The books of 1 and 2 Chronicles provide an account of Israel’s history similar to 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings—and in some cases identical. But Chronicles does more than repeat these books. Chronicles explores the same era from a different perspective. For example …
Samuel and Kings | Chronicles |
List only David’s immediate family (2 Sam. 3:2–5; 5:13–16). | Gives an extensive genealogy from Adam to the end of the Exile (1 Chr. 1–9). |
Report Saul’s life and death (1 Sam. 9–31). | Begins with Saul’s death (1 Chr. 10). |
Narrate David’s life prior to his being crowned king (1 Sam. 16–31). | Starts with David being crowned king of Judah (1 Chr. 11). |
Disclose David’s sin with Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11). | Overlooks David’s sins of adultery and murder (1 Chr. 20). |
Detail Tamar’s rape and Amnon’s assassination (2 Sam. 13) and Absalom’s rebellion (chs. 15–18). | Excludes David’s family troubles. |
Briefly refer to David’s preparations for the temple (1 Kin. 5:3). | Describes David’s extensive preparations for the temple and Solomon’s subsequent construction (1 Chr. 22; 28:1—29:9). |
Describe political intrigue during the transfer of power from David to Solomon (1 Kin. 1–2). | Leaves out challenges to Solomon’s right to the throne. |
Tell of Solomon’s marriages to women who turned his heart from God (1 Kin. 11:1–8). | Makes no mention of Solomon’s political marriages or idolatry. |
Summarize the reigns of all the kings of Israel and Judah. | Summarizes the reigns of only Judah’s kings. |
End with Judah in exile and Jerusalem in chaos (2 Kin. 25:22–30). | Ends with Cyrus’s decree ending the Exile, allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem (2 Chr. 36:22, 23). |
Give an account of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. | Omits the careers of Elijah and Elisha. |
Frequently allude to rural matters and to tribal and ethnic concerns. | Deals primarily with urban concerns and issues of Hebrew culture. |
Present mostly a political history focused on the monarchy. | Presents mostly a religious history focused on the temple. |
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The chronicler provided an intriguing lineage of Israel going all the way back to Adam. Seth was not Adam’s first son, but he symbolized a return to righteousness, replacing “righteous Abel,” who was murdered by Cain. Find out more in Seth’s profile at Genesis 4:25 and “The Family of Adam and Eve” at Genesis 5:3.
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Shem was the father of the Semitic peoples, the ancestor of the ancient Middle Eastern nations in general and of the Hebrews in particular through Arphaxad’s descendant Eber. For more on Noah’s sons Shem, Ham, and Japheth, see their profile at Genesis 9:18 and “Many Nations Under God” at Genesis 10:32.
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The genealogies in 1 Chronicles include three men who led Israel at key moments in Old Testament history.
1. Abraham was the patriarch of Israel whose descendants were recipients of God’s promise of land and new life in Canaan (see his profile at Gen. 12:1).
2. Moses (1 Chr. 6:3) was the leader who rescued the Israelites from slavery in Egypt and led them through the wilderness to the Promised Land (see his profile at Ex. 2:10).
3. David (1 Chr. 3:1) was Israel’s greatest king, and it was through his line that God promised to send the Messiah (see his profile at 1 Sam. 16:12).
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As Abraham’s son, Ishmael was Isaac’s half brother, meaning his descendants were relatives of the Israelites. God kept His promise to make Ishmael into a great nation. Ishmael had twelve sons whose descendants grew into the Ishmaelites, and Islamic traditions consider Ishmael the ancestor of the Arab people. See Ishmael’s profile at Genesis 16:15.
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Genealogies: Records of God’s Grace
The genealogies of Abraham’s sons Ishmael and Isaac are far more than a collection of names or an extended family tree. They tell the story of God’s purposes from generation to generation. These genealogies teach us to value our heritage by reminding us to …
• Look back with gratitude. Genealogies help put the past in perspective and reveal patterns in our history. Looking back on their past helped the Israelites see that they owed their allegiance and praise to God. The Lord had chosen them as His people, rescued them from slavery, given them a land, and established their kingdom. He had always been faithful to them.
• Look around at our connections. This list highlights the kinship between the Edomites and the Israelites, a relationship still significant today. Scripture teaches us to consider what we have in common rather than focusing on our differences.
• Look ahead with faith. The past often serves as an indication of the future. Because God had been faithful in the past, the Israelites could count on God to keep His Word in the future. Trusting in God is ultimately a matter of faith, but we can still be encouraged by His perfect track record.
Following God involves more than what we do at any given moment. Our spirituality is also part of a long tapestry that God oversees and in which He participates. In 1 Chronicles 1–9 we see His work in one family line, and a reflection of our own roots can yield evidence of His involvement in our own lives over the years.
More: We can trace the path of the gospel between its proclamation in the first century and our own acceptance of it today. See “Researching Your Religious Roots” at Heb. 13:24.
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Esau was Isaac’s older son, but it was his brother Jacob (also called Israel) who inherited his father’s blessing and the family birthright. Esau’s descendants nevertheless grew into powerful tribes who lived in Edom, the territory south of the Dead Sea (Gen. 36). For centuries, the Israelites and Edomites kept up an increasingly violent feud that eventually led to the slaughter of thousands of Edomite males under David. To understand the roots of this hostility, see Esau’s profile at Genesis 25:27 and “Pain That Leads to Prejudice” at Numbers 20:14–21.
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Even though Judah was the fourth of Jacob’s sons, 1 Chronicles lists his descendants before the other tribes and devotes three chapters to his family (1 Chr. 2–4). Its preeminence comes from the fact that Judah was the ancestor of David, the king who firmly established Israel’s monarchy and secured the kingdom’s dominion.
Judah’s father Jacob had spoken a blessing that declared, “Your father’s children shall bow down before you.… The scepter shall not depart from Judah” (Gen. 49:8, 10), thus foreshadowing the kingdom that would spring from Judah. The tribe grew increasingly independent after the nation settled in Canaan but exerted little leadership prior to David.
The split after Solomon between Judah and the other tribes widened to a complete break. As ten tribes formed a kingdom in the north, Judah joined with Benjamin in the south. This southern kingdom, ruled from Jerusalem by David’s successors, passed intact through the Babylonian exile. Centuries later, one of Judah’s descendants fulfilled God’s promises to David—Jesus the Messiah.
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Abishai, Joab, and Asahel were renowned in ancient Israel for their military exploits. Joab was the general who achieved most of David’s military victories (see “David’s Triumphs” at 1 Chr. 14:17). Abishai the impetuous warrior appears among David’s “mighty men” (1 Chr. 11:20, 21). Asahel’s speed as a runner led him to be described as “fleet of foot as a wild gazelle” (2 Sam. 2:18). See Joab’s profile at 2 Samuel 2:13 and Abishai’s profile at 2 Samuel 16:9.
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Absalom was the third son of David, born to his wife Maacah, daughter of the king of Geshur. David’s union with Maacah was likely a political marriage used to seal a treaty with Geshur (see “Political Marriages” at 2 Sam. 3:13, 14). The Law prohibited Israelite kings from engaging in this common ancient practice (Deut. 17:17). The heartache Absalom brought into his father’s life may have resulted in part from David’s disobedience.
More: To learn more about David’s family tree, see “The Family of David” at 2 Sam. 3:2–5. See Absalom’s profile at 2 Sam. 13:1 and “A Father’s Anguish” at 2 Sam. 18:33 for more on the pain this son caused his father and the kingdom.
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When Were 1 and 2 Chronicles Written?
The list of the kings of Judah up until the Babylonian exile (1 Chr. 3:10–16) and six generations following Jeconiah suggests that 1 and 2 Chronicles were written at or shortly after the return of the Jews from exile, around 400 B.C. The last event in the books is Cyrus’s proclamation granting the Jews permission to return home and rebuild their temple (2 Chr. 36:22, 23).
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Jabez’s mother named him “He Will Cause Pain.” But whether Jabez entered the world through a difficult childbirth or grew up in a distressed family, he turned his pain into prayer. Instead of complaining about his troubles, he asked God for spiritual blessing and an enlarged place in the Promised Land. If problems in our own background or upbringing leave us feeling victimized, we can follow Jabez’s example. Instead of letting circumstances overwhelm us, we can take charge of our life by asking God for the power to make changes.
More: For help learning to pray, see “Nehemiah’s Prayer” at Neh. 1:4–11. Discover the value of praying with others in “Prayer Partners” at Dan. 2:17, 18.
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Caleb the son of Jephunneh was a star of Israel’s history. He and Joshua were the only men of twelve spies sent to survey the Promised Land who advocated conquest rather than retreat (Num. 13:30). Caleb’s life showed unwavering faithfulness and proven courage. Find out more in Caleb’s profile at Joshua 14:6.
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The defeat of the Amalekites who lived in the pasturelands near Gedor fulfilled a promise that God had made centuries before. Long after King Saul failed to carry out this promise, the Simeonites finally rid their land of Amalekite enemies. To find out why this nation faced judgment, see “The Amalekites” at 1 Samuel 15:2, 3.
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First Chronicles points out that even though Reuben was the oldest of Jacob’s sons, his sin with his father’s concubine Bilhah (1 Chr. 5:1; Gen. 35:22) cost him his family’s birthright. Birthrights entitled firstborn sons to numerous privileges. To discover what Reuben forfeited, see “Birthrights” at Genesis 25:31.
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The Levites served as custodians of Israel’s religious life from the time of the Exodus onward. They were primarily responsible for the tabernacle, Israel’s mobile worship center (see “The Tabernacle” at Ex. 27:9). Later they took on responsibilities for teaching the tribes, which they did from certain designated centers known as Levitical cities (see “The Levitical Cities” at Josh. 21:1–3). After Israel became a monarchy and David rose to power, the ark of the covenant was relocated to Jerusalem, and the Levites’ duties changed yet again. For more on these new tasks, see “The Changing Roles of the Levites” at 1 Chr. 23:25–32.
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Like many wealthy men in the ancient world, Jacob’s son Manasseh kept a concubine, probably in addition to a full wife or wives. Concubines were treated as wives but they did not enjoy all the rights of normal wives. See “Concubines” at Genesis 30:3–13.
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Name means: “Blood Relationship.”
Home: Lower and Upper Beth Horon and Uzzen Sheerah (“Top of Sheerah”). The two Beth Horons perched on the mountain pass between the territories of Benjamin and Ephraim, 10 to 12 miles northwest of Jerusalem. Their strategic location led to much bloodshed. The upper city (at 2,000 feet) was a fortified citadel, while the lower city (at 1,200 feet) was a marketplace. This led to a two-tiered society not only geographically but also socially and politically.
Family: Daughter of either Ephraim or his son Beriah.
Best known for: Building or rebuilding three cities, a unique achievement among women of the Bible.
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First Chronicles barely mentions the fact that Saul was Israel’s first king. The book reports only his genealogy and his defeat by the Philistines, which led him to take his own life (1 Chr. 10:1–7). The book quickly moves on to David after a brief mention that “Saul died for his unfaithfulness” (10:13). For a more complete picture of Saul’s life and reign, read 1 Samuel 9–31 and see his profile at 1 Samuel 9:2.
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The Nethinim were temple servants who assisted the Levites by doing menial chores such as cleaning the temple, carrying water and wood to the altar, and scrubbing utensils used in sacrificial ceremonies. The name Nethinim means “Given.” Ezra’s list of the returnees from the captivity mentions the Nethinim along with “the sons of Solomon’s servants” (Ezra 2:43–58). Because the groups’ names are not Hebrew, they may have been Gentiles, possibly descended from the Canaanites or another conquered nation. David appointed the Nethinim to serve the Levites (8:20).
More: The Nethinim were not the first foreigners given servile positions among the Israelites. Joshua made peace with the men of Gibeon, and they became woodcutters and water carriers. See “A Peace Treaty” at Josh. 9:15.
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The Philistines lived primarily in five cities to the southwest of Judah along Canaan’s coast. For centuries they assaulted Israelite territory, and God often used them to discipline His people. The attack in 1 Chronicles 10 that ended Saul’s life was one such episode. To learn more about this nation and their harassment of the Israelites, see “The Philistines” at Judges 13:1 and “The Philistine Threat” at 1 Samuel 28:4, 5.
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The gallant men of Gilead fasted for seven days as an expression of grief over King Saul’s death. Israel observed fasts for diverse reasons, such as …
• commemorating God’s deliverance (Zech. 8:19),
• grieving for sin and repenting from disobedience (Judg. 20:26; 1 Sam. 7:6),
• expressing humility before God (Lev. 16:29; Ps. 69:10), and
• seeking guidance (Ex. 34:28; 2 Chr. 20:3, 4).
Fasting as a means of spiritual focus encourages us to concentrate on God rather than on food and other personal needs. Assuming we have no health issues that preclude fasting, going without food for a day or at certain hours in a day can be an effective way to honor God and ask for His help. Note a few people who fasted and the outcomes of their discipline:
Person(s) | Circumstances and Results |
Moses | Fasted 40 days and nights as he met with God on Mount Sinai (Ex. 34:27, 28). The Lord gave him a second set of tablets containing the Law. |
The Israelites | Fasted to exhibit repentance and renew the covenant after retrieving the ark from the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:5, 6). Followed by victory over this enemy (7:10, 11). |
David | Fasted to show his sorrow after learning he would lose the child conceived with Bathsheba (2 Sam. 12:15, 16). The child died as a consequence of his adultery. |
Ahab | Fasted as an act of repentance after Elijah warned him of his imminent judgment for Naboth’s murder (1 Kin. 21:27). The Lord delayed punishment until Ahab’s son assumed the throne (21:29). |
Ezra | Fasted before journeying from Babylon to Jerusalem, asking for God’s blessing, guidance, and protection (Ezra 8:21–23). The trip went off without a hitch (8:31, 32). |
Nehemiah | Fasted and repented on behalf of the Israelites after hearing that Jerusalem was in ruins (see “Nehemiah’s Prayer” at Neh. 1:4–11). God gave him everything he needed to return and rebuild Jerusalem’s walls. |
Daniel | Fasted and repented on behalf of the Jews, asking for their release from captivity (Dan. 9:3, 4). God allowed His people to return to their land. |
The city of Nineveh | Fasted to repent and express faith in God after hearing Jonah’s message of impending judgment (Jon. 3:4–9). The Lord forgave the Ninevites and spared them from calamity. |
Jesus | Fasted in the wilderness for 40 days at the start of His ministry (Matt. 4:2). He withstood Satan’s temptations. |
Cornelius | Fasted as an aid to prayer (Acts 10:30–32). Peter proclaimed the gospel to Cornelius and his family, and they became followers of Christ 10:34–48). |
Paul and Barnabas | Fasted and prayed for their journey to preach in Asia Minor (Acts 13:1–5). Several new churches formed when many responded to the truth about Jesus. |
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• Principal city of the Jebusites, located on a hill called Zion in the territory of Benjamin, 31 miles east of the Mediterranean Sea and 18 miles west of the north end of the Dead Sea.
• Near the border between the territories of Benjamin and Judah (Josh. 18:16).
• Formed a coalition with four other cities led by the Jebusite king Adoni-Zedek to oppose the Israelites following the capture of Jericho and Ai. The coalition was routed when the Lord made the sun stand still until the Israelite warriors finished their work (10:1–14).
• Captured and burned by the Israelites during the conquest (Judg. 1:8). Jebusites continued to live at the site until David’s reign (1:21; 19:11, 12).
• Residents vowed that David would never penetrate its defenses (see “The Millo” at 1 Kin. 9:15). The city was captured and renamed the City of David (2 Sam. 5:6, 7).
• Hometown of Ornan, owner of a threshing floor David purchased for 600 shekels of gold (1 Chr. 21:14–26). Solomon later built the temple on the site (see “Mount Moriah” at 2 Chr. 3:1).
More: Before and after Christ, Jerusalem has been viewed as more than just a city. To learn more about the city’s history and symbolic significance, see the profiles of Jerusalem at Ps. 122:2, 3 and at Matt. 23:37.
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David’s rise to power was assured from the outset by God’s promises (1 Sam. 13:14; 15:28; 16:12). Nevertheless, his journey from the pastures of Bethlehem to a palace in Jerusalem was long and difficult. Along the way, David attracted a growing movement of loyal supporters who helped him attain the throne. Some of the most important were known as his “mighty men” (1 Chr. 11:10).
These warriors were celebrated for their military victories (2 Sam. 23; 1 Chr. 11), many won after David became king. But the nucleus of this group came from humble beginnings. When David was fleeing from Saul, renegades from Israelite society began gathering around the young Bethlehemite. They found their way to David for three reasons: distress, debt, and discontent (1 Sam. 22:2). With nothing to lose, they sided with David, who was also in trouble with the king.
Saul quickly learned of this band of rebels, which at first numbered about four hundred. Suspicious that his own people might defect, Saul chided his servants, “Will the son of Jesse give every one of you fields and vineyards, and make you all captains?” (22:7). The answer to this question was yes. Under David and his successor Solomon, the land flourished (2 Sam. 6:19; 7:1; 1 Kin. 4:25), and many of David’s followers became renowned as mighty warriors.
During David’s flight from Saul, he and his followers frequently raided Israel’s enemies (1 Sam. 23:5; 27:8–12). These skirmishes were training exercises for future battles. As soon as Saul was gone, David began his ascent to the throne, and his mighty men rose to power along with him. He was crowned king of Judah, and his men followed him to Hebron (2 Sam. 2:3). From there they helped him wage a seven-year civil war with Saul’s heirs (3:1). Finally, after David had been crowned king over all of Israel, his men helped him capture Jebus, or Jerusalem, which became his capital (5:6–10). These mighty men, once humble dissenters, became the core of a potent army (5:17–25; 8:1–18).
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Ziklag was located at the southern end of the Israelite territory, an ideal location for David’s headquarters during the period when Saul pursued him. Find out more about this city that was a gift to David from a Philistine king in Ziklag’s profile at 1 Samuel 30:1.
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David was blessed to have a group of counselors “who had understanding of the times” and so could advise him on “what Israel ought to do” to shake off the tyranny of King Saul and prosper as a nation.
The tribe of Issachar was noted for its wise men. Tradition holds that Issachar’s representatives were among the wisest members of Israel’s Sanhedrin, the nation’s highest ruling body at the time of Jesus (see “Stephen’s Trial and Murder” at Acts 6:12).
No one knows how David’s counselors gained insight into their times, but it seems reasonable to infer that they perceived trends, discussed major issues, evaluated information, and debated strategy. Thanks in part to them, David unified the kingdom and established a growing empire (1 Chr. 14:2, 17).
God’s people still need counselors who not only comprehend Scripture but the world in which it must be applied, buttressing our faith with discernment. Jesus has called us to engage our critical faculties, saying we should “be wise as serpents and harmless as doves” (Matt. 10:16).
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Guiding a Nation to God
Queen Ranavalona II (1829–1883) ruled the African island of Madagascar from 1863 to 1883, and is best remembered for the work she accomplished in leading her nation to Christ.
Protestant missionaries had begun work in Madagascar in 1817 under royal protection. They evangelized, developed a written form of the Malagasy language, and opened schools. But their graduates were soon recruited to military and political posts under the regimes of King Radama I and his successor Queen Ranavalona I, authoritarian rulers who faced increasing public opposition.
During the 1830s Ranavalona I imposed strict regulations on Christianity, banning her subjects from practicing the Christian religion in any way, including possessing or reading a Bible, attending services, or becoming baptized. Though she made allowances for foreign visitors who practiced Christianity, she viewed Christianity among her own subjects as an act of treason, ultimately vowing to kill any who practiced “the new religion.”
In 1836, missionaries left the island nation or withdrew to an area of Madagascar not controlled by the queen, leaving behind a small community of Christians. Over the next two decades, entire families of believers were condemned to slavery. Other followers of Jesus were fined or had their possessions seized. Eighteen Christians killed on March 23, 1849, are still widely remembered for their public refusal to follow the traditional polytheistic religion of Madagascar. They swore loyalty to the throne but proclaimed that God alone deserved worship. Surrounded by mocking crowds, fourteen were cast from a high cliff. Another four were burned alive, singing hymns as they died. By the time persecutions subsided, the number of Malagasy Christians had grown to nearly three thousand. Today a cathedral stands on an outcropping in commemoration of fifteen martyrs who were dangled by ropes over a rocky ravine until the ropes were cut after their refusal to renounce their Christian faith.
Queen Ranavalona II, like some of the monarchs described in the books of 1 and 2 Chronicles (for example, see here for an article on the life of Josiah), turned from the ways of her ancestors in order to follow the ways of the Lord. She had been tutored as a girl by missionaries whose curriculum instructed her in the Scriptures. A New Testament translated into the Malagasy language had been completed in 1830, and local missionaries printed copies both for use in their schools and for distribution throughout the island. Ranavalona II attended secret prayer meetings during the period of persecution under her predecessor Ranavalona I, and on the night before Ranavalona II was to become queen, she spent time in prayer with her prime minister and several pastors.
Malagasy royalty had long used ancestral religious beliefs to safeguard their political power, but upon her rise to the throne in 1868, Ranavalona II officially declared Madagascar a Christian nation. In 1869 she commanded that the traditional idols—believed to protect the state and confer power to royals—be torched in a bonfire, replacing their authority with that of the Bible. That same year, Ranavalona II entered into a political marriage with her prime minister, and the queen and her husband were baptized. She took an oath that only God would be her master until she died.
Ranavalona II funded evangelists who traveled to areas of the island untouched by Christianity. She continued her predecessor’s ban on trade in alcohol and slaves. And she pursued a progressive environmental policy to save her nation from deforestation, making it legal for the first time to build homes and other buildings out of brick and stone rather than plant sources, and outlawing slash-and-burn agriculture.
In every part of her reign, Ranavalona II sought to honor God. She lived her faith in the public eye with a boldness emblazoned on the four sides of her royal canopy: “Glory to God,” “Peace on earth,” “Good will among men,” and “God shall be with us.” Her faithful stewardship of her earthly kingdom may be seen today in the continuance of Christianity as one of the major belief systems among inhabitants of modern-day Madagascar.
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David recognized that, regardless of his actions or those of his mighty men, it was ultimately God who had put him on Israel’s throne. In Psalms 18 and 36, songs probably composed during this period, David gave glory to God for what He had done. These psalms can be read as companion passages to 1 Chronicles.
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Written around the time of the Jews’ return from exile, 1 and 2 Chronicles often overlook David’s failings, perhaps as a reflection of the people’s interest in celebrating the high points of their history without rehashing all of its unfortunate episodes. The books mention his wives and family, for example, but exclude the tragic details of his home life. Other incidents omitted from the Chronicles account of David’s life include …
• David’s conflict with and flight from Saul (1 Sam. 18–30).
• Negotiations with Abner, Saul’s general (2 Sam. 3:6–21).
• The murders of Abner and Ishbosheth (3:22—4:12).
• David’s affair with Bathsheba and murder of Uriah, her husband (2 Sam. 11–12).
• The turmoil in David’s family that resulted from Amnon’s rape of Tamar and Absalom’s revenge (2 Sam. 13).
• Absalom’s rebellion and death, and his father’s grief (2 Sam. 15, 18).
• The tumultuous transfer of power to Solomon after David’s death (1 Kin. 1–2).
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David enjoyed international acclaim following his rout of the Philistines. The victory was one of many military triumphs. David …
• Killed Goliath, champion of the Philistines (1 Sam. 17:1–58).
• Defeated the Philistines during his service as one of Saul’s commanders (18:5–7).
• Killed two hundred Philistines for the privilege of marrying Saul’s daughter Michal (18:25–30).
• Successfully raided the Geshurites, Girzites, and Amalekites (27:8, 9).
• Took revenge on the Amalekites for plundering Ziklag (30:1–31).
• Captured Jerusalem (Jebus) despite the Jebusites’ boasts (1 Chr. 11:4–8).
• Defeated the Philistines at Baal Perazim (14:8–12).
• Drove back the Philistines from Gibeon as far as Gezer (14:13–16).
• Captured the Philistine city of Gath and its surrounding territory (18:1).
• Defeated Moab (18:2).
• Defeated the Aramaeans (18:3, 4) and their allies the Syrians (18:5–8).
• Defeated the Edomites (18:12, 13).
• Defeated the Ammonites and Syrians (19:1–19).
More: For a list of articles and tables that describe David’s life and reign, see “A Man After God’s Own Heart” at 1 Sam. 16:13. David’s victories were offset by notable failures. See “David’s Dilemmas” at 1 Chr. 21:7, 8.
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Name means: “God Has Gathered.”
Not to be confused with: A Persian official in charge of forests belonging to King Artaxerxes (Neh. 2:8).
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Son of Berechiah, a Levite descended from Gershon; father of sons named Zaccur, Joseph, Nethaniah, and Asharelah, through whom he became the ancestor of generations of temple musicians and singers.
Occupation: Composer, singer, and musician during the reigns of David (1 Chr. 15:16–19) and Solomon (2 Chr. 5:12).
More: For more on this renowned leader of Israel’s worship, see “The Sons of Asaph” at 1 Chr. 25:2.
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The Israelites experienced a fresh start when David took the throne. Saul had been a poor ruler, and to a large extent his kingdom had been a failure. With David in command, the people’s hope was renewed, highlighted by the ark’s arrival in Jerusalem.
This theme of new beginnings is prominent in Scripture. Note these examples of spiritual renewals and revivals:
Jacob (Gen. 35:9–15)
Soon after Jacob healed the rift with his estranged brother Esau, a Canaanite raped Jacob’s daughter Dinah (Gen. 34). The incident and the episode of revenge that followed gave Jacob an alarming awareness of how far his family had fallen from its dependence on God. He led them to repent and renew their worship at Bethel (35:1–4). There God gave Jacob a new name, Israel (“He Strives with God”).
The Israelites Under Samuel (1 Sam. 7:3–5)
The Israelites foolishly allowed the Philistines to capture the ark of God. Only God’s intervention brought it home (see “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Sam. 5:11). But the ark stayed at Kirjath Jearim for twenty years, far from the tabernacle at Shiloh. The Israelites spent two decades lamenting the ark’s absence, and during that time Israel grew cold toward God and began to serve idols. Eventually Samuel assembled the people and called them to start over by returning to God, abandoning idolatry, and obeying the Law. The people fasted and confessed their sins. The Lord heard their prayers and immediately led them in victory over the Philistines (7:5–11). Samuel commemorated the new beginning by setting up a monument called Ebenezer (“Stone of Help”).
Josiah (2 Kin. 22–23)
Josiah, the boy king of Judah, succeeded his father Amon and grandfather Manasseh, two of the southern kingdom’s worst kings. But Josiah initiated major reforms that included temple repairs (2 Kin. 22:1–7). During the renovation, workmen discovered the Book of the Law, likely a portion of Deuteronomy. When the book was read to Josiah, he tore his clothes in sorrow over his people’s departure from the Lord. He began a major purge of Judah’s idols and restored righteous worship at the temple (23:1–27).
Ezra (Ezra 7–10)
Ezra, Nehemiah, and others partnered to restore the Jews to their land after seventy years of exile under the Babylonians and Persians. The priest Zerubbabel initiated the return (Ezra 2:1, 2; 3:1, 2). Ezra received permission to lead a second group to advance temple construction (7:11–20; 8:15–36). This was another new start for God’s people. Chief among the changes was a call to purity and strict observance of the Law, as seen in the divorce of pagan spouses (9:1—10:44).
The Early Church (Acts 11:26)
As faith in Jesus spread among first-century Jews, some of the new believers arrived in Antioch, where they shared the gospel with Hellenists, Greek-speaking Jews not originally from Palestine. The result was a multiethnic church that led the way in sending messengers throughout the Roman world with the news of God’s grace (13:1–5). Some Jewish Christians worried about non-Jews coming into the church. Eventually a council investigated the issue and produced a statement that opened the church to all who believe in Christ (15:1–35). The church—itself a new movement—experienced a new beginning as it expanded outside Judea.
Patterns in our personal lives, family, work, church, or community can grow monotonous or even sinful as time passes. We need to reinvent, reform, or renew habits and relationships in order to make fresh starts that honor God and benefit ourselves and others.
More: The church made a new beginning in race relations. See the articles under “Race and Ethnicity” in the Themes to Study index. The most significant new start we can make is beginning a new life in Christ. See “New Creatures with New Character” at Gal. 5:22, 23.
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The ark’s joyful procession to Jerusalem was marked by celebration and song. David may have contributed a composition for the occasion. Psalm 68 recalls Israel’s journey from Sinai to Canaan, and David may have noticed a resemblance between that trek and the journey of the ark. To see the connection, read Psalm 68 in conjunction with the account in 1 Chronicles.
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The Ark’s Journey from Sinai to Jerusalem
The ark of the covenant, or “ark of God,” was Israel’s most holy object. The Lord’s presence dwelled between the cherubim (angels) fashioned on top of the ark (1 Chr. 13:6). The ark underwent a tortuous journey before David finally brought it to Jerusalem.
1. The ark is constructed in the wilderness, probably at Mount Sinai, by the craftsman Bezalel, according to the Lord’s instructions and under the supervision of Moses (Ex. 25:10–22; 35:30—36:2; 37:1–9).
2. The Israelites head toward Canaan with appointed divisions of the Levites carrying the ark (Num. 10:17). However, the people’s rebellion at Kadesh Barnea results in 40 additional years of wandering in the wilderness.
3. The ark, carried by priests, leads the people across the Jordan River. While the priests stand in the riverbed, the waters are stopped and the people cross on dry ground (Josh. 3:14–17).
4. The ark is carried in a circuit around Jericho for seven days until the wall of the city falls and the city is captured (Josh. 6).
5. After the conquest, the tabernacle is set up at Shiloh (Josh. 18:1; 1 Sam. 3:3). The ark is possibly taken for a while to Bethel (Judg. 20:26, 27).
6. Eli’s sons foolishly carry the ark into battle against the Philistines, who capture it and take it back to their own cities (1 Sam. 4:1–11). However, it causes them great distress, and they eventually send it back to the Israelites (5:1—6:12; see also “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Sam. 5:11).
7. The ark stays for 20 years at Kirjath Jearim (1 Sam. 7:1, 2).
8. David attempts to bring the ark to Jerusalem but meets with tragedy en route. The ark is left at Obed-Edom’s house for three months (1 Chr. 13).
9. David finally brings the ark to Jerusalem, where it is eventually housed in the temple built by Solomon (1 Chr. 16:1; 2 Chr. 5:5–14). Years later, the Babylonians capture Jerusalem, destroying the temple (36:19). It is not known what became of the ark.
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When the ark was finally installed in the tabernacle at Jerusalem, David composed a musical composition for the occasion. The words that the king delivered to Asaph also appear in other psalms:
The Words in … | Correspond to … |
More: David contributed more compositions to the Book of Psalms than any other musician. See “David’s Psalms” at the introduction to Psalms.
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Christianity teaches that its God is the one true God. Critics reject that claim, but the Bible states unequivocally that the Lord is above all other gods. As the creator and sustainer of life, He alone deserves worship.
Most ancient cultures served many gods, most associated with nature. Canaanite deities, for example, were said to increase harvests and birth rates (see “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30 and “The Gods of the Canaanites” at Deut. 32:39). The Hebrews’ belief in one supreme God was a rare exception.
People today serve a variety of gods and often subscribe to conflicting ideas about the gods they worship. Acceptance of one supreme God seems unpopular in our pluralistic world. But God has not changed. He still invites—and commands—all the peoples of the earth to give Him the glory He deserves. Our worship is not an expression of intolerance but a response to the truth of God’s complete and loving sovereignty.
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The assertion that God’s mercy “endures forever” is inherent in the meaning of the term mercy (Hebrew: chesed). The word is not related to the concept of pity; rather, it means that human beings can count on God to carry out His promises. See “The God of Mercy” at Deuteronomy 7:9.
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When David brought the ark of God to the tabernacle in Jerusalem, he put worship at the center of the nation. God’s presence (symbolized by the ark), God’s chosen people, God’s land, and God’s appointed king were all brought together. The Lord and His people were home at last.
But David felt restless living in his house of cedar (1 Chr. 17:1). How could he enjoy a luxurious dwelling when the ark was housed in a tent? The tabernacle had served well as a portable worship center during Israel’s journey to the Promised Land. Now David felt it was time to build a permanent house for the Lord.
For David, the temple symbolized permanence, security, and rest. His passion to build a house for the Lord may have been related to his years as a fugitive on the run from Saul (1 Sam. 18–31). David eventually came into his kingdom, but it was a long road getting there. The ark had also traveled a difficult road, even after its original journey to the land of Canaan (see “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Sam. 5:11 and “The Ark’s Journey from Sinai to Jerusalem” at 1 Chr. 16:1). Now David wanted this symbol of God’s presence and guidance to reside in a place with at least as much comfort and security as he had.
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1. David is born at Bethlehem and tends his father’s sheep there (1 Sam. 17:12, 15).
2. David becomes a harpist in Saul’s court at the capital city of Gibeah (1 Sam. 16:23).
3. The young shepherd boy kills the giant Goliath in the Valley of Elah (1 Sam 17:19, 45–50).
4. David flees from Saul and hides at Nob, where Ahimelech the priest gives him showbread to eat. As a result, Saul has 85 priests of Nob executed (1 Sam. 21:1–9; 22:6–23).
5. David hides from Saul at Gath and Keilah (1 Sam. 21:10–15; 23:1–13).
6. David makes Ziklag his headquarters during Saul’s pursuit (1 Sam. 27).
7. After becoming king of Judah, David makes Hebron his capital (2 Sam. 2:1–4).
8. David reigns at Jerusalem as king of Israel (2 Sam. 5:1–5).
9. King David logs victories over the Edomites, the Moabites, the Ammonites, the Amalekites, and the Philistines (2 Sam. 8:11, 12).
More: God called David “a man after His own heart” (1 Sam. 13:14). Discover why in David’s profile at 1 Sam. 16:12.
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The Ammonites were a nomadic tribe descended from Ben-Ammi, Lot’s son by his younger daughter (Gen. 19:36, 38). The Lord assigned the Ammonites a land of their own and barred it from Israelite attacks during the conquest (Deut. 2:19).
The Lord’s command to the Israelites not to harass the Ammonites did not prevent mounting hostilities between the two peoples. As the Israelites journeyed to Canaan, the Ammonites and Moabites hired Balaam the seer to curse the Hebrews. Although the plan failed, Balaam later caused the Israelites to bring a deadly curse on themselves (see “Playing with Fire” at Num. 31:15, 16), and the Lord banned the Ammonites from joining the people of Israel (Deut. 23:3–6).
The rift between Israel and Ammon continued for centuries. In the days of the judges, King Eglon of Moab enlisted the Ammonites in taking Jericho from the Israelites (Judg. 3:13). During Saul’s reign, the Ammonite king Nahash attacked Jabesh Gilead. Saul saved the city from capture and won the inhabitants’ enduring loyalty (1 Sam. 11:1–11). Later, the Ammonites opposed Nehemiah as he rebuilt Jerusalem’s walls (see “Combatting Resistance” at Neh. 4:7). Most troubling were the illegal marriages of many of God’s people to Ammonite spouses (13:23).
The Old Testament prophets often pronounced God’s judgment against the Ammonites (Jer. 9:26; Amos 1:13–15), but archaeological evidence suggests that the Ammonite civilization survived in some form into the first century A.D.
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Some of the forces that opposed Joab were Syrians, members of an ethnic group also known as Arameans. They controlled the region northeast of the Sea of Galilee from the Lebanon Mountains on the west to the Euphrates River on the east and northward.
The Arameans were among the ancient peoples believed to have migrated into the Middle East from the west as early as 2250 B.C. They became fully established as a kingdom by the period of the Israelites’ conquest of Canaan (c. 1200 B.C.). During the period of the judges, they overran Israel and oppressed it for eight years (Judg. 3:8–10).
After David became king, he extended Israel’s boundary northward to the Euphrates River (2 Sam. 8:1–13). An Aramean official named Rezon fled to Damascus and founded a strong Aramean city-state there (1 Kin. 11:23, 24; see also Damascus’s profile at Acts 9:2). The kingdom remained a bitter foe of Israel for generations.
During the divided monarchy, the Arameans often sided with one Israelite state or the other (1 Kin. 15:18–20; 2 Kin. 16:5). When Judah eventually joined Assyria against Israel and Aram in the eighth century B.C., the result was the fall of Damascus (c. 732 B.C.; 16:7–18; see also “The Fall of Damascus” at Is. 17:1). The Assyrians exiled many Arameans, and the kingdom of Aram came to an end.
The Aramean language lived on, however. Spoken for at least two thousand years before Christ, it became the language of trade and diplomacy throughout the ancient Middle East. Closely related to Hebrew, Aramaic had an important influence on the Bible. Portions of the Book of Daniel were written in Aramaic, and it was the language spoken by Jews in Palestine during the life of Jesus.
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David’s choice to linger at Jerusalem while his troops attacked the Ammonites led to his sin with Bathsheba. Neither the incident nor its aftermath receives any mention in 1 Chronicles, but David’s moral failure led to severe troubles in his family and kingdom (see “Scandal and Cover-Up” at 2 Sam. 11:4, 5).
David was unwise to send Joab against the Ammonites at all. No Ammonite was allowed to join the people of Israel, and God told the Israelites never to seek their peace or prosperity (Deut. 23:3–6). But the Israelites were also commanded not to seize Ammonite territory, because the Lord had assigned it to Lot’s descendants (2:19). While David may have been justified in dominating Ammon militarily, he did not have the right to capture its cities and make the Ammonites his servants.
More: David experienced impressive highs and devastating lows. See “David’s Triumphs” at 1 Chr. 14:17 and “David’s Dilemmas” at 1 Chr. 21:7, 8.
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The Israelites would not have had to fight the battle at Gezer if they had completed the task of conquering Canaan. Gezer had been allotted to the tribe of Ephraim and even designated as a Levitical city (see “The Levitical Cities” at Josh. 21:1–3), yet it was never conquered. The Philistines maintained control of it, and the city aggravated the Israelites throughout their history. Learn more in Gezer’s profile at 1 Kings 9:16, 17.
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David’s insistence on counting Israel’s inhabitants may seem like a harmless administrative exercise, but it ultimately imperiled the nation. The episode’s tragic outcome offers crucial lessons to anyone in a position of authority.
• Follow God’s will. The Bible does not explain David’s reasons for conducting a census, but scholars have developed theories about his motivation (see “A Temptation to Trust in Numbers” at 2 Sam. 24:1). He may have wished to assess his military strength or he may have been preparing to draft labor to construct the temple (1 Chr. 17:1–6; 22:1–5; see also “Solomon’s Census” at 2 Chr. 2:17, 18). Whatever the reason, the census was not a part of God’s plan (1 Chr. 21:7). As leaders, we must prayerfully consider whether our ideas go against God’s will and look to His clear instructions in Scripture.
• Listen when advisors dissent. David ignored advice from his closest counselors not to conduct the census. David’s general Joab recognized that the king was defying God’s will. He and his captains warned that a census was unnecessary, and the general was so incensed that he outright refused to count the Levites and Benjamites. Proverbs 11:14 says that people fail when counsel is lacking, but people also err when counsel is ignored. As leaders, it is important for us to listen to trustworthy advisors, even when we don’t like what they say. Their reservations could signal trouble.
• Recognize that choices affect others. The king’s stubbornness resulted in the deaths of seventy thousand subjects. When we are in a position of authority, our decisions have the power to affect many innocent people. As leaders it is our vital responsibility to consider the consequences of our decisions on others. The potential results of being wrong can far outweigh the potential results of being right.
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David repented of the proud, sinful act of counting his people, but the nation still paid a heavy price. David’s census was one of a handful of colossal failures:
David’s Sin | Results |
Adultery with Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11:1–5) | Bathsheba bears a son who dies shortly after birth (2 Sam. 11:27; 12:15–19). |
Murder of Uriah (2 Sam. 11:6–25) | |
Numbering the people | A plague kills 70,000 Israelites |
As this table shows, David was by no means a perfect man. Yet despite his flaws, he kept turning toward the Lord for guidance, help, and forgiveness. For a list of articles and tables that describe David’s life and reign, see “A Man After God’s Own Heart” at 1 Samuel 16:13.
More: First Chronicles omits David’s adultery with Bathsheba, though it does mention that David stayed in Jerusalem while his armies went to war (1 Chr. 20:1). Second Samuel supplies the details. See “Scandal and Cover-Up” at 2 Sam. 11:4, 5.
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David made a foolish decision when he insisted on taking a census of his people. But he had the honesty to admit his sin to the Lord. Psalm 69 may have been composed on this occasion, because it expresses David’s remorse for allowing his sin to affect countless others. Read that mournful song in conjunction with this passage.
More: David accepted full responsibility for his wrongdoing and was willing to accept whatever punishment might come. For more on honest admissions of failure, see “Confessions That Bring Healing” at 1 Sam. 15:24.
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As David neared the end of his life, he undertook extensive preparations to ready his son Solomon to build the temple. The structure could rightly be called David and Solomon’s temple because its location, design, materials, furnishings, interior layout, and instruments were largely put in place by David prior to his death (1 Chr. 21:25, 26; 22:1; 28:11–21; 2 Chr. 7:6). His astute planning encourages us to evaluate the preparations we make for our successors. Our habits at home can empower our children to understand God’s ways. Our example can lead our fellow Christians. Our character and quality of work can give coworkers something of substance to build on. In all things, we should endeavor to enhance the success of those who come after us.
More: Passing along godly wisdom can make the difference between success and failure for future generations. See “Indispensable Role Models” at 2 Chr. 24:17–20 and “Old Testament Mentors” at 2 Kin. 2:13.
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David’s admonition that Solomon give himself completely to seeking God echoes the great commandment to “love the LORD your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength” (Deut. 6:5; Matt. 22:37). The Lord always desires that our heart and soul be fully set on Him. So we must discern whether our affections cling to other loves, and whether our souls hunger for other things. Our goal is to grow to be like David, who, though he was imperfect like the rest of us, was able to say, “With my whole heart I have sought [the Lord]” (Ps. 119:10).
More: One of David’s successors left a legacy that he “turned to the LORD with all his heart, with all his soul, and with all his might.” Learn the identity of this unique ruler at 2 Kin. 23:24, 25.
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The Changing Roles of the Levites
With the ark of God permanently relocated to Jerusalem (1 Chr. 16:1), the Levites were no longer needed as transporters, a job of tremendous honor that they had performed for generations. But the Levites continued to fulfill other traditional duties and also assumed new roles. They assisted priests in observing religious rites in the tabernacle and temple (23:28). They maintained the tabernacle and temple complex (23:32) and helped prepare showbread and other grain offerings (23:29). They participated in daily and festival prayers (23:30, 31). Under King Jehoshaphat, they became educators and peace officers, assisting judges in administering justice (2 Chr. 17:7–9; 19:8, 11; see also “Administering Justice” at 1 Chr. 26:29). Some Levites acted as prophets, declaring God’s Word to kings (20:14–17).
More: Levites were not allowed to own land in Israel, but they enjoyed special status in their own cities. Find out more in “The Levitical Cities” at Josh. 21:1–3.
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Asaph was a leading musician appointed by King David (1 Chr. 16:4, 5). Others included Heman, Jeduthun, Ethan (15:17), and Chenaniah (15:22, 27), but above all others Asaph remained prominent in Israel’s worship for centuries. He lent his name to the guild of temple musicians and singers that led Israel’s worship throughout the monarchy and after the return from captivity (Neh. 7:44).
Although he was noted for his skill with cymbals, Asaph was more than a talented musician (1 Chr. 15:19; 16:5). He was also a seer (2 Chr. 29:30) who prophesied at the king’s command (1 Chr. 25:2).
Asaph was gifted to proclaim the Lord’s message through song. Scripture contains several examples of the fruit of that holy anointing. Twelve psalms (Ps. 50; 73–83) are ascribed to him or his descendants, some of whom shared his prophetic gift (2 Chr. 20:14). Asaph lived long enough to help dedicate Solomon’s temple (5:12). His powerful legacy dominated Israel’s worship under Solomon, helped revive Judah’s spiritual life under Hezekiah (29:30), and still echoed in the days of the second temple (Ezra 2:41; 3:10).
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Name means: “Faithful.”
Home: Jerusalem.
Family: Grandson of Samuel; son of Joel, a Levite of the Kohathite group; related to Asaph; father of 14 sons and three daughters.
Occupation: A chief singer under David and Solomon (1 Chr. 6:33), possibly a manager of choirs and musical compositions used in worship.
Of special note: Heman’s father Joel was a dishonest judge whose lack of integrity fueled the Israelites’ demand for a king (1 Sam. 8:1–5).
Best known as: The ancestor of a long line of Levites responsible for worship music (1 Chr. 25:1). This Heman is sometimes identified with Heman the Ezrahite, composer of Ps. 88, a dark song of frustration and loneliness.
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Judges were still necessary after David came to the throne, especially in areas far from Jerusalem. The nation’s legal matters were David’s responsibility as king. By appointing judges, he delegated his authority and set the tone for administering justice (1 Chr. 18:14). Find out about other officials who helped govern the kingdom in “David’s Cabinet” at 2 Samuel 8:16–18.
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David found an especially fit group of military officers at the city of Jazer (“Helpful”), likely because the city had a long history of military engagements. Learn more at Jazer’s profile at Numbers 32:1.
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For David, holding officials publicly accountable was a fundamental principle of his reign. He charged the kingdom’s leaders to follow God’s ways with transparency.
Visibility is essential to accountability. By submitting themselves to open scrutiny, leaders help to ensure that their actions and decisions are honest and effective. David’s charge to Israel’s leaders suggests three ways to promote accountability:
• Allow others to review plans and performance. David had developed plans for the temple with the Lord’s help (1 Chr. 28:11–19). But as he passed them to Solomon, he pointed out that professionals and craftsmen had the freedom to refine the plans and the systems for carrying out the work (28:21).
• Act within a community of others. Leaders need to benefit from others’ advice and perspective. David called all of Israel to work with his son to accomplish the task of constructing the temple (29:1–9).
• Acknowledge God’s presence in everything. Most importantly, Solomon and his leaders were tasked with searching the Lord’s commandments and showing Him respect in everything they did. They were ultimately accountable to Him.
We have frequent opportunities to open ourselves up to formal and informal feedback from others. By placing ourselves in a place of accountability, we protect our integrity and promote our development.
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Most people consider insightful planning to be a skill innately possessed by born leaders or developed over time by experienced managers. But Scripture describes a further dimension to planning: the wisdom of God’s Spirit.
As David crafted plans for the temple, Scripture relates that God impressed on David exactly what He wanted to be done. The king said that the Lord communicated “in writing, by His hand upon me, all the works of these plans.” It was as if God gave David a blueprint for the project. The process recalls another story of building, when the Lord instructed Noah to build a boat and gave him the details for its design (Gen. 6:13–21). God also gave Moses meticulously detailed plans for the construction of the tabernacle and its layout, contents, and rituals (Ex. 25–31; Lev. 1–7).
Today the Holy Spirit is available to every Christian (Acts 2:38, 39) to offer insight into plans and preparation. From what we observe of the Spirit’s work in the New Testament, there are at least three characteristics of Spirit-filled planning that apply to most situations.
1. Spirit-filled planning reveals and glorifies God’s character. The Spirit reveals the things of Jesus to bring glory to Him (John 16:14). As we seek the Spirit’s help, He shapes our plans to honor the Lord and His values.
2. Spirit-filled planning prepares the way for others to succeed. While God does not guarantee His people worldly success, He intends for us to accomplish meaningful work (Eph. 4:12). Spirit-filled planning uses our abilities and resources to meet others’ needs and not just our own.
3. Spirit-filled planning has breadth and depth. The Spirit helps us achieve God’s ultimate objective, the “praise of His glory” (Eph. 1:12), and to carry out His will in specific, measurable ways (5:1–21). The Spirit is not limited by our needs, experiences, or desires. God empowers us with the Spirit so that we might carry out His will in all things, proclaiming His glory in big ways and small.
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Planning is a valuable prelude to almost any endeavor. But plans will fail to produce results if they ignore four significant obstacles. David’s advice to Solomon points out these barriers and shows ways around them.
• Lack of strength—the inability to do what is necessary to get the job done. David promised not only God’s help but also the help of skilled workers.
• Lack of courage—the failure to stay on course when the task looks discouraging or overwhelming. David promised that God’s presence would free Solomon from fear.
• Lack of follow-through—the inability or unwillingness to move from good intentions into effective action. David put countless willing craftsman and servants at Solomon’s command.
• Lack of faith—the decision not to trust or make the most of God’s insight and power. Only Solomon could choose to believe that God stood ready to help, and only he could act in obedient faith.
As we consider the challenges and tasks that God puts before us, one of these barriers may stand between our plans and the execution of our plans. But David’s God-inspired advice can help us overcome any obstacle.
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The Israelites collected vast reserves of precious metals and stones both as raw resources for constructing the temple as well as for the purchase of other materials (1 Chr. 22:14; 29:2–5). Israel was slow to adopt coin currency, perhaps because the images minted on coins may have been considered violations of the Law’s prohibition against graven images (Ex. 20:4–6). Coins were not widely exchanged in Israel until after the Babylonian exile.
From Barter to Metals
Prior to the adoption of coins, goods were bartered as a way of exchanging value. Land became an important but less convenient medium than produce, especially livestock. Grain, oil, wine, and spices were also popular items of trade.
Metals gradually replaced goods and services as items of exchange. Copper or bronze was in demand for weapons, farming tools, and religious offerings. Early Egyptians and others shaped gold and silver into rings, bars, or rounded nodules for easier trading. Scripture records that Jacob’s children used “bundles of money” (Gen. 42:35), possibly metal rings held together with string.
Silver became especially important in real estate transactions. Omri purchased the village and hill of Samaria for two talents of silver (1 Kin. 16:24; compare Gen. 23:15, 16; 2 Sam. 24:24). In fact, silver became so commonly used that the Hebrew word for silver came to denote any form of money (Gen. 17:13).
Gold was used for major transactions. King Hiram of Tyre paid one hundred and twenty talents of gold to Solomon for several cities near his land (1 Kin. 9:13, 14). Later, Hezekiah paid Sennacherib three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold to obtain peace (2 Kin. 18:14). Silver, gold, and copper (probably a copper-bronze alloy) were used after the Exile to mint Israel’s first coins.
Standardized Value
Early forms of metallic money were usually in their raw form or in poorer stages of refinement. It was difficult to transport and to determine its true value, so metals began to be refined into wedges or bars of standardized weight and value (Josh. 7:21). Gold and silver were also kept as ingots, vessels, dust, or small fragments that could be melted and used immediately. These small pieces of metal were often carried in leather pouches that could be easily hidden (Gen. 42:35).
The term shekel has confused modern scholars because it did not at first denote any one value or weight, although it later became the name of a Jewish coin. The Bible also refers to forms of currency whose value were fractions of the shekel (Ex. 38:26; Lev. 27:25; Neh. 10:32). These were probably fragments of gold or silver bars rather than shaped coins.
The largest unit of silver was the talent, shaped in pellets or rings, with approximately the value of one ox.
Metal currency was eventually standardized into the form of coins, then stamped to designate their value. Coins were still weighed, however, since edges were easily trimmed or filed. Ancient coins often show marks indicating that they were probed to assure their authenticity—that they were solid and not merely plated with a more valuable metal.
The basic unit of Roman coinage was the silver denarius, probably equal to a laborer’s daily wage, as in the parable of the vineyard workers (Matt. 20:9, 10, 13). It was also used to pay taxes to the Roman emperor, whose image it bore. Jesus was shown a denarius by Pharisees who wanted to trick him into opposing Roman taxation (22:15–22).
Scripture warns believers against the love of money but does not teach that money itself is evil (see “Christians and Money” at 1 Tim. 6:6–19). Instead, the Bible encourages us to work to provide for our own needs as well as to help others (see “A Command to Work” at 2 Thess. 3:6–12). Money in and of itself should never be our goal. Rather, if we remember that everything belongs to God and that we are merely stewards of His possessions on this earth, we will set our hearts on the good that money can accomplish when handled with wisdom and generosity.
More: For more on the value of biblical coinage, see “Money in the New Testament” at Rev. 16:21.
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