reichstag 1, 3, 4, 16, 31, 41, 43, 48, 52, 53, 78, 112, 140, 256, 262, 286, 311, 335, 344
Reinsurance Treaty (1887) 260, 261
Reinsurance Treaty (1926) 334, 336
religion see also Church
Catholicism see Roman Catholicism
and the French Revolution 143
and geopolitics 19–22
Hindu nationalism 297
Islam see Islam and Muslims
Orthodox see Orthodox Church
Protestantism see Protestantism; Reformation, Protestant
religious compromise 39
religious toleration 25, 27, 127, 166; Toleration Edict (1781) 133
treatment of religious minorities 26–7, 39
Renaissance 23
representative government see parliamentary/representative government
revolutionary liberal movements
of 1820s, early 186–92
of 1830s, and counter-revolutions 193–202
of 1840s 212–19
Revue des deux mondes 244
Rheinbund (Confederation of the Rhine) 163, 164, 169, 173, 177
Rhenish Circle 57
Rhenish League 44
Rhine Crisis (1840) 203–4
Rhine Valley 57–8
Rhineland 3, 60, 146, 171, 180, 186, 207, 219, 320, 323, 330, 331, 332, 337, 351, 386
Rhodes 9
Rhodes, Cecil 265
Rhodesia 265
Ribbentrop, Joachim von 355, 367–8
Ribot, Alexandre 315
Richelieu, Cardinal (Armand Jean du Plessis) 13, 22, 23, 46
Rifkind, Malcolm 492
Riga, Treaty of 327
Risorgimento 187
Robertson, Sir William 316
Robespierre, Maximilien de 166
Rockwell, Norman 374
Röhm, Ernst 344
Roman Catholicism 1
in Britain 157, 168; Emancipation of 1829 192
in England 52
equality with Lutheranism, under Treaty of Augsburg 37
and France: as Catholic ‘guarantor’ 43; and Napoleon 165; and the Revolution 143
German Catholics 250, 254; Centre Party 262–3, 279–80, 304, 344
and the Holy Roman Empire 4, 39
Irish Catholics 130–31; in Northern Ireland 446
and the Jews 206–7
versus Protestantism 20–21, 531
reforms under Joseph II 133–4
Roman Law 1
Roman Republic 152
Romania 253, 313, 358, 365, 369, 382, 388, 481–2, 485–6
under Antonescu 379
collapse of communism in 486
‘Little Entente’ 329
NATO admission 512
and the Percentages agreement 383
Mussolini’s seizure of 328
Treaty of 427
Rompuy, Herman van 525
Roosevelt, Eleanor 406
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 5, 347, 349, 359–60, 368–9, 370–71, 372, 375, 376, 386
and Europe: and Axis 354; inter-war relations 354
Roosevelt, Theodore 272–4, 275, 284
Root, Elihu 325
Rossbach, battle of 113–14, 115, 116–17, 122
Rossi, Ernesto 391
Rostopchin, Fedor 159
Rostow, Eugene 437
Rostow, Walt 431
Rote Armee Fraktion (Baader–Meinhof Group) 448, 466
Rottier, Eugen 248
Rousseau, Jean Jacques 117
Royal Navy 66, 81, 84, 130, 168, 171, 202, 252, 276
Corfu Incident 329
Home Fleet 271
and the Second Coalition 158
and slave ships 168, 188–9, 199, 257
‘two-power standard’ 261
and the War of the Austrian Succession 98
Rubin, James 524
Rudyerd, Sir Benjamin 35–6
Rumbold, George 161
Rumsfeld, Donald 515
Rusk, Dean 443
Russell, John, 1st Earl 184, 216, 217–18, 221
Russell, Odo 245
Russia
absolutism 119
aristocracy 89
army 103
and Austria 84, 88, 93–4, 102–3, 198–9; and Bulgaria 259, 260; Congresses in early 1820s 190; and the Crimean War 222, 223–4; and the four-power agreement of July 1840 202–3; London Straits Convention 205; Münchengrätz Agreement 199; and the Napoleonic Wars and era 157, 158, 161–3; Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War; Three Emperors’ League 250, 255
autocracy 30, 273, 280, 305, 309; see also Russia: Tsarist Empire
and the Balkans see Balkans: and Russia/USSR
Bolshevism see Bolshevism/Bolsheviks
and Bosnia 496–7
Boyar Duma (council) 47
and Britain see Britain and the United Kingdom: and Russia/USSR
Brusilov offensive 312
and Bulgaria 259–60
and the Congress of Berlin 253
and the Cossacks 47
and the Crimea 57, 124, 135; Crimean War 221–5
derzhavnost 499
domestic politics of the mid-1990s 498–9
Duma 275, 280, 286, 287–8, 300, 305
economy 89
First World War see World War, First
and France see France/the French: and Russia/USSR
gas 516
and Georgia 521–2
and Germany see Germany: and Russia/USSR
Great Northern War 68, 71, 78–81
and Greece 190; ‘Greek project’ 135
and the Habsburgs 219, 244–5, see also Russia: and Austria; and the Crimean War 222, 223–4
and the Holy Roman Empire 57, 65, 78–81, 84, 86, 103, 104, 132–3, 135; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
and Hungary see Hungary: and Russia/USSR
imperialism 84
internal politics shaped by alliance against Germany 263
and Japan 274–5
Jews 206, 255, 264, 273, 303, 369, 375, 406–7, 447
and the Kosovo War 509–10
Mensheviks 315
military 71, 89–90, 179, 276; defence spending 263
Münchengrätz Agreement 199
nationalism 187
navy 221
and the Ottomans 84, 85, 93–4, 124–5, 134–5, 175, 187–8, 192–3, 196, 244–5, 251–2; and Constantinople 135, 196, 223, 245, 252, 291; Crimean War 221–5; First World War 312
and the Poles see Poland/Poles: and Russia/USSR
Progressive Block 305
and Prussia 198–9, 233; alliance 67–8, 80, 102; armistice of Malmo 219; and Bismarck 231–2, 233, 240–41; Congresses in early 1820s 190; and the four-power agreement of July 1840 202–3; and the Napoleonic Wars 172–3; and the partitioning of Poland 124, 149–50; Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180; and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
public sphere 187, 240, 260, 480
Quadruple Alliance of 1815 180
reforms under Peter the Great 89–90
and the Second Coalition 157–8
serfdom 224; 1649 serfdom law 47
and the Seven Years War see Seven Years War
Siloviki 510–11
Single Economic Space 516
Southern Society 187
‘sovereign democracy’ 510–11, 516
sovereignty: declared (1990) 487; gained (1991) 491
and the Straits 196, 205, 252, 260–61, 279, 284, 290–91, 293, 294, 300
and Sweden 68, 78–81, 102, 136, 170
taxation 288
and the Third Coalition 161–4
Three Emperors’ League 250, 255
‘Time of Troubles’ (1598–1613) 30
Trans-Siberian railway 261
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 314–15
and the Treaty of Paris (1856) 222; Black Sea clauses 225, 240, 244, 246
Tsarist Empire 65, 119, 175, 192, 201, 206, 214, 215–17, 221, 246, 253, 255, 259, 274–5, 290–91, 297, 303; Crimean War 221–5; War of the Tsarist Succession 327
and the Ukraine 516
and the UN 509
and the US see United States of America: and Russia/USSR
after Vienna Settlement 185, 187
and the War of the Polish Succession 88
White Russia 327, 347, 354, 373
Zemskii Sobor (Assembly of the Land) 47–8
Russian Orthodox Church 123, 480
Ryswick, Treaty of 64
Saakashvili, Mikhail 521–2
Sacheverell, Henry 75
Sadat, Anwar al- 455–6
Saddam Hussein 469, 491–2, 498, 514–15
Saigon 431, 432, 437, 442, 449, 461, 464–5, 467
St Gotthard, battle of 51
St John, Henry, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke 76, 77
Saint-Omer 53
St Petersburg 81, 102, 108, 111, 116, 124, 199, 263, 264, 312
Convention of 192
Saint-Pierre, Charles-Irénée Castel, Abbé de 93
Saint-Pierre islands 115
Sakharov, Andrei 467
Salandra, Antonio 296
Salic Law 19
Salisbury, Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of 257
Salm, Prince 73–4
Salm-Dyck, Joseph zu 198
SALT I 454
San Ildefonso, Treaty of 158
San Stefano, Treaty of 252
Sanders, Liman von 290
Sandoval, Francisco Gomez de, Duke of Lerma 23
Sandwich, John Montagu, 4th Earl of 103, 130
Santo Domingo 273
Saratoga, battle of 130
Sardinia 77, 81, 82, 179; see also Piedmont
Sargent, Sir Orme 399
Sarraut, Albert 324
Saudi Arabia 469, 470, 491, 504, 513, 526
Savoy 12, 56, 59, 69, 76–7, 82, 150, 177, 179, 186, 225, 226, 227
Saxony, John Frederick I of 11
Saxony/Saxons 11, 45, 67–9, 97, 100, 110, 112, 163, 174, 194, 386
Sazanov, Sergei Dmitrievich 290–91, 293
Scandinavia 45
Protestantism 20
Scharping, Rudolf 505
Scheidemann, Philip 280
Scheldt, River 77
Schinderhannes (Johannes Bückler) 166
Schleicher, Kurt von, General 342, 343
Schlesinger, Helmut 490
Schleswig 208–9, 211, 213, 217, 232, 234, 320, 387
Schleyer, Hanns-Martin 466
Schlieffen, Alfred von, Count 277
Schmidt, Helmut 466, 468–9, 472, 476, 478
Schmoller, Gustav 267
Schönbrunn, Treaty of 162
Schröder, Gerhard (b. 1910, German foreign minister) 439
Schröder, Gerhard (b. 1944, German chancellor) 505–6, 511, 515, 516, 519
Schumacher, Kurt 416
Schuman, Maurice 392
Schuman, Robert 403, 409, 411, 427
Schuschnigg, Kurt 355
Schwarzenberg, Felix of, Prince 217–18
Schwendi, Lazarus von 33
Scotland
clearances 111
and England 25–6; Act of Union (1707) 71, 138
Protestantism 20
SDI see Strategic Defence Initiative
SDP, Germany 254, 259, 286–7, 292, 416, 452, 472, 478
Second Coalition, War of the 157–8
Second International 300
Second World War 362–80, 382–3, 386
Atlantic Charter 370
build-up from November 1937 to 355–62
civilian casualties: German 378; Japanese 390
D-Day 379
and the ethnic transformation of Europe 387–8
and the European balance of power 362, 364–5, 368
and the geopolitical transformation of Europe 387–8
Grand Alliance see Grand Alliance against the Axis, Second World War
post-war German Question 382, 383–7, 391, 395–6, 399, 401, 403, 436, 452, 458–9, 481, 483, 488, 529
post-war reconstruction 391, 392, 405
reparations 384, 385, 395, 401
and the world balance of power 368, 377, 390
Secret Service Bureau 281
Sedan, battle of 243
Sedition Act (US, 1918) 316
Ségur, Louis Philippe, Count de 142
Selkirk, Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of 167
Senckenberg, Renatus Karl von 154
Senegal 115
Septennial Act, British 91
Serbia/Serbs 221, 253, 279, 313, 487, 491, 493, 494, 497–8, 499
and the Balkan Wars 290
and First World War 295
and the Habsburgs 291–3
Kosovo War 504–5
and the Ottomans 284
serfdom 144
and Joseph II 134
Settlement, Act of (England 1701) 71
Seven Years War 112–16
aftermath and legacy 116–25, 175
background to 107–12
and the creation of the USA 107
Seward, William 237–8
Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi 469
Shay’s rebellion 137
Shirley, William 110
Siberia 79, 353, 373; see also Gulag
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 226
Messina revolt 53
Sieyes, Emmanuel 143
Sigismund Vasa III of Poland and Sweden 26, 30
Silesia 24, 96–7, 99, 100, 103, 108, 110, 111, 115, 320, 387, 452
Protestants 69
silver 35
Singapore 372
Single Economic Space 516
Single European Act 477
Sinope, battle of 221
Six-Day War 442
‘Sixty-Eighters’ counter-culture 445–6
Slansky, Rudolf 407
slavery/slave trade 77, 117–18, 126, 145, 183, 199–200, 205–6, 235, 256, 259
Arab trade 257
and Britain/British Empire 126, 145, 199, 247–8, 257; abolition in British Empire 199; abolition of international trade 168; abolition within Britain 126; British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society 200; Le Louis judgment 188; and the Royal Navy 168, 188–9, 199, 257
and Cuba 118, 200, 223, 229, 238
and the French Empire 145, 181, 200, 205
Missouri Compromise 200
Ottoman abolition 223
and the Spanish Empire 117–18, 200
and the Sudan 258
and the Treaty of Vienna 181
in the US and North America 139, 145, 168, 183, 200, 206, 223; and the American Civil War 229–30
World Anti-Slavery Convention 200
Muslims of 57
and the Ottomans 251
Panslavism 244, 245, 249, 259, 260, 499
Slingelandt, Simon van 91
NATO admission 512
NATO admission 512
Sobchak, Anatoly 487
social democracy 289
German Social Democratic Party 254, 259, 286–7, 292, 416, 452, 472, 478
Bolshevik see Bolshevism/Bolsheviks
British 404
communist see communism
German 262, 263, 300; see also German Democratic Republic (GDR)
Marxist see Marxism
national see national socialism; Nazism/National Socialists
Second International 300
socialist internationalism 208
Stalin and ‘socialism in one country’ 331–2, 336
Socialist Student League 447
Socialist Unity Party, GDR 414
Society of the Cincinnati 139
Sofia, Eastern Rumelia 259
Solana, Javier 507
Solidarity 472–3, 474, 477, 485
Solomon Islands 258
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 462
Somaliland, British 258
Somme, battle of the 297
Sophia of Hanover 71
South Africa 247–8, 257, 258, 265, 267, 269–70, 349
and First World War 302
and the US 461
South America 77, 93, 165, 183, 199–200, 273, 368; see also Latin America
South Ossetia 521–2
South Vietnam 420, 432, 461; see also Saigon
Southern Society 187
Soviet Union
and Afghanistan 460, 470, 471, 479, 480, 482, 483, 486
and Britain 365, 372–3; see also Grand Alliance against the Axis, Second World War; Percentages agreement 383, 401; and Thatcher 466, 471
and China see China: and the USSR
Cold War see Cold War
collective farming 339
Communist Party 487
Congress of People’s Deputies 485
covert funding of Western groups 472, 476
and the Cuba missile crisis 433–4, 439
and Czechoslovakia see Czechoslovakia: and the USSR
and democracy 482
de-Stalinization 423
dissolution 491
and the EDC 412–13
and Egypt 423
First Five Year Plan 338–9
and France 327, 329, 385, 429, 430, 438, 482
and Germany see Germany: and Russia/USSR
Gulag 353, 369, 370, 372, 406, 423
Helsinki Accords/Final Act 464, 466–7
and Hungary see Hungary: and Russia/USSR
industrialization 339
inter-war period 327, 328, 329–30; accommodation with the West 331–2
and Japan 360
Jews 369, 375, 406–7, 447, 462–3
League of Nations admission 346
military: behaviour of Soviet forces in Germany 395; CFE Treaty 489; cuts under Gorbachev 485; in the mid-1970s 459; and NATO 476; Red Army 327, 353, 357, 370, 379, 382, 388, 479, 487; Strategic Missile Forces 430; youth militarization 338
nationalism 481–2
and NATO 455, 464, 469, 476, 479, 483–4, 488
NKVD 362
nuclear weapons 390, 407, 433, 439, 459, 476, 480; encouragement of Western disarmament 472, 476; and the ‘Star Wars’ Strategic Defense Initiative 473, 476, 477, 479, 480, 482, 483
Olympic boycott, Moscow 471
and Poland see Poland/Poles: and Russia/USSR
post-Second World War deteriorating relations with the Western allies 393–8, 400–401, 403–4
and Romania 383, 388, 390, 393
Russian expansion by end of Second World War 388
Second World War 362, 363, 364–5, 367, 369–70, 372–3, 379
Socialist Unity Party 395
space exploration 430
and the Spanish Civil War 352
Stalinism 336, 339, 344–5, 353
and the Third World 423, 460, 479
Treason Trials 347
and the US see United States of America: and Russia/USSR
Vladivostok Agreement 459
and Yugoslavia see Yugoslavia: and the USSR
Sozialdemokrat 248
space exploration 430–31
Spain/the Spanish see also Spanish Empire American airbases in Spain 399
and the American War of Independence 130, 131
Armada expedition 10
and Austria 37; attack on Habsburgs in northern Italy 97; Austro-Spanish alliance 83; and the Quadruple Alliance 81–2; and the War of the Austrian Succession 97, 98
Bourbons see Bourbons
and Britain 81–2, 85, 131; and the American War of Independence 130; and naval power 120; Quadruple Alliance against Spain 81–2; Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201; and slavery 200; and the War of Jenkins’ Ear 94–5; and the War of the Spanish Succession 73, 75, 76
Civil War 352
constitutional changes under Philip V 71–2
democracy 465
EEC admission 477
and England 10, 22, 35–6; Cromwell’s crusade against Spain 44–5; War of the Spanish Succession 66, 69–70, 73, 75, 76
and France: Bourbon alliance 87; First Family Compact 87; Franco-Spanish wars 37, 38, 44, 45, 46; French invasion of Spanish Netherlands 52, 65–6; French Revolutionary Wars 150; intervention justified by voisinage 201; and Louis XIV 49, 50–51, 52, 56, 65–6; and the Low Countries 49, 50–51, 52, 59, 65–6; marriage alliance announcement (1738) 95; and the Napoleonic Wars and era 165, 166, 172; Quadruple Alliance against Spain 81–2; Quadruple Alliance of 1834 200–201; Second Family Compact 98; and the Spanish revolution in 1823 190, 191; after Treaty of Utrecht 81–2; and the US 191; War of Devolution 51; and the War of the Polish Succession 88; War of the Spanish Succession 65–7, 68–70, 71–2, 73–6
under Franco 352
Hispano-Dutch alliance 52