Name means: “The Lord Sustains.”
Not to be confused with: A king of Judah named Ahaziah (or Jehoahaz) who ruled for one year (841 B.C.).
Home: Samaria.
Family: Son of Ahab; brother of Jehoram, who ascended to the throne after Ahaziah died without an heir.
Occupation: King of Israel (853–852 B.C.).
Best known as: The king who died after falling through his upper room lattice (2 Kin. 1:2–4, 17). Ahaziah continued his father Ahab’s evil deeds, even consulting a Philistine idol after his injuries. Condemned by Elijah, the king lashed out at the prophet, who called down fire to consume two military units sent to arrest him (1:9–12).
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Name means: “God Is Salvation.”
Not to be confused with: Elijah, his predecessor.
Home: Abel Meholah (1 Kin. 19:16), a city in the Jordan River Valley halfway between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (see the map at the introduction to Isaiah).
Family: Son of Shaphat.
Occupation: Prophet in Israel between about 850 and 800 B.C.
Of special interest: When Elisha asked for a double portion of Elijah’s spirit (2 Kin. 2:9), he likely alluded to the law of inheritance, which specified that a firstborn son should receive a double portion of his father’s estate (Deut. 21:17; see also “Birthrights” at Gen. 25:31).
Best known as: The successor to Elijah the prophet (see “Mapping the Life of Elisha” at 2 Kin. 8:4).
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The principles of mentoring used in modern business and education are the same principles that have been around for millennia. Take the relationship between Elijah and Elisha. When Elisha picked up Elijah’s mantle—a literal symbolic gesture from which we draw the idiom “to take up the mantle”—Elisha assumed his mentor’s role as Israel’s leading prophet. Elijah had long prepared his apprentice for leadership (1 Kin. 19:16), and the Old Testament reports many similar mentoring relationships.
Jethro and Moses (Ex. 18) | Jethro came alongside his overworked son-in-law to help him organize leaders and delegate authority. |
Moses and Joshua (Deut. 31:1–8, 34:9) | Moses prepared Joshua to assume leadership as the Israelites entered Canaan. |
Deborah and Barak (Judg. 4:4–16) | Deborah challenged Barak to take charge of the military and encouraged him to overcome his fears; together they defeated a Canaanite army. |
Naomi and Ruth (Ruth 1–4) | Naomi gave advice to her widowed daughter-in-law in order to spare her from a life of poverty. |
Eli and Samuel (1 Sam. 1–3) | The priest Eli was a poor mentor to his own two sons, but he helped Samuel grow up to hear and to heed God and to speak to the nation. |
Samuel and Saul (1 Sam. 9–15) | Samuel tried to shape Saul into a man of character and did not cease in his attempts to mentor the king even after Saul abandoned God. |
Samuel anointed David into leadership and stood by him as Saul hunted the future king. | |
Mordecai and Esther (Esth. 1–10) | Mordecai mentored his younger cousin when she was unexpectedly enthroned as queen of Persia, helping her devise a strategy to rescue her people from their hostile enemy. |
Mentoring requires a proactive investment in others and a committed advocacy for their development and success. It grows out of our belief in another person’s value and potential. Guiding others often requires self-sacrifice and does not always work out as planned. But it is our duty and privilege to look after the spiritual growth of younger generations and to bless those whom we mentor, offering them our friendship, experience, and knowledge, passing along what others have given to us.
More: See “Kingdom Mentoring” at Acts 9:26–30 for more on mentoring and a study of the impact of strong mentoring relationships on early Christians.
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Elisha’s purification of Jericho’s water was similar to a miracle that God enabled Moses to perform for the Israelites in the wilderness, and another that Elijah performed at Carmel. See Marah’s profile at Exodus 15:23 and read 1 Kings 18:42–45 and James 5:17, 18.
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Soon after Elijah’s departure, God empowered Elisha to perform several miracles, including multiplying jars of oil to save a poor widow and her sons. The incident confirmed Elisha as God’s true prophet and Elijah’s successor, recalling a similar miracle that Elijah had performed for the widow of Zarephath (1 Kin. 17:8–16).
Elisha’s miracle of the widow’s oil illustrates an essential aspect of God’s character: He is profoundly concerned for the poor and disadvantaged. Elijah and Elisha contended with kings, commanders, and other leaders, but they also stood up for the powerless. The widow was on the verge of selling her sons to settle a debt incurred by her late husband, an extreme measure of last resort that would have not only stripped her sons of their freedom but also left her alone and still in poverty. Through Elisha’s intervention, the Lord provided for her needs (compare Ps. 68:5).
James wrote in his New Testament letter that true religion includes helping widows and orphans (James 1:27). We often measure our lives by the power of the circles we travel in, but Scripture reminds us that the real measure of faith is what we do “for the least of these” (Matt. 25:40).
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Widows in the ancient world usually endured a desperate existence. The woman who cried out to Elisha highlights a common dilemma of the time: her husband had died, leaving her with a large debt and the prospect of permanent poverty. Selling her sons would settle her debt, but she would face the future alone with no means of support.
Widows and other unmarried women in ancient Israel had few ways to survive on their own. Moved by this woman’s plight, Elisha sought to help. He demonstrated the Lord’s compassion for widows, exhibiting His special care for anyone who struggles alone in a hostile environment. The Bible includes many scenes in which God’s people have helped women in dire circumstances, as the following table shows.
Moses (Deut. 24:19–22) | The Law told landowners to allow widows and other needy people to glean their fields. |
Ruth (the Book of Ruth) | Naomi and Ruth were widows destined for poverty until a wealthy man, Boaz, was moved to provide for them by marrying Ruth, citing her kindness and virtue. |
The psalmist called God the “defender of widows” and the One who “relieves the fatherless and widow.” | |
Elijah (1 Kin. 17:8–24) | One of Israel’s greatest prophets provided a miraculous solution for a needy widow at Zarephath. |
Job (Job. 24:21; 31:16–18) | Job reflected on the abuse faced by widows and the care he had tried to provide for them. |
Jesus (Mark 12:41–44; Luke 7:11–17; 18:1–8; 20:46, 47) | Jesus ministered to widows and pointed to them as examples of faithfulness and as people deserving care and respect; He condemned the Pharisees’ mistreatment of widows. |
The early church (Acts 4:34–37; 6:1–7) | The community of early Christians showed compassion to widows and others by selling land and using the proceeds to assist the needy; the church developed a system to assure equity of care. |
Paul (1 Tim. 5:3–16) | The apostle instructed Timothy to establish support mechanisms for widows in the church at Ephesus. |
James (James 1:27) | James defined “pure religion” in part as compassionate care of widows. |
More: One of the most influential widows in Israel’s history was a wise woman of Tekoa, who helped partially reconcile David and his son Absalom. See 2 Sam. 14:1–24.
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Not to be confused with: Abishag the Shunammite, a caregiver for the aged King David (1 Kin. 1:3, 15) or with the widow of Zarephath visited by Elijah (1 Kin. 17:8–24).
Home: Shunem, a city east of Mount Carmel in the territory of Issachar, close to Jezreel (see the map at “Mapping the Life of Elisha” at 2 Kin. 8:4).
Family: Married to an unidentified elderly man; mother of a lone son born after years of barrenness.
Occupation: Called a “notable” woman (4:8), possibly indicating that she and her husband had means to afford a special room for Elisha (4:10).
Of special interest: This woman’s lands were restored after Elisha encouraged her to flee to Philistia during a seven-year famine (8:1–6).
Best known for: Showing hospitality to Elisha, who raised her son from the dead (4:18–37).
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Name means: “Pleasant.”
Home: Syria (also called Aram; see “The Arameans” at 1 Chr. 19:10).
Occupation: Commander of the Syrian army, likely under Ben-Hadad II.
Of special interest: Jewish tradition maintains that Naaman was the “man who drew a bow at random” and mortally wounded King Ahab (1 Kin. 22:34–37).
Best known as: The leprous general who was cured and converted when he visited Elisha (2 Kin. 5:1–19). The prodding of a young Israelite prisoner of war had sent him in search of healing (5:2).
More: Jesus alluded to Naaman’s healing during his rebuke of self-righteous people at his hometown synagogue in Nazareth. Read Luke 4:27.
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God is unimpressed by worldly greatness, but He is pleased when people keep His commands. Naaman balked at washing in the Jordan, just as we may minimize the necessity of what seem like insignificant actions—prayer, Bible study, showing kindness to strangers, keeping our word after casual promises, etc. In fact, some who hear the gospel may scorn God’s simple requirement of confessing sin and trusting Jesus’ work on the cross for salvation.
Like Naaman, we might assume that God demands extraordinary acts to satisfy His will. But He usually calls us to simple obedience. Jesus said that people who are unwilling to demonstrate faithfulness in everyday matters cannot expect to be trusted with larger responsibilities (Luke 16:10). Not one of God’s commands is too small or lowly for us to hear and obey, and we may find that His simplest commands can bring about extraordinary results.
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Elisha’s servant Gehazi was awestruck by authority. He basked in his master’s prestige. Although Gehazi served a legitimate function in meeting Elisha’s needs, he took advantage of his position in order to pursue payment from Naaman. He falsely claimed that Elisha had sent him, exploiting his connection to Elisha for his own ends.
Leaders must watch out for Gehazis who live off the efforts of others. These self-seekers can compromise the integrity of those they supposedly serve. Leaders who care about maintaining their reputation should use prayerful discernment as they select subordinates. And like Elisha, they should deal decisively with followers who abuse their access to a leader’s name and influence.
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The Syrian army feared the prospect of facing a combined army of Hittites and Egyptians. Camped outside Damascus, the Syrians would have been trapped between the Hittites from the north and the Egyptians from the south. The panic-stricken Syrians fled into the night (2 Kin. 7:7).
The Hittites of this period were the remnant of an empire that dominated northern Canaan between 1800 and 1200 B.C. Their ancestors had migrated from Asia Minor. They were called Hittites from the name Hatti, another designation for the region of Anatolia, with Hattusa as its capital. The Hittites populated northern Syrian cities, including Aleppo, Carchemish, and Hamath.
As the Hittites pushed south, they came into conflict with the Egyptians, who used Canaan as a buffer between their land and Mesopotamia. In 1286 B.C., a decisive battle was fought at Kedesh, on the Orontes River. The Hittites waited in hiding until the Egyptians made camp, then released their chariots on the unsuspecting Egyptians. The northerners would have won the battle had Egyptian reinforcements not arrived from the west and forced a retreat. But the Egyptians suffered heavy losses, and soon the two powers signed a treaty designating the Orontes River as their border.
Over the next few decades, enemies from the west attacked relentlessly, slowly diminishing the Hittite empire. Seven city-states in Syria maintained a coalition that was friendly toward David and Solomon (2 Sam. 8:9, 10; 1 Kin. 10:28—11:1). But these cities came under Assyrian domination and eventually passed into oblivion when the principal cities of Hamath and Carchemish fell (720 and 717 B.C., respectively; 2 Kin. 18:34; Is. 10:9).
The northern Hittites are not the Hittites who lived in the Judean hills near Hebron. That tribe of Canaanites descended from Heth, the son of Canaan. It was from a member of this unrelated group that Abraham purchased the field of Machpelah as a family burial ground (Gen. 23:10–20). Years later, Abraham’s grandson Esau displeased his parents by marrying two Hittite women (26:34, 35).
The Hittites of Canaan were among the people meant to be driven out by the Israelites under Joshua (Ex. 3:8, 17; Deut. 7:1; Judg. 3:5), but they were never completely eradicated. Centuries later, several Hittites were among David’s closest associates and most loyal soldiers (1 Sam. 26:6; 2 Sam. 11:6–11).
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When the king of Israel asked Gehazi to tell him “all the great things Elisha has done,” Gehazi mentioned some of the examples mapped here.
1. Elijah’s successor miraculously turns bad water wholesome at Jericho (2 Kin. 2:18–22).
2. Elisha promises King Jehoram of Israel that God will give him and King Jehoshaphat of Judah victory over the Moabites, which comes about through miraculous circumstances (2 Kin. 3:11–27).
3. Elisha miraculously provides material assistance for a widow of one of the prophets (2 Kin. 4:1–7; location unknown).
4. At Shunem the prophet predicts that a prominent woman who is barren will give birth to a son, which she does (2 Kin. 4:8–18); later, after the boy falls ill and dies, Elisha brings him back to life (4:18–37).
5. At Gilgal Elisha causes poison to leave a stew (2 Kin. 4:38–41) and miraculously provides food during a famine using gifts brought by a man from Baal Shalisha (4:42–44).
6. Elisha heals the Syrian general Naaman of leprosy by having him bathe in the Jordan River (2 Kin. 5:1–14).
7. The prophet causes an ax head to float in the Jordan River (2 Kin. 6:1–7).
8. Surrounded by Syrian troops, Elisha prays that his servant might see the armies of the Lord and that the Syrians would be struck blind (2 Kin. 6:13–18); leads the blinded Syrians inside Samaria, where their blindness is removed (6:19–23).
9. Under siege and severe famine in Samaria, Elisha predicts correctly that God will remove the attacking Syrians and provide food for all in the city (2 Kin. 6:24—7:20). * Approximate location of Abel Meholah, Elisha’s hometown.
More: See Elisha’s profile at 2 Kin. 2:3.
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Name means: “Son of Hadad [a pagan god].”
Not to be confused with: Ben-Hadad I, the Syrian ruler from about 900 to 860 B.C. (although scholars debate whether Ben-Hadad I and Ben-Hadad II were the same individual); or Ben-Hadad III, the son of Hazael (2 Kin. 8:8, 15), ruler of Syria from about 796 to 770 B.C.
Home: Damascus in Syria (also called Aram; see “The Arameans” at 1 Chr. 19:10).
Occupation: King of Syria from about 860 to 843 B.C.
Best known as: The Syrian king allowed to escape by King Ahab and smothered to death by his successor Hazael. This succession fulfilled Elijah’s commission (1 Kin. 19:15) and Elisha’s prophecy (2 Kin. 8:10–13).
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Ahab’s son Joram engaged the Syrians in battle at Ramah (also called Ramoth Gilead; 2 Kin. 8:28, 29; 9:14), a major commercial center on the King’s Highway, the primary north-south thoroughfare connecting Syria to the south (see “The King’s Highway” at Num 20:17). Learn more about this important city in Ramoth Gilead’s profile at 1 Kings 22:29.
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Name means: “The Lord Is He.”
Not to be confused with: One of David’s men at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:3) or Jehu the son of Hanani, a prophet in the time of Baasha (1 Kin. 16:1–7) and Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 19:2; 20:34).
Home: Samaria.
Family: Son of Jehoshaphat (not the king); grandson of Nimshi; father of Jehoahaz, who succeeded him.
Occupation: Commander of Israel’s army until Elisha appointed him king of Israel (841–814 B.C.).
Of special interest: As Jezebel faced her death at Jehu’s hands, she called the new king Zimri (2 Kin. 9:31), an epithet recalling a servant who destroyed King Baasha’s household in an attempt to seize the throne (1 Kin. 16:8–20).
Best known as: The rebel king who completely destroyed the house of Ahab, including King Jehoram and the queen mother Jezebel (2 Kin. 9:24—10:11). This fulfilled prophecies spoken by Elijah (1 Kin. 19:16; 21:17–24, 29; 2 Kin. 10:10) and reiterated by Elisha (9:7–10). Jehu purged Israel of Baal worship (10:18–28) yet committed idolatry himself (10:29, 31).
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• A city in northern Israel on a plain between Megiddo and Beth Shan and between Mount Carmel and Mount Gilboa, 56 miles north of Jerusalem.
• Name meant “God Scatters,” perhaps an appropriate allusion to sowing seeds in this rich agricultural district.
• Assigned to Issachar’s territory but became the property of Manasseh (Josh. 19:18).
• Situated at the crossroads of two major routes through rugged Palestinian hills.
• The site of numerous national battles.
• Part of a kingdom of cities briefly ruled by Saul’s son Ishbosheth.
• Site of the royal residence of King Ahab of Israel and his wife Jezebel; they lived adjacent to a vineyard that Jezebel seized as a garden for Ahab by murdering its owner (1 Kin. 21:1, 7–16).
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God raised up Jehu (see his profile at 2 Kin. 9:2) to completely destroy the descendants of evil King Ahab (1 Kin. 21:21, 22). Jehu carried out this task with gruesome thoroughness (2 Kin. 10:7, 8, 11, 14, 25–28) and with the help of a man named Jehonadab (10:15–17). After his brief appearance in 2 Kings 10, Jehonadab disappears from the biblical account. But his descendants were later upheld as an example of lasting obedience because they continued to follow Jehonadab’s rules for his family. Read Jeremiah 35:12–14.
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Despite occasional spiritual reforms like those implemented by Jehu, the worship centers Jeroboam had established at Dan and Bethel were not destroyed. Find out more about these cities in their profiles at Genesis 28:19 (Bethel) and Judges 18:7 (Laish [Dan]).
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Name means: “The Lord Is Strong.”
Home: Grew up in Samaria but lived in Jerusalem after marrying Jehoram.
Family: Daughter of Ahab and granddaughter of Omri; wife of Jehoram, king of Judah (848–841 B.C.); mother of Ahaziah.
Occupation: Queen of Judah by political marriage to Jehoram (2 Chr. 21:5, 6; see also “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14); queen mother during Ahaziah’s one-year reign (841 B.C.); sole ruler of Judah for six years (841–835 B.C.; 2 Kin. 11:1–3) after Ahaziah’s assassination by Jehu (9:27–29).
Best known for: Being so determined to rule the nation that she murdered all but one of the heirs to Judah’s throne. She was later executed during reforms led by Jehoiada the priest (11:13–16).
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Name means: “The Lord Is Her Oath.”
Also known as: Jehoshabeath (2 Chr. 22:11).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Daughter of Jehoram, king of Judah (848–841 B.C.); half sister of Ahaziah (or Jehoahaz), king of Judah (841 B.C.); wife of Jehoiada the high priest; aunt of Joash, king of Judah (835–796 B.C.).
Occupation: Member of the royal family.
Best known for: Courageously rescuing Joash from Athaliah’s murderous coup and raising him in hiding until he was old enough to be crowned king (2 Kin. 11:1–3; 12:1).
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Name means: “The Lord Supports.”
Not to be confused with: Several other men in the Bible, including the father of Gideon (Judg. 6:11) and a king of Israel (798–782 B.C.; 2 Kin. 13:10).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Ahaziah (or Jehoahaz) and Zibiah; nephew of Jehosheba, who protected him from being killed; husband of two wives; father of several sons and daughters.
Occupation: King of Judah (835–796 B.C.).
Best known as: The boy king who instituted reforms—particularly temple repairs—following the reigns of Jehoram, Ahaziah, and Athaliah (2 Kin. 12:1–16). However, Joash turned from the Lord following the death of his uncle and mentor, Jehoiada the high priest (2 Chr. 24:2, 17–19; see also “Indispensable Role Models” at 2 Chr. 24:17–20).
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Jehoash’s interactions with the priests regarding temple repairs offer insights into exercising accountability as a manager of others:
• Jehoash delegated specific responsibilities to the priests with clear instructions for collecting and using money (2 Kin. 12:4, 5).
• He personally confronted the priests, including their leader Jehoiada, for their non-performance (12:7).
• He suggested remedial action (12:7, 8) and ensured that an alternative solution would be carried out (12:9–12).
Accountability involves more than telling someone what to do and then casually checking back later. It means a leader commits to overseeing workers’ performances and making certain that the project is completed well.
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The people handling the money for temple repairs were found to be so faithful that no accounting was required of them. This contrasted with the priests, who collected money for years without proceeding with the repairs (2 Kin. 12:6). Years later, when more repairs were needed, the faithfulness of workers who follow through was relied upon again (22:7).
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Name means: “The Lord Is Mighty.”
Not to be confused with: Three other men in the Bible with the same name, including a priest in the time of Jeroboam II (Amos 7:10–17).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son and successor of Joash (Jehoash) and Jehoaddan; father of Azariah (Uzziah).
Occupation: King of Judah (c. 796–767 B.C.) until he was assassinated at Lachish (2 Kin. 14:19).
Best known for: Causing Judah to suffer military defeat and come under Israel’s domination, after his pride prompted him to attack the northern kingdom (14:7–14).
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Sela (“Rock”) may have been the principal city of the Edomites, Israel’s neighbors in the plain south of the Dead Sea. To learn more about this important site at the intersection of the King’s Highway (see “The King’s Highway” at Num. 20:17) and the route through the Arabah, see Petra’s profile at Obadiah 3.
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Amaziah earned praise for following the Law’s prohibition against executing children for their fathers’ sins (2 Kin. 14:6). But his obedience was inconsistent. He rightly spared the lives of murderers’ children, but he then killed ten thousand Edomites and captured one of their cities. This violated the law against abhorring an Edomite (Deut. 23:7). And by continuing the long-standing feud between the Israelites and the Edomites, he punished yet another generation of children for the sins of their long-deceased forefathers Jacob and Esau.
That Israelite-Edomite feud began with Jacob, the father of Israel, and Esau, the father of the Edomites. Through the centuries, Israelites and Edomites habitually attacked and harassed each other, often with little provocation. Amaziah’s attack on Edom grimly resembled another campaign waged under David’s administration. David “made a name for himself” by killing eighteen thousand Edomites (see “How We Will Be Remembered” at 2 Sam. 8:13, 14; see also 1 Kin. 11:15–17). Amaziah, swollen with the same conqueror’s pride, threw down a foolish challenge to King Jehoash of Israel, which ended in Amaziah’s capture and the sacking of Jerusalem.
More: Find out more about the beginnings of the Israelite-Edomite feud in “Pain That Leads to Prejudice” at Num. 20:14–21.
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If King Amaziah of Judah had lost a battle far from home, he might have safely retreated to his own lands. But his defeat occurred at Beth Shemesh, a city in his own territory only fifteen miles west of Jerusalem. King Jehoash of Israel easily marched on to Jerusalem and plundered Judah’s capital. See Beth Shemesh’s profile at 1 Samuel 6:12.
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The division of the kingdom that occurred in the days of Rehoboam left lasting wounds that occasionally led to civil war between the northern and southern monarchies. Some believe that Psalms 42 and 43 were composed by a Judean in the north cut off from the temple at Jerusalem. Read these psalms in conjunction with the account in 2 Kings 14.
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Azariah, also known as Uzziah, committed a sin similar to Saul’s unlawful sacrifice (1 Sam. 13:8–14). He offered incense in the temple, a task that belonged only to priests (2 Chr. 26:16–23). The Lord punished his infringement of this sacred responsibility with a case of incurable leprosy. See Uzziah’s profile at 2 Chronicles 26:1.
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Many Bible readers know the prophet Jonah through the book that bears his name. The account of his flight from God and his stay in the belly of a great fish is one of the most well-known stories in Western civilization. This story is connected to Jonah’s calling (and initial refusal) to prophesy to the people of Nineveh, the capital city of the Assyrian empire (see Nineveh’s profile at Jon. 1:2). But Jonah’s primary calling was as a prophet to the northern kingdom of Israel. To learn more about this fascinating man, see his profile at Jonah 1:1.
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The Three Campaigns of the Assyrians
About the same time that the kingdom of David and Solomon reached its high point in Palestine, a new empire, Assyria, was forming to the east. Long dominated by the Babylonians, the Assyrians began to exert influence westward toward the Mediterranean. Scripture mentions three major campaigns of the Assyrians against Israel and Judah.
The Assyrian Kings
Tiglath-Pileser III | 745–727 B.C. |
Shalmaneser V | 727–722 B.C. |
Sargon II | 722–705 B.C. |
Sennacherib | 705–681 B.C. |
Esarhaddon | 681–669 B.C. |
Ashurbanipal | 668–627 B.C. |
The Campaign of Tiglath-Pileser III (734–732 B.C.; 2 Kin. 15:29)
In the time of King Azariah of Judah and King Pekah of Israel, the Assyrian ruler Tiglath-Pileser III—called Pul in his native land—swept south through Philistia. After cutting off access to Egypt, he mounted a campaign against Israel through the upper Jordan River Valley.
The Campaign of Shalmaneser V and Sargon II (725–722 B.C.; 2 Kin. 17:1–6)
At the urging of Egypt, King Hoshea of Israel revolted against Assyria, drawing an attack of the capital at Samaria by Shalmaneser V. Hoshea surrendered, but the city held out through a siege that lasted three years. During that time, Shalmaneser was succeeded by Sargon II, who completed the capture of the northern kingdom and made Israel an Assyrian province.
The Campaign of Sennacherib (701 B.C.; 2 Kin. 18:13—19:37)
Attacking along a coastal route, Sennacherib took Lachish and established his military headquarters there. King Hezekiah of Judah paid him tribute to ward off an attack of Jerusalem, but Sennacherib struck anyway. His general Rabshakeh besieged the city but withdrew suddenly through the Lord’s miraculous intervention, leaving Judah to live in relative security for nearly a century.
More: The Assyrian Empire was one of the most ruthless superpowers of the ancient world. See “The Assyrians” at 2 Kin. 17:5, 6 and “The Bloody City” at Nah. 3:1.
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Access to power—at work, at home, in a community—almost invariably breeds plots to gain more control. Like other power centers in the ancient Middle East, the royal court of the northern kingdom of Israel was repeatedly thrown into chaos by conspiracies against the king and his representatives. Pekah’s overthrow was one in a long line of attempted and successful coups during the age of the divided kingdom.
Ruler | Event |
Rehoboam (1 Kin. 12:12–20) | The successor to Solomon imposed taxes even higher than his father’s oppressive levies. Ten tribes rejected his leadership and stoned his chief tax collector. |
Ben-Hadad (2 Kin. 8:7–15) | This Syrian king lay gravely ill when he sent his representative Hazael to ask the prophet Elisha about his recovery. Hazael arrived with an encouraging message, then murdered his master and seized the throne. |
Jehu (2 Kin. 9:1–29) | After Elisha informed him that he would become Israel’s next king, Jehu overthrew King Joram by murdering him at a supposed peace conference. |
Jehu (2 Kin. 9:30–37) | After assuming the throne, Jehu ordered Queen Jezebel thrown from a window to her death; dogs consumed her body, just as Elijah had predicted. |
Jehu (2 Kin. 10:18–28) | Jehu purged the nation of pagan worship by convening Baal’s prophets from across Israel. After feigning loyalty to Baal, he called for his soldiers to execute them. |
Athaliah (2 Kin. 11:1–3, 20, 21) | After her son the king died, this queen mother succeeded in killing all of the royal heirs except her grandson Joash. He later rose to power and put her to death. |
Pekah (2 Kin. 15:25–30) | Pekah came to power by assassinating his predecessor. During Pekah’s rule, Assyria plundered more than half of his land and carried its inhabitants into captivity. Conspirators assassinated Pekah. |
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The Egyptians had a history of making treaties with Israel and Judah to secure a buffer between Egypt and the aggressive armies of Mesopotamia. The Israelite kings were eager to trust the pharaohs as their own kingdoms grew weaker. Yet God had warned His people against relying on Egyptian military might. Hoshea’s treaty with King So demonstrated why: it angered the Assyrians, who quickly arrested Hoshea, leading to the final siege of Samaria. To learn more about the Egyptians and their role in ancient Middle Eastern history, see “The Egyptians” at Exodus 11:7.
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When Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, finally succumbed to an Assyrian siege in 722 B.C., the Israelites fell into the hands of one of the most feared empires of the ancient world. The Assyrians’ atrocities were legendary. Ancient records indicate that they not only burned cities but burned children, impaled captives on stakes, beheaded prisoners, or tortured them by chopping off their legs and hands. It was the Israelites’ stubborn devotion to idolatry and other evils that led to their capture by the Assyrians, for they remained deaf to all other warnings God had tried to send them (2 Kin. 17:7–12).
Origins and Rise to Power
The kingdom of Assyria began in a region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers; its principal cities were reportedly founded by Nimrod (see “Nimrod’s Legacy” at Gen. 10:8–12). Assyria’s first rise to power came under Tiglath-Pileser I (1120–1100 B.C.), who built the kingdom into an empire. His successors did not maintain this supremacy, however, and Assyria temporarily declined. This allowed the united kingdom of Israel, under David and Solomon, to expand its influence.
The Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal (884–860 B.C.) restored much of the empire’s prestige. His successor, Shalmaneser III (860–825 B.C.) was the first Assyrian king to come into conflict with the northern kingdom of Israel. In an effort to halt the Assyrian expansion, a group of nations formed a coalition. Israel, led by King Ahab, was a part of this alliance. But the coalition foundered, and the Assyrians continued their relentless territorial conquest.
A Brief Respite
A brief period of internal struggles between 833 and 745 B.C. allowed Israel a respite from Assyrian domination. During this time Jeroboam II of Israel restored his kingdom to almost what it had been in the age of Solomon. The restoration brought material prosperity but spiritual decline, causing prophets such as Amos to warn Israel that it was living on borrowed time.
With the rise of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 B.C.), also known in the Bible as Pul (2 Kin. 15:19), Assyria again began to oppress Israel. Tiglath-Pileser set out to regain territories previously occupied by his people. In Canaan, he was resisted by a coalition led by Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel. When Ahaz of Judah withstood the pressure to join them, Rezin and Pekah marched on Jerusalem, intent on destroying the city. Against the counsel of the prophet Isaiah, Ahaz turned to Assyria for protection. The decision cost Judah dearly. The nation was required to pay tribute and was forced to adopt some Assyrian religious practices (16:5–18).
The End of the Northern Kingdom
Tiglath-Pileser was succeeded by his son, Shalmaneser V (727–722 B.C.). King Hoshea of Israel had been placed on the throne by Tiglath-Pileser, but when he refused to pay tribute, Shalmaneser attacked Samaria. After a three-year siege, the city fell. Tens of thousands of inhabitants, mostly from the upper classes, were deported to Assyria. This marked the end of the northern kingdom, and most of the deported Israelites never returned to their homeland.
The End of Assyria
Israel was conquered during the height of the Assyrian empire. Shalmaneser’s successor Sargon II (722–705 B.C.) defeated the Egyptians in the west and the Elamites in the east. The next king, Sennacherib (705–681 B.C.), pushed into Asia Minor and later captured and sacked Babylon. He also made extensive improvements to Nineveh using forced labor that included some of the Israelites captured by his predecessors. The Assyrian conquest of the Egyptian delta in 672 B.C. brought Thebes and Memphis under Assyrian control and seemed to permanently eliminate one of the empire’s most powerful rivals.
But Assyria’s days were numbered. The Medes began troubling Assyria in the east during the mid-seventh century B.C. Suppressing these uprisings diverted attention from the western provinces, which also began to rebel. The Babylonians were growing stronger, and in 614 B.C. they joined with the Medes to capture Asshur. In 612 B.C., Nineveh fell, fulfilling the prophecies of Nahum and Zephaniah.
The last gasp of the Assyrians came at Harran in 609 B.C. Attacked by a resolute force of Babylonians and Scythians, the Assyrians attempted to hold out until their allies from Egypt could arrive. But Pharaoh Necho was delayed when King Josiah of Judah refused to allow his troops to cross Judah’s territory (2 Kin. 23:29). Necho eventually prevailed, but by the time he arrived at Harran, it was too late to help the Assyrians. The Babylonians had captured the city, and the Assyrian empire was no more.
More: Execution by impalement may have been an early form of crucifixion. See “A Grim Method of Execution” at Esth. 2:23 and “Crucifixion” at Luke 23:33. The Assyrian capital of Nineveh was thought to be impregnable with an outer and inner wall 100 feet high and 50 feet wide. To find out more about this impressive city, see its profile at Jon. 1:2.
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Ancient superpowers such as Assyria attempted to control conquered territories by replacing their citizens with settlers from other lands, aiming at breaking down conquered societies and preventing survivors from mobilizing a rebellion. Whatever political gains this strategy may have produced, the resettlement of Israel illustrates the long-term ethnic conflict it created.
Samaria: An Assyrian Colony
After Samaria fell to the Assyrians in 722 B.C., some twenty thousand survivors, mostly upper-class, were deported to Assyria (2 Kin. 17:6). Captives from ten countries including Babylon, Elam, and Syria arrived to repopulate the region and ensure loyalty to the Assyrian king Sargon II. These foreigners imported their pagan idols, which they integrated into the worship of the Hebrews’ God. They also intermarried with Hebrews (17:29–41; Ezra 9:1—10:44; Neh. 13:23–28).
The Roots of a Growing Bitterness
The southern kingdom of Judah fell to the Babylonians in 587 B.C., and its people were also carried off into captivity (see “Scattered Among the Gentiles” at Jer. 9:16). But in 536 B.C., a remnant of God’s people was permitted to return and rebuild Jerusalem. The people who now inhabited the former northern kingdom—the Samaritans—vigorously opposed the repatriation and tried to undermine any attempt to reestablish the nation of Judah (Ezra 4; Neh. 2:10, 19; 4:1–9; 6:1–14). The monotheistic Jews in the south detested their northern cousins’ idolatrous worship and intermarriage with foreigners. The bitterness between the sides hardened during the next few centuries.
The Battle Between Two Temples
Worship became a flashpoint for conflict. The Samaritans refused to worship at the temple rebuilt by the Jews in Jerusalem. Around 400 B.C. they built their own temple on Mount Gerizim (see Shechem’s profile at Gen. 33:18; “Signing Off on the Covenant” at Deut. 27:11–13; and “Jews and Samaritans” at John 4:9).
The temple at Mount Gerizim became a significant political symbol. Those who worshiped there were condemned by the Jerusalem authorities. In 167–166 B.C. the Samaritans bowed to political pressure from the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes (see “What Happened Between the Old and New Testaments” here) and dedicated their temple to the Greek god Zeus. After a brief period of peace, the Gerizim temple was burned by forces of the Jewish king John Hyrcanus in 128 B.C. as relations between the Jews and Samaritans turned violent.
The Friends of Herod
The Samaritans quickly sided with the Roman general Pompey against Judea when he invaded the region in 63 B.C. They also supported Herod, the king installed by Rome to govern the area (see “The Herods” at Acts 12:1, 2). Samaria became a base for Herod. He chose Samaria as a safe place to make a home for his mother and children. He also extensively restored the city, renaming it Sebaste (the Greek equivalent of the Latin name Augustus) in honor of Augustus Caesar. He built a new city wall, a large temple, and a stadium.
Herod’s favoritism toward the Samaritans only intensified Jewish hostility. Jews in the days of Jesus who were traveling between Judea in the south and Galilee in the north commonly avoided the direct route through Samaria. They instead traversed the Jordan River and traveled along the east bank before crossing back over to reach their destination.
More: The animosity between Samaritans and Jews could not keep the gospel out of Samaria. See “The Spread of the Gospel” at Acts 1:4 and “Converting Samaritans and Apostles” at Acts 8:4–25.
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The Bright Reign of King Hezekiah
King Hezekiah’s twenty-nine-year reign over Judah produced one of the best periods of government since the time of King David. He brought spiritual reforms and carried out extensive renovations and improvements to the nation’s defenses. But his kingdom was not without spiritual struggles. See Hezekiah’s profile at 2 Chronicles 29:1 and “Who Do We Trust?” at 2 Kings 18:19.
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Concrete objects like artwork, instruments, or the furnishings of temples and churches can make an invisible and abstract God seem more present and real. However, reverencing any object, whether for the right reasons or not, can tempt us to place too much importance on it, even worshiping the thing rather than the deity that the thing represents. A relic can become a focus of idolatry.
Several items venerated by the Israelites became objects of worship, including the bronze snake that Moses had made during the Exodus journey (2 Kin. 18:4; see also “The Bronze Serpent” at Num. 21:8, 9). The serpent on the pole had been used to heal snake-bitten people and teach them to look to God for help. But the people who settled in the Promised Land turned this object into an idol, as if the bronze snake itself had power to heal. They burned incense to it and even gave it a name, Nehushtan (“Bronze Thing”).
The Israelites also made an idol of a ceremonial robe, or ephod, created by Gideon from the spoils of his victory over the Midianites (Judg. 8:25–27). They tried to use the ark of covenant as a charm against the Philistines while in battle (see “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Sam. 5:11). And in Jeremiah’s day, the citizens of Jerusalem cared more about their temple than they did about the Lord of their temple (see “The Lesson of Shiloh” at Jer. 7:12–15).
All of these examples show the dangers of making too much of objects, even when they have a close association with God’s work. As Christians we can easily fall into the same misguided attachments as the Israelites and make idols of the things, people, places, and experiences that make us feel closer to God. When we find ourselves placing more emphasis on things rather than what the things represent, it is best to discard them immediately. God wants to dwell within us, not within the relics of our faith.
More: The prohibition against graven images such as Nehushtan does not mean that God is fundamentally opposed to art. Art in the Bible often enhanced worship. See “God and Art” at Ex. 20:4–6 and the articles under “Art” in the Themes to Study index. Two Christian painters who sought to honor God in their work include Paul Cézanne and Lilias Trotter. See here for an article on the life of Paul Cézanne and here for an article on the life of Lilias Trotter.
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The encounter between the emissaries of Assyria and Judah was an intense confrontation with the fate of nations at risk (2 Kin. 18:17, 18). It was a dramatic struggle between the seen and the unseen, between confidence in military might and faith in God.
The Assyrian chief of staff asked Jewish leaders to relay an important question to King Hezekiah: “What confidence is this in which you trust?” (18:19). This was a crucial question. Hezekiah’s reign had been marked by spiritual inconsistency. Periods of trust in God alternated with periods of compromise and collusion with His enemies.
The same inconsistencies had plagued the northern kingdom of Israel, which had relied on Egypt rather than the Lord for protection from the Assyrians (17:1–4). The result was the capture of Israel’s capital and the deportation of its citizens into captivity (17:5–6).
“In whom do you trust?” is a question still worth pondering. Many temptations vie for our allegiance in this life, including money, social or professional status, political influence, physical appearance and ability, and technological entertainment. Each of these things has its place. But only the Lord deserves our trust. Only He belongs at the center of our lives. As Israel discovered, giving up on God’s provision and power puts us on a dangerous path.
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Isaiah brought comfort and encouragement to King Hezekiah. But the prophet would later give a distressing warning of judgment (2 Kin. 20:16–18). Isaiah was among the Lord’s greatest prophets and authored one of the Bible’s longest books, the Book of Isaiah, which includes many messianic prophecies. Discover more about this important figure in biblical history in his profile at Isaiah 1:1.
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Faithful Leadership
Although she has been described as physically unprepossessing—no more than five feet tall, stout, and plain—Queen Victoria (1819–1901) succeeded in projecting a grand image not only throughout the British empire but to every corner of the world. She holds the record as the longest reigning British monarch and the longest reigning female monarch in world history, and the ripples of her impact on Christian ideals of morality and ethics can still be felt today.
Yet before ascending the throne at age eighteen, Victoria’s will and independence were stifled under the influence of a highly sheltered environment in which she was systematically isolated from other children, governed by elaborate rules, and barred from encounters with anyone her handlers deemed undesirable. Victoria’s mother and her mother’s ambitious and domineering comptroller John Conroy designed this style of upbringing in an attempt to render Victoria weak and dependent. On one occasion when Victoria fell violently ill, they badgered her in an attempt to make Conroy her personal secretary.
The young heiress resisted. After she became queen, she banished Conroy from her presence and exiled her mother to a remote part of the royal residence (Buckingham Palace, which Victoria was the first monarch to occupy). After marrying Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, she evicted her mother altogether, determined to govern both realm and household without unwanted interference. The two women later reconciled through Prince Albert’s intervention, but it wasn’t until her mother’s death that Victoria realized how deeply her mother had loved her, and she mourned her loss intensely.
It was perhaps Victoria’s intensity that drove and aided her to exert as much influence as possible over her government’s actions, though her royal powers were constitutionally limited, and many of her political achievements took place behind the scenes and were only fully appreciated after her death, with the publication of her journals and other accounts. During her life Victoria survived several assassination attempts and periods of public derision—but she also often enjoyed extreme popularity.
As a devoted wife and mother of nine children, and later as the black-garbed “Widow of Windsor,” Victoria became a symbol of the “family monarch” to whom the middle classes could relate. She was revered as the embodiment of domestic propriety, earnestness, and moral responsibility.
Victoria’s faith was suited to the rapidly modernizing world that would be ruled by the middle class who adored her. She wrote approvingly of a Scottish church where she heard pragmatic preaching that being a Christian was “not a thing only for Sunday” but “for every action of her life.” The queen despised hypocrisy and pompous piety. She shunned lords and ladies who paraded their religion yet scandalized the nation with clandestine immorality. She fought Christians seeking to outlaw public park concerts on Sundays, recognizing that the music gave relief to working-class families on the only day they were unburdened by work. Prince Albert presided over the end of slave ownership in Britain, which he considered “repugnant to the spirit of Christianity.”
It was during Victoria’s reign that the British missionary movement became an active and powerful force in the world, and Victoria herself saw the British empire as having a Christianizing influence that was marked by benevolence, toleration, and generosity. She detested the idea of forced submissiveness in the church. Urged on by Albert, Victoria issued an official proclamation during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 that guaranteed religious freedom. At home, she pushed through legislation to eliminate what she called “bowing and scraping” in Anglican interactions with the clergy.
Queen Victoria stands as a bright example of a monarch who earnestly sought to improve the lives of her people while earnestly seeking her God. Like all children of God, she was not without her faults, but it is a testament to her integrity that the Christian ideals she strove to embody and promote are still considered some of the strongest defining characteristics of her era. And it is in part thanks to her leadership that so many believers around the world identify with those same ideals today.
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Hezekiah managed to find good in Isaiah’s distressing warning by reminding himself that God’s judgment would not come until after he was gone. This perspective sounds like people today who live without regard for the future, leaving their children and grandchildren to deal with the aftermath of their actions. This selfish outlook is the subject of “Clean Up Your Own Mess” at Isaiah 39:8.
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The tunnel that Hezekiah built to bring water into Jerusalem was excavated through solid rock sixty feet underground for a distance of almost six hundred yards. To learn more about this impressive project, see “Hezekiah’s Waterworks” at 2 Chronicles 32:30.
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Manasseh was one of Judah’s worst kings, taking the nation to new lows, repeating many of the abominations committed by the Canaanites pushed from the land centuries before (see “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30). Tradition holds that one of Manasseh’s most notorious crimes was his execution of the prophet Isaiah. To learn more about this evil king, see his profile at 2 Chronicles 33:1.
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Eight-year-old Josiah was the last of the God-fearing kings of Judah before Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians. Find his profile at 2 Chronicles 34:1 and information on his untimely death in “Josiah’s Military Blunder” at 2 Chronicles 35:22. See here for an article on the life of Josiah.
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Huldah the prophetess (see her profile at 2 Chr. 34:22) had comforting words for King Josiah but a message of judgment for the nation (2 Kin. 22:15–20). Like most other prophets, she was a spokesperson divinely commissioned to deliver God’s words. Scripture also tells of other stories about women who spoke for God, as the following table shows.
Miriam (Ex. 15:20) | Helped her brothers Moses and Aaron lead the Hebrews out of slavery in Egypt. She prophesied after the parting of the Red Sea. |
Deborah (Judg. 4:4) | A judge known as “a mother in Israel” (Judg. 5:7). |
Huldah (2 Kin. 22) | Was consulted when a scroll was discovered in the temple and leaders needed God’s guidance. |
Noadiah (Neh. 6:14) | Conspired with Tobiah, Sanballat, and others to frighten Nehemiah into abandoning plans to rebuild Jerusalem’s wall. |
Bore a son who would experience the pain of Assyria’s domination of the Israelites. | |
Anna (Luke 2:36–38) | Praised the Lord for Jesus’ birth at His dedication in the temple. |
Four daughters of Philip (Acts 21:9) | Served the early church at Caesarea. |
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Topheth (“Fireplace”) was a pagan altar to Baal where parents offered their children as sacrifices. This grotesque ritual was likely practiced before the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh, but these kings popularized this monstrous evil as part of their commitment to idolatry. Josiah halted this evil by destroying the altar, which was located just outside Jerusalem. To find out more about this site, see “The Valley of Hinnom” at Joshua 18:16.
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The people of Judah may have hoped for recovery after the evil reign of Jehoahaz, but their prospects turned bleak with the installation of Eliakim, whose name was changed to Jehoiakim. He ruled by greed, dishonesty, oppression, and injustice, and actively opposed the prophets of the Lord, including Jeremiah. To find out about this godless king, see his profile at Jeremiah 36:9.
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When God founded the nation of Israel, He made clear that His people were to worship no other gods (Ex. 20:1–3). If they failed to live up to this expectation and the other terms of His covenant with them, He vowed to drive them from the land He had promised long ago to Abraham’s descendants. “I will scatter you among the nations and draw out a sword after you,” He said. “Your land shall be desolate and your cities waste” (Lev. 26:33). Because the Israelites squandered their freedom and blessing as God’s chosen people, the Exile would temporarily reverse the Exodus, sending them back into bondage.
As a consequence of centuries of stubborn disobedience, the Assyrians had already destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel and taken thousands of captives from the land (2 Kin. 17:1–6). Nebuchadnezzar’s capture and deportation of Jehoiachin (24:10–12) now began Judah’s captivity. Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah (renamed Zedekiah) was appointed to oversee Jerusalem (24:17), but apparently the captives and Babylonians both regarded Jehoiachin as the actual king of Judah.
Once God’s appointed duration of the Exile had passed—seventy years—a remnant of His people would freely return to the Promised Land, a story told in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah.
To learn more about the experience and meaning of the Exile, see the following articles:
“The Assyrians” | |
“The Origin of the Samaritans” | |
“God’s People in Government” | |
“Scattered Among the Gentiles” | |
“A Promise of Permanent Exile” | |
“The Dispersion of the Jews” | |
“Start Today” | |
“How Far Will God Go?” | |
“A Long Layover” |
More: See also other articles in the Book of Lamentations, which voices Jeremiah’s grief over the fall of Jerusalem and the plight of the captives.
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Name means: “The Lord Is My Righteousness.”
Also known as: Mattaniah, his given name (2 Kin. 24:17).
Not to be confused with: A false prophet during Ahab’s reign (1 Kin. 22:11, 12), a false prophet denounced by Jeremiah (Jer. 29:21–23), or a noble in the time of King Jehoiachin (36:11–13).
Home: Jerusalem until he was taken in chains to Babylon (2 Kin. 25:7).
Family: Third son of Josiah by Hamutal; brother of Jehoahaz and Eliakim (renamed Jehoiakim); uncle of Jehoiachin.
Occupation: Ruler of Judah for 11 years (c. 598–587 B.C.); referred to as “king” (24:18), implying that the Babylonians appointed him as a puppet ruler of the district around Jerusalem while Jehoiachin remained the actual king in exile (see “A Long Layover” at Ezek. 1:2).
Best known as: The last ruler of Judah before the fall of Jerusalem.
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Five Ways to Capture a Walled City
An ancient city’s primary defense was its wall. The better the wall, the more secure the city. Once an enemy penetrated this outer ring of defense, however, the city was almost certain to fall.
Urban defense thus focused primarily on building, maintaining, and protecting the city’s wall, an effort that began with choosing a settlement site. The most easily defended cities were built on hills or the mounds of previous cities, where defenders could engage their attackers from higher ground. Well-defended cities were also often built on terrain that hindered invaders’ mobility (see “Upper and Lower Beth Horon” at 2 Chr. 8:5).
Water was another prime concern. No city could survive for long without a constant supply, so cities were often built on a river or other body of water, or they diverted water from a nearby source. Jerusalem lacked a reliable water supply until King Hezekiah dug a tunnel to bring water into the city from a spring at Gihon (see “Hezekiah’s Waterworks” at 2 Chr. 32:30).
Lastly, the wall itself was crucial. Some ancient cities were deemed impregnable because of their imposing walls. Jericho was defended by a double wall virtually impossible to climb (see “The Wall of Jericho” at Josh. 6:20). Nineveh had a double wall one hundred feet high and fifty feet wide. If not for cataclysmic floods that caused the wall’s foundations to give way, the city likely would have remained impenetrable (see “The Fall of Nineveh” at Nah. 2:6–8). Likewise, Babylon’s massive walls protected it from invaders until the Medes and Persians diverted the Euphrates and penetrated the city by marching up the dry riverbed (see “The Fall of Babylon” at Dan. 5:30, 31).
If a city was built on elevated, difficult terrain, maintained an adequate water supply, and was protected by massive walls, attacking armies were usually forced to use two or more of five strategies to conquer it.
Scaling the Walls
If attackers greatly outnumbered defenders, an army could strike a weakly defended point and send men over the wall into the city. Once inside, invaders might overcome defenders or even open the city gates. However, this approach was often costly. As attackers placed ladders against the walls and fought their way over the top, defenders rained down arrows, stones, and fire. Therefore, any attempt to scale the walls was usually accompanied first by an intense offensive volley that weakened the city’s defenses and allowed men with ladders to charge the wall as quickly as possible.
Breaking Through the Walls
Another means of breaching a city’s walls was the use of brute force to break through them or pull them down. Ancient artwork shows men driving long metal pikes between the stones of city walls. These pikes were levered back and forth in order to loosen and dislodge stones from a wall.
The Assyrians went further, perfecting the battering ram. They fitted rams with wheels so the contraption could be rolled into place and rocked against a wall to dislodge stones. A further improvement was the use of dirt and stone ramps, sometimes covered with wood planks. The ramp provided a smooth, gradual incline to help move the battering ram more forcefully against the wall.
Battering rams were also used against city gates, which were usually constructed of wood. But gates were often positioned at right angles and surrounded by defensive towers, a design that made it almost impossible for large rams to approach this vulnerable spot.
Tunneling Under the Walls
An attacking army willing to invest enormous time and energy could sometimes penetrate a city through a tunnel. But this approach placed relatively few warriors inside a city, and a small group could be easily defeated. A tunnel could be an ideal way to get at the foundations of a wall, however, and inflict irreparable damage.
Siege
A siege was a slow but effective way to force surrender. An invading army completely surrounded the city, cutting off outside help. The goal was to starve the city of vital resources until its inhabitants simply gave up.
Psychological Tactics
Invading armies used every method of negotiation or deception to convince adversaries to open the city gates. Rabshakeh tried this strategy against Jerusalem during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Kin. 18:17–37). During an earlier Syrian siege of Samaria, citizens suspected a ruse when four lepers outside the city walls reported that the Syrians had fled (7:10–12). The Assyrians used sheer intimidation as their psychological strategy, treating captives with extreme cruelty to dissuade other cities from resisting. Centuries later, Alexander the Great conquered more territory with fewer soldiers by using an opposite approach. He eliminated a conquered people’s upper classes but left the general population free to live as they pleased. This endeared him to the masses and paved the way as he and his army marched across the ancient world.
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Gedaliah was one of the few educated and experienced leaders left in Jerusalem after the city’s fall (2 Kin. 25:12). He was the grandson of Shaphan, probably the scribe who became the custodian of the Book of the Law found in Josiah’s time (22:8–10). To learn more about Gedaliah the governor, see his profile at Jeremiah 41:1.
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Jehoiachin likely received special treatment from the Babylonians in part because his captors regarded him, not Zedekiah, as the true king of Judah. In addition to the accommodations provided him while in exile in Babylon, Jehoiachin may have retained his lands in Judah through a trustee. See “A Long Layover” at Ezekiel 1:2.
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