CHAPTER NOTES

CHAPTER ONE

1      Quoted in Walter K Kelly, The History of Russia: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. Two Volumes. (London; Henry G Bohn, 1855). Vol. II. p. 421.

²      Sevket Süreyya Aydemir, Makedonya’dan Ortaasya’ya Enver Pa a, Vol. II 1908-1914 (Istanbul; Remzi Kitabevi, 1981) p. 552.

³      There had been a long period of steady erosion. Since 1878 the Ottoman Empire had lost, or lost control of, a great deal of territory. In that year Cyprus came under British administration, though the Sultan retained sovereignty, whilst Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia became independent and Bosnia-Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary. Tunisia became a French protectorate in 1881 and the British took effective control of Egypt the following year. Cretan autonomy was imposed, via Great Power intervention, in 1898 and Britain declared a protectorate over Kuwait in 1899. In 1908 Austria-Hungary formally annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina and Bulgaria gained independence.

⁴      Walter K Kelly, The History of Russia: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. Two Volumes. (London; Henry G Bohn, 1855). Vol. II. p. 421.

⁵      For a brief version of this see: Richard C Hall, The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: Prelude to the First World War (London; Routledge, 2000) pp. 7-8. For an in depth account: D W Sweet, ‘The Bosnian Crisis’ in F H Hinsley (Ed.), British Foreign Policy Under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1977) pp. 178-92.

⁶      Richard Millman, ‘The Bulgarian Massacres Reconsidered,’ in The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 58, No. 2, (April, 1980), p. 230.

⁷      J A MacGahan,The Turkish Atrocities in Bulgaria, Letters of the Special Commissioner of the Daily News […]. With an Introduction and Mr. Schuyler’s Preliminary Report (London; Bradbury, Agnew, 1876).

⁸      There is a huge literature on this subject. See for example: Alan Palmer, The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (London; Barnes and Noble, 1994) and Suraiya Faroqhi, The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It (London; I B Tauris, 2005).

⁹      L S Stavrianos, Balkan Federation: A History of the Movement Toward Balkan Unity in Modern Times (Hamden, CT; Archon, 1964).

¹⁰    The evidence that Bismarck actually said this is at several removes, and seems to originate in a speech made by Winston S Churchill in the House of Commons on 16 August 1945. According to Churchill: ‘I remember that a fortnight or so before the last war, the Kaiser’s friend, Herr Ballin, the great shipping magnate, told me that he had heard Bismarck say it towards the end of his life. Churchill was thus recalling a second-hand remark made to him some 31 years previously, which was itself a recollection of a comment made around 17 years before that. Robert Rhodes James (Ed.), Winston S Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897-1963, 8 Vols. (New York; Chelsea House Publishers, 1974) Vol. VII 1943-1949. p. 7214.

¹¹    ‘The ancient geographic term of ‘Macedonia’ underwent a restoration in the era of modern nationalism. Historically, it denoted a territory the extent of which had varied through the ages. For example, the tenth-century Byzantine province [of] Macedonia, which covered the Thracian districts of modern Bulgaria, had little to do with the Macedonia of antiquity. In the medieval Bulgarian and Serbian kingdoms the term was totally meaningless, nor did it have any place within the administrative vocabulary of the Ottoman Empire. But by the beginning of the twentieth century, Macedonia was frequently in the headlines of the European press: it was now understood to correspond roughly to the Ottoman vilayets of Salonika and Monastir (Bitola), as well as the sanjakof Oskiib (Skopje) in the vilayet of Kosov.’ Fikret Adanir, ‘The Socio-Political Environment of Balkan Nationalism: the Case of Ottoman Macedonia 1856-1912’ in Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, Michael G. Mulle, Stuart Woolf (Eds.), Regional and national identities in Europe in the XIXth and XXth centuries/Les identites regionales et nationales en Europe aux XIXe et XXe siecles (The Hague; Kluwer Law International, 1998) pp. 240-1. See also: Fikret Adanir, ‘The Macedonians in the Ottoman Empire. 1878-1912’ in Andreas Kappeler in collaboration with Fikret Adanir and Alan O’Day (eds.), The Formation of National Elites (New York; New York University Press, 1992). pp. 161-91.

¹²    Adolf Vischer, ‘Tripoli’ in The Geographical Journal, Vol. 38, No. 5 (November 1911) p. 487. Sükrü Hanioglu, ‘The Second Constitutional Period, 1908-1918’ in Re at Kasaba (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Turkey: Volume 4, Turkey in the Modern World (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2008) p. 86.

¹³    Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 2009) p. 74.

¹⁴    W S Cooke, The Ottoman Empire and Its Tributary States (B. R. Grüner, Amsterdam, 1968) p. 64.

¹⁵    The CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ly.html

¹⁶    Libya was not formally adopted as the collective term for the three provinces until 1929. Lisa Anderson, ‘The Development of Nationalist Sentiment in Libya, 1908-1922’ in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslih and Reeva S Simon (Eds.) The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York; Columbia University Press, 1991) p. 241.

17    E W Bovill (Ed.), Missions to the Niger Volume I: The Journal Of Friedrich Hornemann’s Travels From Cairo To Murzuk In The Years 1797-98; The Letters Of Major Alexander Gordon Laing 1824-26 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1964) p. 150. Bornu was a region on the south-west shore of Lake Chad and an important source of slaves.

¹⁸    See: Joseph Wheelan, Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror 1801-1805 (New York; Carroll & Graf, 2003) and Frederick C Leiner, The End of Barbary Terror: America’s 1815 War Against the Pirates of North Africa (Cary, NC; Oxford University Press USA, 2007).

¹⁹    Kola Folayan, ‘Tripoli-Bornu Political Relations, 1817-1825’ in Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. Volume 5 No. 4, June 1971. pp. 463-71. Kola Folayan, Tripoli During the Reign of Y suf P sh Qaram nl (Ilé-If, Nigeria; University of Ife Press, 1979).

²⁰    James Henry Skene, The Three Eras of Ottoman History: A Political Essay on the Late Reform of Turkey, Considered Principally as Affecting her Position in the Event of a War Taking Place (London; Chapman and Hall, 1851) p. 77.

²¹    ‘Tripoli was always a main Mediterranean outlet of black slaves traded across the Sahara. […] The abolition of slavery and the slave trade in Tunis and Algiers in the 1840s only confirmed this predominance. But it was short lived, for by the late 1850s Tripoli, too, was falling victim to European abolitionist fervour, leaving only Benghazi and lesser Turkish North African anchorages as the sole, unmolested, Saharan slaving outlets on the Mediterranean. They continued quietly to ship slaves to Levantine markets until the beginning of the twentieth century.’ John L Wright, The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade (London; Routledge, 2007) p.114.

²²    Leonhard Schmitz, A Manual of Ancient Geography (Philadelphia, PA; Blanchard and Lea, 1857) p. 114.

²³    A H Keane, Asia: Vol. II, Southern and Western Asia (London; Edward Stanford, 1909). Ritter zur Helle von Samo, Das Vilajet der Inseln des Weissen Meeres (Bahr i setid dschezairi), das privilegirte Beylik Samos (Syssam) und das Mutessariflik Cypern (Kybris). Statistische und militärische Notizen aus den Papieren des früheren Militär-Attaches der k.u.k. österreichisch-ungarischen Botschaft in Constantinopel (Wien, C Gerold’s sohn, 1877).

²⁴    Edouard Driault and Michel Lheritier, Histoire diplomatique de la Grèce de 1821 a nos jours, 5 vols. Vol. II, E Driault, La règne d’Othon. La Grande Idée (1830-1862) (Paris; Les Presses Universitaires de France, 1925) pp. 252-253.

²⁵    H P Willmott, The Last Century of Sea Power: Volume I, From Port Arthur to Chanak, 1894-1922 (Bloomington, IN; Indiana University Press, 2009) pp. 32-33.

²⁶    Theodore Ropp and Stephen S Roberts (Ed.), The Development of a Modern Navy: French Naval Policy 1871-1904 (Annapolis, MD; Naval Institute Press, 1987) p. 203.

²⁷    Gabor Agoston, Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005) pp. 49-50, 178. See also: Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire (New York; Facts On File, 2007).

²⁸    Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Güleryüz (James Cooper Ed. and Trans.), The Ottoman Steam Navy, 1828-1923 (London; Conway Maritime Press, 1995) pp. 8-9.

²⁹    The date according to the Gregorian calendar.

³⁰    Michelle U Campos, Ottoman Brothers: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Early Twentieth-Century Palestine (Stanford, CA;: Stanford University Press, 2011) p. 110.

³¹    Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1932 (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 1994) pp. 111-3.

³²    See: Aykut Kansu, The Revolution of 1908 in Turkey (Leiden; Brill Academic Publishers, 1997). Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908-1914 (Oxford; University Press, 1969); M ükrü Hanio lu, The Young Turks in Opposition (Cary, NC; Oxford University Press USA, 1995) N Naim Turfan, Rise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Military and Ottoman Collapse (New York; I B Tauris, 2000); M ükrü Hanio lu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902-1908 (New York; Oxford University Press, 2001).

³³    Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Güleryüz (James Cooper Ed. and Trans.), The Ottoman Steam Navy, 1828-1923 (London; Conway Maritime Press, 1995) p. 17.

³⁴    Mark Kerr, Land, Sea, and Air: Reminiscences of Mark Kerr (New York; Longmans, Green, 1927) p. 122.

³⁵    Francis Yeats-Brown, Bloody Years: A Decade of Plot and Counter-Plot by the Golden Horn (New York; Viking Press, 1932) p. 43.

³⁶    G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume V, The Near East, the Macedonian Problem and the Annexation of Bosnia, 1903-1909 (London; HMSO, 1928) p. 282-3.

³⁷    Minute by HC Norman (Quoting Harold Nicolson to Hugh O’Beirne), War Office, September 12, 1910. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) No 177, p. 202.

38    Miranda Vickers, The Albanians: A Modern History (^London; I B Tauris, 2000) pp. 63-5. Erik Jan Zürcher, Turkey: a Modern History (London; I B Tauris, 2004) p. 104.

CHAPTER TWO

¹      Suzanne Stewart-Steinberg, The Pinocchio Effect: On Making Italians, 1860-1920 (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 2007) p. 1.

²      Quoted in: Luciano Cheles and Lucio Sponza, ‘Introduction: National Identities and Avenues of Persuasion’ in Luciano Cheles and Lucio Sponza (Eds.), The Art of Persuasion: Political Communication in Italy from 1945 to the 1990s (Manchester; Manchester University Press, 2001) p. 1.

³      The Holy Alliance was formed to preserve reactionary powers. See: William Penn Cresson, The Holy Alliance: The European Background of the Monroe Doctrine (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 1922).

⁴      Paul Ginsborg, Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848-49 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1979) p. 324.

⁵      Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions, 1848-1851 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005) pp. 242-4.

⁶      See: Denis Mack Smith, ‘The Revolutions of 1848-1849 in Italy’ in R J W Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann (Eds.) The Revolutions in Europe, 1848-1849: From Reform to Reaction (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2000) pp. 55-82.

⁷      See: Bernard Reardon, Liberalism and Tradition: Aspects of Catholic Thought in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1975).

⁸      Edyth Hinkley, Mazzini: The Story of a Great Italian (New York; G P Putnam’s, 1924.) p. 123.

⁹      Arnold Whitridge, Men in Crisis: The Revolutions of 1848 (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949) pp.114-193.

¹⁰    A J P Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809-1918: A History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary (London; Hamish Hamilton, 1948) p. 93.

¹¹    J A S Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848-1878 (Oxford; Blackwell, 2000) p. 151.

¹²    For accounts of this episode, and for the next section generally, unless otherwise stated, see: Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (London; Allen Lane, 2007) pp. 199-200. Alan Cassels, Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World (London; Routledge, 1996) pp. 72-3. Michael Graham Fry, Erik Goldstein and Richard Langhorne, Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy (London; Continuum, 2002) pp. 123-4. Shepard B Clough and Salvatore Saladino, A History of Modern Italy: Documents, Readings, and Commentary (New York; Columbia University Press, 1968) p. 101. Frank J Coppa, The Origins of the Italian Wars of Independence (London; Longman, 1992). William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour (Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin, 1911) Vol. I. pp. 527-532. Arnold Blumberg, A Carefully Planned Accident: The Italian War of 1859 (Cranbury, NJ; Associated University Presses, 1990). Mack Walker (Ed.), Plombières: Secret Diplomacy and the Rebirth of Italy (New York; Oxford University Press USA, 1968)

¹³    William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour (Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin, 1911) Vol. II. p. 52-3.

¹⁴    Richard Brooks, Solferino 1859: The Battle for Italy’s Freedom (Oxford; Osprey, 2009) p. 87.

¹⁵    A Correspondent of the New York Times, ‘Battle of Solferino,’ in The Advocate of Peace, March, 1860 p. 48. The British diplomat Sir Edward Charles Blount visited the battlefield on 1 July, and left a description in his memoirs: ‘[I] shall never forget the sight. The carnage had been frightful. […] Even at a distance of seven miles, the stench was horrible, and imagination at its best, or worst, could scarcely exaggerate the horror of the scene.’ Sir Edward Blount, Memoirs of Sir Edward Blount (London; Longman Green, 1902) pp. 140-1. Others agreed, and one of them, the Swiss, Henry Dunant, who assisted with the care of the wounded, later published an account of what he had seen. In this book, A Memory of Solferino, he proposed the creation of national relief societies of trained volunteers to provide neutral and impartial help to wounded soldiers. This later segued into the International Committee of the Red Cross. Henry Dunant, A Memory of Solferino (Geneva; International Committee of the Red Cross, 1986).

¹⁶    Gary P. Cox, The Halt in the Mud: French Strategic Planning from Waterloo to Sedan (Boulder, CO; Westview, 1994) pp. 164-5.

¹⁷    Robert Sencourt, Napoleon III: The Modern Emperor (London; Ernest Benn, 1933) p. 220. Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (London; Allen Lane, 2007) p. 205.

¹⁸    Erik Goldstein, Wars and Peace Treaties, 1816-1991 (London; Routledge, 1992) p. 16.

¹⁹    The ‘foolish, kind, old Grand-Duke Leopold of Tuscany’ had been deposed in April 1859, and, following the victory of Magenta, the ‘fiercer despots of Modena and Parma fled from their territories with the Austrian garrisons, and the simultaneous [Austrian] withdrawal […] from Bologna was the signal for the rising of the Pope’s [Romagnol] subjects.’ George Macaulay Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand (London; Longmans Green, 1912) p. 111.

20    Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (London; Allen Lane, 2007) p. 206. Perhaps Pius IX particularly; following the rising in the Umbrian city of Perugia in early June 1859, a 2000 strong contingent of the Swiss Guard (guardia svizzera) under the command of Colonel Antonio Schmid was sent to restore Papal authority. These troops succeeded in gaining entry to the city on 20 June 1859, but then ran amok, looting and killing the citizenry in what became known as the ‘Massacre of Perugia.’ In an astonishingly insensitive move Pius IX promoted Schmid to the rank of brigadier-general for re-establishing ‘the legitimate Government to the satisfaction of all good men.’ Further, he ‘ordered due encomiums to be given to the troops who took part in the action, and so highly distinguished themselves.’ [Giornale di Roma, 21 June 1860]. The Holy See, and Catholic opinion generally, denied of course that the Papal Troops had misbehaved. Unfortunately for such apologists an American family had been non-fatal victims of the Swiss Guard. This led to an intervention by the US Government. [James Buchanan, Message of the President of the United States, communicating […] papers in relation to an alleged outrage on an American family at Perugia, in the Pontifical States (36^th Congress, 1^st Session. Ex. Doc. No. 4) (US Government; Government Printing Office, 1860)]. The British Prime Minister, Gladstone, ‘crushed’ the Papal apologist Sir George Bowyer in the House of Commons on 4 March 1861 by quoting to him the report of what occurred at Perugia sent to Brigadier Giuseppe Agostini of the Papal Army. ‘The soldiers […] took by assault the houses and the convent, where they killed and wounded all they could, not excepting some women and, proceeding forward, they did the same thing at the inn in the Borgo San Pietro.’ [The Spectator, 9 March 1861]. Agostini was involved in the Edgardo Mortara case. See: David Kertzer, The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara (London; Picador, 1997).

²¹    Johannes Mattern, The Employment of the Plebiscite in the Determination of Sovereignty: A dissertation Submitted to the Board of University Studies of The Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Baltimore, MD; John Hopkins University. 1922) pp. 94-5.

²²    Johannes Mattern, The Employment of the Plebiscite in the Determination of Sovereignty: A dissertation Submitted to the Board of University Studies of The Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Baltimore, MD; John Hopkins University. 1922) p. 89.

²³    At least some of those who cast doubt on them were fervent partisans of the status quo. The English Sir George Bowyer MP, for example, was a passionate defender of the temporal power of the Popes. He is recorded as shouting ‘hear, hear’ to the notion that to ‘take the Romagna from the Pope is not an aggression, is not a robbery, but is a sacrilege.’[Hansard, House of Commons Debates, 04 May 1860. Vol. 158. Columns 685-9.] The French Félix Dupanloup was a Catholic bishop, so perhaps is is not surprising that he wrote an often-quoted book denouncing the means whereby the Pope was shorn of his territories: F A P Dupanloup, La souveraineté pontificale selon le droit catholique et le droit européen, par Mgr. l’évêque d’Orléans (Paris; Lecoffre, 1860). For a more detailed discussion of the issue see: George Martin, The Red Shirt and the Cross of Savoy (London; Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1969) p. 616.

²⁴    Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (London; Allen Lane, 2007) p. 206.

²⁵    Alfonso Scirocco (Trans. Allan Cameron) Garibaldi: Citizen of the World (Princeton, NJ; Princeton University Press, 2007) pp. 236-7.

²⁶    There is a vast literature devoted to Garibaldi. Personal favourites include those works by Alfonso Scirocco and George Macaulay Trevelyan.

²⁷    Lieut. Colonel Chambers [Osborne William Samuel Chambers], Garibaldi and Italian Unity (London; Smith Elder, 1864) pp. 32-3.

²⁸    George Macaulay Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand (London; Longmans Green, 1912) p. 175. The Mincio is a river in northern Italy. In 1860 its course delineated the border between (Italian) Lombardy and (Austrian) Venetia.

²⁹    D Mack Smith (Ed.), Plombieres: Secret Diplomacy and the Rebirth of Italy (New York; Oxford University Press, 1968) p. 248. J A R Marriott, The Makers of Modern Italy (London; Macmillan, 1901) p. 49.

³⁰    George Macaulay Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand (London; Longmans Green, 1912) pp. 175-6. Some sources say the ballot boxes were to be smashed before the vote: William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour (Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin, 1911) Vol. II. p.252.

³¹    Laurence Oliphant, Episodes in a Life of Adventure: Or, Moss from a Rolling Stone (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1887) pp. 177-8. Oliphant goes on to state: ‘I will not vouch for these being the very words he used, but this was their exact sense.’ Certainly the mention of ‘Bomba’ seems strange, as Ferdinand II, aka Re Bomba (King of Bombs), had died on 22 May 1859 and was succeeded by Francis II (Francesco II). See: Harold Acton, The Last Bourbons of Naples (1825-1861) (London; Methuen, 1961). For information on Oliphant see: Philip Henderson, The Life of Laurence Oliphant: Traveller, Diplomat, Mystic, (London; Robert Hale, 1956).

³²    Nice: For 25,743 – Against 160. Savoy: For 130,533 - Against 235. William Roscoe Thayer, The Life and Times of Cavour (Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin, 1911) Vol. II. p. 222.

³³    Lucy Riall, Sicily and the Unification of Italy: Liberal Policy and Local Power, 1859-1866 (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2002) p. 80.

34    Lucy Riall, Sicily and the Unification of Italy: Liberal Policy and Local Power, 1859-1866 (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2002) p. 68.

³⁵    Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero (New Haven, CT; Yale University Press, 2007) p. 184. F Britten Austin, The Red Flag (London; Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1932) p. 255

³⁶    Whilst the Marsala landings took place, two Royal Navy warships, the Intrepid and Argus were in the vicinity. It has been claimed that the presence of these two vessels inhibited the Neopolitan navy who came upon the scene during the landing from engaging the invaders’ ships. This does seem to have been the case, but there seems little evidence to suggest that the Royal Navy ‘protected’ Garibaldi’s enterprise. See, for example: [Rear-Admiral Sir] Rodney Mundy, HMS Hannibal at Palermo and Naples During The Italian Revolution, 1859-1861, With Notices of Garibaldi, Francis II, and Victor Emanuel (London; John Murray, 1863) pp. 23, 85.

³⁷    The body of literature on Garibaldi and ‘the Thousand’ is vast. Personal favourites include the following, upon which this section is primarily based: Giuseppe Cesare Abba (Trans. ER Vincent) The Diary of One of Garibaldi’s Thousand (Westport, CT; Greenwood Press, 1981);Thomas de Angelo, Garibaldi’s Ghosts: Essays on the Mezzogiorno and the Risorgimento (Park Ridge, NJ; First Line Publishing, 2006); Alexandre Dumas (Trans. Richard Garnett), On Board the Emma: Adventures with Garibaldi’s ‘Thousand’ in Sicily (New York; D Appleton and Company, 1929); Alexandre Dumas, Viva Garibaldi! Une Odyssée en 1860 (Paris; Fayard, 2002); Christopher Hibbert, Garibaldi: Hero of Italian Unification (London; Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Alfonso Scirocco (Trans. Allan Cameron), Garibaldi: Citizen of the World: A Biography (Princeton NJ; Princeton University Press, 2007); George Macaulay Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand, May 1860 (London; Phoenix Press, 2002).

³⁸    A fine, if no doubt embroidered, account of this episode can be found in Conder: ‘It had been known for some time, that the convention with the Swiss Cantons, by virtue of which the fine Swiss regiments that formed the Corps de Elite of the Neapolitan army and the real guard of the king was about to terminate. The Swiss authorities were unwilling to incur the odium thrown upon them as the main supporters of an effete tyranny. But there was an attempt made to reconstitute these regiments, not as under the direction of the Swiss Government, but as individual volunteers in the Neapolitan service. Brand new flags were therefore substituted for the torn and tattered rags which were the pride and glory of the martial Swiss. This they would not stand. The matter was conducted with the usual official clumsiness, and the Swiss broke into mutiny. Word came to Queen Marie Therese that there was a mutiny among the troops. “Send for the Swiss,” cried her Majesty, “send instantly for the Swiss.” “Majesty it is the Swiss that are in mutiny.” The Queen fell in a faint General Nunziante promptly brought up his chasseurs, his artillery loaded with grapeshot There was no public account given of the bloodshed of that day, but the brilliant red coats of the Swiss, disappeared from the forts and barracks of Naples. There was perhaps not another man in the service of the king, of promptitude, pluck, and military capacity able to deal with such an emergency.’ An English Civilian (Frances Roubiliac Conder), The Trinity of Italy, or, the Pope, the Bourbon, and the Victor; Being Historical Revelations of the Past, Present, and Future of Italy (London; Edward Moxon, 1867) pp. 209-10. See also: Genova Thaon Di Revel, Il 1859 E L’Italia Centrale: Miei Ricordi (Charleston, SC; BiblioLife, 2009) p. 81.

³⁹    Clara Tschudi (Trans. Ethel Harriet Hearn), Maria Sophia, Queen of Naples: A Continuation of The Empress Elizabeth (London; Swan Sonnenschein, 1905) p. 132.

⁴⁰    D Mack Smith, Cavour and Garibaldi, 1860: A Study in Political Conflict (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1986) p. 436.

⁴¹    Paul Bew, Ireland: The Politics of Enmity 1789-2006 (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2007) p. 253. C. T. McIntire, England Against the Papacy 1858–1861: Tories, Liberals and the Overthrow of Papal Temporal Power during the Italian Risorgimento (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1983) p. 202.

⁴²    R de Cesare (Trans. Helen Zimmern) The Last Days of Papal Rome 1850-1870 (London; Constable, 1909) p. 247.

⁴³    John Whittam, The Politics of the Italian Army 1861-1918 (London; Croon Helm, 1977) pp. 97-99.

⁴⁴    Maggior Generale Alberto Pollio, Custoza 1866 (Torino; Roux e Viarengo, 1903) p. 419.

⁴⁵    For the Battle of Custoza see: G B Malleson, The Refounding of the German Empire 1848 – 1871 [Facsimile reprint of the 1898 edition] (London; R J Leach, 1992) pp. 175-82; Geoffrey Wawro, The Austro-Prussian War (Cambridge; University Press, 1998) pp. 100-24. For accounts of the Battle of Lissa see: E B Potter (Ed.) Sea Power: A Naval History (Annapolis MD; Naval Institute Press, 1982) pp. 156-7; Geoffrey Regan, The Brassey’s Book of Naval Blunders (Dulles, VA; Brassey’s, 2000) pp. 154-64. For a potted history of the Italian Navy, see: Conway’s All the world’s fighting ships, 1860-1905, pp. 344-36.

⁴⁶    For details of the battle and the strategy behind it see: Julian Corbett, Principles of Maritime Strategy [Reprint of 1911 edition] (London; Dover Publications, 2004) pp. 298-9; John Richard Hale, Famous Sea Fights from Salamis to Tsu-shima (London, Methuen, 1911) pp. 231-51; Lawrence Sondhaus, Naval Warfare, 1815-1914 (London; Routledge, 2001) pp. 94-6.

⁴⁷    Aldo Fraccaroli, ‘Italy’ in Robert Gardiner, Roger Chesneau and Eugene M Kolesnik (Eds), Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships 1860-1905 (London; Conway Maritime Press, 1979) p. 336.

48    Victor Emmanuel II to Pius IX, 8 September 1870. Karl Samwer and Jules Hoff (Eds), Nouveau recueil général de traités, conventions et autres transactions remarquables, servant à la connaissance des relations étrangères des puissances et états dans leurs rapports mutuels. 20 Vols. (Göttingen; J C Dietrich, 1843-75) Vol. V. p. 33.

⁴⁹    Antonio Di Pierro, L’ultimo giorno del papa re: 20 settembre 1870, la breccia di Porta Pia (Milan; Mondadori, 2007) p. 6.

⁵⁰    Kanzler was born at Weingarten, Baden, in 1822. See: Francis X. Blouin (Ed.), Vatican Archives: an Inventory and Guide to Historical Documents of the Holy See (New York; Oxford University Press USA, 1998) p. 369.

⁵¹    Antonio Di Pierro, L’ultimo giorno del papa re: 20 settembre 1870, la breccia di Porta Pia (Milan; Mondadori, 2007) p. 167.

⁵²    See: Michael Howard, The Franco Prussian War (St Albans; Granada, 1979) p. 275.

⁵³    A. E. J. Morris, History of Urban Form: Before the Industrial Revolutions (Harlow; Pearson, 1994) p. 44.

⁵⁴    Quoted in Charles Stephenson (Charles Blackwood Ed.) ‘Servant to The King for His Fortifications:’ Paul Ive and The Practise of Fortification (Doncaster; DP&G, 2008) p. 2.

⁵⁵    Edmondo de Amicis, ‘L’entrata dell’esercito italiano in Roma’ in R De Mattei (Ed.), XX settembre 1870: Tre testimonianze. G Guerzoni, A M Bonetti, E De Amicis (Roma; Istuto di Studi Romani, 1972) pp. 132-8.

⁵⁶    Roberto De Mattei, Pius IX (Leominster; Gracewing, 2004) p. 74.

⁵⁷    Antonio Di Pierro, L’ultimo giorno del papa re: 20 settembre 1870, la breccia di Porta Pia (Milan; Mondadori, 2007)

⁵⁸    Philippe Levillain (Ed.), Dictionnaire historique de la papauté (Paris; Librairie Arthème Fayard, 2003) Vol. II. p. 1107. Joseph McCabe, Crises in the History of the Papacy: A Study of Twenty Famous Popes whose Careers and whose Influence were Important in the History of the World (New York; G P Putnam, 1916) p. 408 n. 1. Christopher Duggan, Francesco Crispi, 1818-1901: From Nation to Nationalism (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2002) p. 326. Antony Alcock, A History of the Protection of Regional Cultural Minorities in Europe: From the Edict of Nantes to the Present Day (Basingstoke; Macmillan, 2000) p. 35.

⁵⁹    David Kertzer, Prisoner of the Vatican:The Popes’ Secret Plot to Capture Rome from the New Italian State (Boston; Houghton Mifflin, 2004).

⁶⁰    Dennis Mack Smith, Italy: A Modern History. (Ann Arbor MI; University of Michigan Press, 1969) pp. 25, 66-7. Raphael Zariski, Italy: the Politics of Uneven Development (Hinsdale, Ill; Dryden, 1972) p. 19. Tim Chapman, The Risorgimento: Italy 1815-1871 (Penrith; Humanities-Ebooks, 2008) pp. 80-1. Alan Cassels, Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World (London; Routledge, 1996.) p. 73.

⁶¹    Sondra Z Koff and Stephen P Koff, Italy: from the First to the Second Republic (London; Routledge, 2000) pp. 10-11.

⁶²    Susan A Ashley, Making Liberalism Work: The Italian Experience, 1860-1914 (Westport CT; Praeger, 2003) p. 14.

⁶³    Cardinal Manning, The Independence of the Holy See (London; Henry S King, 1877) p. xiii.

⁶⁴    Robert C Fried, The Italian Prefects. A Study in Administrative Politics (New Haven CT; Yale University Press, 1963).

⁶⁵    Christopher Seton-Watson, Italy From Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925 (London; Methuen, 1967) p. 319.

⁶⁶    Christopher Seton-Watson, Italy From Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925 (London; Methuen, 1967) p. 24. See also: Max Henninger, ‘Italy, peasant movements, 19th-20th centuries,’ in Immanuel Ness (Ed.) The International Encyclopaedia of Revolution and Protest available from: http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9781405184649_chunk_g9781405184649807#citation

⁶⁷    Daniela Del Boca and Alessandra Venturini, Italian Migration: Discussion Paper No. 938 (Bonn; Institut zur Zukunft der Arbeit, 2003) pp. 4-5. This work is available at: http://ftp.iza.org/dp938.pdf

⁶⁸    See Chapter 9, ‘The Italian Exodus,’ in Maldwin A Jones, Destination America (London; Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976) pp. 192-219.

⁶⁹    Adrian Lyttelton, ‘Politics and Society 1870-1915’ in George Holmes (Ed.) The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy. (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 1997) pp.238-240.

⁷⁰    Vera Zamagni, The Economic History of Italy, 1860-1990: Recovery After Decline (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1997) p. 188.

⁷¹    Susan A Ashley, Making Liberalism Work: The Italian Experience, 1860-1914 (Westport CT; Praeger, 2003) p. 13.

⁷²    Kevin G Kinsella, ‘Changes in life expectancy 1900-1990’ in The American Journal for Clinical Nutrition Vol 55 June 1992. p. 1197S. Ralph Spence, ‘Italy’ in Ann Wall (Ed.), Health Care Systems in Liberal Democracies (London; Routledge, 1996) p. 49.

⁷³    The Carabinieri were a gendarmerie under the jurisdiction of the War Ministry in terms of recruitment, training, discipline and administration but were theoretically responsible to the Interior Ministry for policing matters. Founded in pre-unification Italy in Turin on 13 July, 1814, the force had a dual function; national defence, and policing. On 24 January 1861 the Carabinieri became, in effect, the nucleus of the military forces of the Kingdom of Italy and were dubbed the ‘First Force’ of the newly founded national army. They were also entrusted with the policing of rural areas, where the mainly urbanised Interior Ministry civilian police, had little influence. Their presence was, and still is ubiquitous, extending to the smallest rural villages. See: http://www.carabinieri.it/Internet/Multilingua/EN/HistoricalReferences/01_EN.htm. Also see: http://www.history.ac.uk/resources/e-seminars/dunnage-paper

⁷⁴    Martin Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1995 (London; Longman, 1996) p. 126.

⁷⁵    Benedetto Croce (Cecilia M Ady Trans.) A history of Italy, 1871-1915 (New York; Russell & Russell, 1963) p. 187. Marc Brianti, Bandiera rossa: un siècle d’histoire du Mouvement ouvrier italien du Risorgimento (1848) a la republique (1948) (Paris; Connaissances et savoirs, 2007) pp. 163-5. Carl Levy, Gramsci and the Anarchists (New York; Berg, 2000) p. 37.

⁷⁶    It can perhaps be argued that Crispi had good, and personal, reasons for adopting these illiberal measures. He had been the victim of an assassination attempt on 16 June 1894 when Paolo Lega, an anarchist, had unsuccessfully shot at him from close range.

⁷⁷    John Gooch, Army, State and Society in Italy, 1870-1915 (London; Palgrave Macmillan, 1989) p. 71.

⁷⁸    Jonathan Dunnage, ‘Continuity in Policing Politics in Italy, 1920-1960’ in Mark Mazower (Ed.), The Policing of Politics in the Twentieth Century: Historical Perspectives (Oxford; Berghahn, 1997) pp. 60-1. See also: Jonathan Dunnage, The Italian Police and the Rise of Fascism: A Case Study of the Province of Bologna, 1897-1925 (Westport CT; Praeger, 1997); Richard Bach Jensen, Liberty and Order: The Theory and Practice of Italian Public Security Policy, 1848 to the Crisis of the 1890s (New York: Garland, 1991); Romano Canosa and Amedeo Santosuosso, Magistrati, anarchici e socialisti alla fine dell’ottocento in Italia [Magistrates, Anarchists and Socialists at the end of the Eighteen Hundreds in Italy] (Milan: Feltrinelli, 1981).

⁷⁹    Nunzio Pernicone, ‘Luigi Galleani and Italian Anarchist Terrorism in the United States,’ in David C Rapoport (Ed.), Terrorism: Critical Concepts in Political Science (Abingdon; Routledge, 2006) p. 193. The term ‘subversive’ (sovversivo) has somewhat different connotations in Italian than it does in English, and, whilst almost impossible to accurately define, might best be expressed as dislike, even hatred, of officialdom rather than of the state itself. Indeed, there was a long tradition of subversiveness (sovversivismo) within Italian society, and the working class particularly, that preceded the foundation of an Italian socialist party in 1892. This has been said to date back to, and have evolved from, Italy’s ‘pre-industrial’ and ‘pre-urban’ society, and was an attitude that was not confined to the political left. See: Kate Crehan, Gramsci, Culture and Anthropology (Los Angeles; University of California Press, 2002) p. 99-100. Franco Andreucci, ‘“Subversiveness” and Anti-Fascism in Italy’ in Raphael Samuel (Ed.) People’s History and Socialist Theory (London; Routledge & Kegan Paul) p. 200. Richard Bessel, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1996) p. 41. See also: Carl Levy, ‘“Sovversivismo”: The Radical Political Culture of Otherness in Liberal Italy,’ in the Journal of Political Ideologies, Volume 12, Issue 2 June 2007, pp. 147-161.

⁸⁰    Aldobrandino Malvezzi, L’Italia e L’lslam in Libia (Firenze-Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1913) p. x.

⁸¹    Benjamin C Fortna, ‘The Reign of Abdülhamid II,’ in Re at Kasaba (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Turkey: Volume 4, Turkey in the Modern World (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2008) p. 47.

⁸²    Thomas Palamenghi-Crispi (Ed.) (Trans. Mary Prichard-Agnetti) The Memoirs Of Francesco Crispi: Compiled from Crispi’s Diary and other Documents. Vol. II The Triple Alliance (London; Hodder and Stoughton, 1912) p 347.

⁸³    William I. Shorrock, ‘The Tunisian Question in French Policy toward Italy, 1881-1940’ in The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 16, No. 4 (1983), pp. 631-651, Arthur Marsden, ‘Britain and her Conventional Rights in Tunis, 1888-1892’ in Revue de l’Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, Vol. 8, No. 1. (1970) pp. 163-173. See also: Ezio M Gray, Italy and the Question of Tunis (Milan; A Mondadori, 1939).

⁸⁴    Okbazghi Yohannes, Eritrea, a Pawn in World Politics (Gainesville, FL; University Press of Florida, 1991) pp. 46-7, 74.

⁸⁵    Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, Towards an Understanding of the African Experience from Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Lanham, MD; University Press of America, 1990) pp. 185-7. Saheed A Adejumobi, The History of Ethiopia (London; Greenwood, 2006) p. 29.

⁸⁶    For the history of the territory see: Guido Corni (Ed.), Somalia italiana (Milan; Editoriale Arte e Storia, 1937); Robert L Hess, Italian Colonialism in Somalia (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1966).

⁸⁷    Hess, Italian Colonialism in Somalia. p. 101.

⁸⁸    Quoted in Paulos Milkias and Getachew Metaferia (Eds.), The Battle of Adwa: Reflections on Ethiopia’s Historic Victory Against European Colonialism (New York; Algora, 2005) p. 126. The description of the battle is taken from this work.

⁸⁹    Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa 1876-1912 (London; Abacus, 1992) p. 475.

⁹⁰    Richard Bellamy and Darrow Schecter, Gramsci and the Italian State (Manchester; Manchester University Press, 1993) p. 14.

⁹¹    Charles Klopp, Sentences: The Memoirs and Letters of Italian Political Prisoners from Benvenuto Cellini to Aldo Moro (Toronto; University of Toronto Press, 1999) p. 113.

92    This section, unless otherwise stated, is taken from the following: Paolo Valera, I cannoni di Bava Beccaris (Milano; Giordano, 1966). Hubert Heyriès, ‘L’armée italienne et le maintien de l’ordre dans les villes de 1871 à 1915 d’après les attachés militaires français: Guerre de rue, guerre dans la rue’ in Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains. avril-juin 2002, No 206. pp. 11-28.

⁹³    Thomas Okey, ‘United Italy’ in A W Ward, G W Prothero and Stanley Leathes (Eds.) The Cambridge Modern History (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1910) Vol. XII. p. 220.

⁹⁴    Milan’s Central Station was, at that time, situated next to the modern station of Porta Garibaldi. A new Central Station was officially inaugurated in 1931. Andrea Giuntini ‘Downtown by the Train: The Impact of Railways on Italian Cities in the Nineteenth Century – Case Studies’ in Ralf Roth and Marie-Noëlle Polino (Eds.) The City and the Railway in Europe (Aldershot; Ashgate, 2003) p .124

⁹⁵    Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: A Short History (Stanford CA; Stanford University Press, 2004) p. 27.

⁹⁶    Arthur James Whyte, The Evolution of Modern Italy (Oxford; Basil Blackwell & Mott, 1959) p. 207.

⁹⁷    James Joll, The Second International, 1889-1914 (London; Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974) p. 87.

⁹⁸    Luciano Regolo, Jelena: tutto il racconto della vita della regina Elena di Savoia (Milano; Simonelli Editore, 2003) p. 309. Arthur James Whyte, The Evolution of Modern Italy (Oxford; Basil Blackwell & Mott, 1959) p. 207.

⁹⁹    Percentages of total population amongst the European Great Powers enfranchised for lower chambers in 1900: France 29, Germany 22, Austria 21, Hungary 6 (Austria and Hungary had separate legislatures and governments), UK 18, Russia 15, Italy 8. Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (London; Allen Lane, 1998) p. 29.

¹⁰⁰  See: Christopher Seton-Watson, Italy From Liberalism to Fascism, 1870-1925 (London; Methuen, 1967) pp. 193-5; John Whittam, Fascist Italy (Manchester; Manchester University Press, 1995) pp. 11-2.

¹⁰¹  Humbert L Gualtieri, The Labor Movement in Italy (New York; S F Vanni, 1946) p. 245.

¹⁰²  Christopher Duggan, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796 (London; Allen Lane, 2007) p. 349.

¹⁰³  Bava-Beccaris retired in 1902, but continued to involve himself in politics. He supported Italain participation in World War I, and in 1922 he recommended that power be handed Mussolini. He wrote a book on the army; F Bava-Beccaris, Esercito Italiano: Sue origini, suo successivo ampliamento, suo stato attuale (Roma; Accademia dei Lincei, 1911).

¹⁰⁴  T.Boston Bruce, ‘The New Italian Criminal Code’ in Law Quarterly Review, Vol. 5, 1889. p. 287.

¹⁰⁵  Maria Sophia Quine, Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe (London; Routledge, 1996) p. 23. J Bowyer Bell, Assassin: Theory and Practice of Political Violence (New Brunswick, NJ; Transaction Publishers, 2005) p. 31. Perhaps surprisingly, the city council at Carrara in northern Italy decided, in the mid 1980s, to donate public land for a monument honouring Bresci. As may be imagined, much controversy ensued. See the Los Angeles Times of 7 December 1986 http://articles.latimes.com/1986-12-07/news/mn-1250_1_king-umberto and the 4 May 1990 edition of La Republica http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/1990/05/04/gaetano-bresci-gli-anarchici-in-piazza.html

¹⁰⁶  Arthur James Whyte, The Evolution of Modern Italy (Oxford; Basil Blackwell & Mott, 1959) p. 212.

¹⁰⁷  Richard Drake, Apostles and Agitators: Italy’s Marxist Revolutionary Tradition (Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 2003) pp. 93-4.

¹⁰⁸  Report of a speech made by Ferri at Suzzara, Lombardy; reported in La Stampa 27 December 1909. Ferri, editor of the party paper Avanti!, was an intellectual, an eminent criminologist, and ‘the architect of a remarkably vulgar Darwinian Marxism.’ Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000 (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2002) p. 45.

¹⁰⁹  Oda Olberg, ‘Der italienische Generalstreik,’ in Die Neue Zeit, 23:1 (1904-05), p. 19.

¹¹⁰  As Karl Kautsky put it: ‘The political general strike succeeds more frequently if it be sudden and unexpected, brought about spontaneously by some plainly outrageous act of the bourgeois government.’ E. Pataud and E. Pouget: Syndicalism and the Co-operative Commonwealth (Oxford: New Internationalist Publications, 1913) p. 227.

¹¹¹  André Tridon, The New Unionism (New York; B W Huebsch, 1913) p. 149.

¹¹²  James Joll, The Second International, 1889-1914 (London; Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974) p. 88.

¹¹³  For the history of the general strike and subsequent events see: Zeev Sternhell with Mario Sznaidr and Maia Asheri (Trans. David Maisel), The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution (Princeton NJ; Princeton University press, 1994) 133-5. Carl Levy, ‘Currents of Italian Syndicalism before 1926’ in International Review of Social History (2000), Vol. 45, Issue 2. pp. 209-250. Oda Olberg, ‘Der italienische Generalstreik,’ in Die Neue Zeit, 23:1 (1904-05), pp. 18-21. One recruit to the revolutionary wing of the PSI was Benito Mussolini; in 1909 he was working as a journalist for the paper L’Avvenire del Lavoratore (The Future of the Worker) in the Trentino, then a part of Italia Irredenta under austro-Hungarian rule. His espousal of revolutionary methods saw him imprisoned on several occasions and eventually expelled from the area. Peter Neville, Mussolini (London; Routledge, 2004) p. 28. R N L Absalom, Mussolini and the Rise of Italian Fascism (London; Methuen, 1969) p. 21.

114  William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 4.

¹¹⁵  He actually said ‘Unfortunately we have made Italy, but we have not created Italians.’ Luciano Cheles and Lucio Sponza, ‘Introduction: National Identities and Avenues of Persuasion’ in Luciano Cheles and Lucio Sponza (Eds.), The Art of Persuasion: Political Communication in Italy from 1945 to the 1990s (Manchester; Manchester University Press, 2001) p. 1.

¹¹⁶  Paolo Varvaro, L’orizzonte del Risorgimento: l’Italia vista dai prefetti (Napoli; Dante & Descartes, 2001) p. 47.

¹¹⁷  Don H Doyle, Nations Divided: America, Italy, and the Southern Question (Athens, GA; University of Georgia Press, 2002) p. 39.

¹¹⁸  ‘Blood, sacrifice, revenge, martyrdom and slaughter of the tyrannous foreigner were all crucial themes in Italian patriotic writings in the mid-nineteenth century’ Christopher Duggan, ‘Nation-Building in 19^th Century Italy: The Case of Francesco Crispi’ in History Today, Volume 52 (2) February 2002. p. 13.

CHAPTER THREE

¹      Leonard Woolf, Empire & Commerce in Africa: A Study In Economic Imperialism (London; Labour Research Department, 1920) p. 121

²      Lady Gwendolen Cecil, Life of Robert Marquis of Salisbury, Volume IV 1887-1892 (London; Hodder and Stoughton, 1932) p. 323.

³      C E Callwell, Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wilson: His Life and Diaries, (London: Cassell, 1927) Volume I. p. 105.

⁴      Cesare Balbo, Delle speranze d’italia (Firenze [Florence]; Felice le Monnier, 1855) p. 133. Naples, at the time of his writing, was the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; a polity that had been formed at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 by combining the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. For an account of Balbo’s political viewpoint see: Ettore Passerin d’Entreves, La giovinezza di Cesare Balbo (Firenze [Florence]; Felice Le Monnier, 1940.) pp. 22-26.

⁵      Stefano Recchia and Nadia Urbinati (Eds.) (Trans. Stefano Recchia) A Cosmopolitanism of Nations: Giuseppe Mazzini’s Writings on Democracy (Princeton NJ; Princeton University Press, 2009) p. 238.

⁶      Stefano Recchia and Nadia Urbinati (Eds.) (Trans. Stefano Recchia) A Cosmopolitanism of Nations: Giuseppe Mazzini’s Writings on Democracy (Princeton NJ; Princeton University Press, 2009) p. 239.

⁷      Alan Cassels, ‘Reluctant Neutral: Italy and the Strategic Balance in 1939’ in B J C McKercher and Roch Legault (Eds.), Military planning and the origins of the Second World War in Europe (Westport CT; Praeger, 2001) p. 38. James Muldoon, Empire and Order: The Concept of Empire, 800-1800 (Basingstoke; Palgrave Macmillan, 1999) p. 22.

⁸      George B Manhart, Alliance and Entente, 1871 –1914 (New York; F S Crofts, 1932) p. 27.

⁹      Supplement to Secret Dispatch No. 496, Rome, 1 July 1902. ‘Copy of the declaration transmitted to the Royal Italian Government with regard to Tripoli.’ Alfred Franzis Pribram, The Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary 1879-1914 (Cambridge; Harvard University Press, 1920) Vol. I. pp. 232-3. Quoted in part in: George B Manhart, Alliance and Entente, 1871 –1914 (New York; F S Crofts, 1932) p. 34.

¹⁰    Andre Tardieu, France and the Alliances: The Struggle for the Balance of Power (New York; Macmillan, 1908) p. 91.

¹¹    ‘Naval Notes: The French Mediterranean and Italian Squadrons at Toulon’ in The RUSI Journal, Volume 45, Issue 277, 1901. p. 613.

¹²    ‘King of Italy in Paris: Victor Emmanuel and Queen Helena Warmly Welcomed’, in The New York Times, 15 October, 1903.

¹³    Bernard de Montferrand, Diplomatie: des volontés françaises (Versailles; Alban, 2006) p. 178.

¹⁴    Wedel to Holstein, 12 April 1901. Norman Rich And M H Fisher (Eds), The Holstein Papers: Volume 4: Correspondence 1897-1909 (London; Syndics of the Cambridge University Press, 1963) p. 221.

¹⁵    Sidney B Fay, The Origins of the World War (New York; Macmillan, 1928) Vol. I. p. 145.

¹⁶    For a description of the results of the rapprochement in a European context, see: Dwight E Lee, Europe’s Crucial Years: The Diplomatic Background of World War I, 1902-1914 (Hanover, NH; University Press of New England for Clark University Press, 1974) pp. 43-5. Edward E McCullough, How the First World War Began: The Triple Entente and the Coming of the Great War of 1914-1918 (Montre al; Black Rose, 1999) p. 26. Denna Frank Fleming, The Origins and Legacies of World War I (London; Allen & Unwin, 1969) pp. 79-80.

¹⁷    George B Manhart, Alliance and Entente, 1871 –1914 (New York; F S Crofts, 1932) p. 33.

¹⁸    Gino J Naldi, ‘The Aouzou Strip Dispute-A Legal Analysis’ in Journal of African Law, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Spring, 1989), p. 72.

¹⁹    Thomas Palamenghi-Crispi (Ed.) (Trans. Mary Prichard-Agnetti) The Memoirs Of Francesco Crispi: Compiled from Crispi’s Diary and other Documents. Vol. III International Problems (London; Hodder and Stoughton, 1914) p. 22.

²⁰    Zeev Sternhell with Mario Sznajder and Maia Ashéri (Trans. David Maisel), The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution (Princeton, NJ; Princeton University Press, 1994) p. 21.

21    Donald F Busky, Communism in History and Theory: The European Experience (Westport, CT; Praeger, 2002) p. 93. A selection of Labriola’s writings can be viewed at: http://www.marxists.org/archive/labriola/index.htm

²²    John Rees, The Algebra of Revolution: The Dialectic and the Classical Marxist Tradition (London; Routledge, 1998) p. 259.

²³    Gian Mario Bravo, ‘Antonio Labriola e la questione coloniale’ in I sentieri della ricerca: Rivista di storia contemporanea, No.1/June 2005. p. 58.

²⁴    Nino Valeri, La lotta politica in Italia dall’unità al 1925: Idee e documenti (Firenze [Florence]; Le Monnier, 1945) p. 327.

²⁵    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War For A Desert: Being Some Experiences Of A War Correspondent With The Italians In Tripoli (Chicago, IL; F G Browne, 1913) p. 41.

²⁶    For a brief overview of these matters see: Charles Stephenson, The Fortifications of Malta, 1530-1945 (Oxford; Osprey, 2004) pp. 29-37.

²⁷    Paul G Halpern, The Naval War in the Mediterranean, 1914-1918 (Boston; Allen & Unwin, 1986) p. 1.

²⁸    Quoted in Holger H Herwig, ‘Luxury’ Fleet: The German Imperial Navy 1888–1918 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1980) ^{p. 1.}

²⁹    Hew Strachan, The First World War. Volume One: To Arms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.) p. 376.

³⁰    Paul G Halpern, The Mediterranean Naval Situation, 1908-1914 (Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 1971) p. 45.

³¹    Inflexible transferred to the theatre as flagship in November 1912; Indomitable and Invincible joined in August 1913. Dennis Castillo, The Maltese Cross: A Strategic History of Malta (Westport, CT; Praeger, 2006) p. 132.

³²    Richard Wilkinson, ‘Lord Lansdowne and British Foreign Policy 1900-1917’ in History Today, Issue 36, March 2000, p. 9.

³³    J L Glanville, Italy’s Relations with England (Baltimore; John Hopkins Press, 1934) p. 118.

³⁴    R J B Bosworth, Italy the Least of the Great Powers: Italian Foreign Policy before the First. World War (London: Cambridge University Press, 1979) p. 138

³⁵    Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 20.

³⁶    Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 20.

³⁷    The ‘Sublime Porte’ was the term used for the Ottoman Government, in much the same way as the ‘Wilhelmstrasse’ was sometimes a metonym for the German Foreign Office and ‘Westminster’ was, and is, similarly applied to the British government.

³⁸    Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 21.

³⁹    Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 27.

⁴⁰    Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 29.

⁴¹    Tommaso Tittoni (Trans. Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino), Italy’s Foreign and Colonial Policy: A Selection From the Speeches Delivered in the Italian Parliament by the Italian Foreign Affairs Minister Senator Tommaso Tittoni during his Six Years of Office (1903-1909), (London; Smith, Elder, 1914) p. 26.

⁴²    For the involvement of the bank with the papacy and the role of Ernesto Pacelli see: John F Pollard, Money and the Rise of the Modern Papacy: Financing the Vatican, 1850-1950 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005) pp. 65-78. For Eugenio Pacelli see: Richard A Webster, The Cross and the Fasces: Christian Democracy and Fascism in Italy (Stanford, CA; Stanford University Press, 1960) p. 29. Manus I Midlarsky, The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2005) p. 220. See also: Peter Hertner, ‘Modern Banking in Italy’ in European Association for Banking History, Handbook on the History of European Banks (Aldershot, UK; Edward Elgar, 1994) pp. 631, 635.

⁴³    Richard A Webster (Trans. Mariangela Chiabrando), L’imperialismo industriale italiano 1908-1915: Studio sul prefascismo (Turin; Giulio Einaudi, 1974) p. 213. See also Luigi De Rosa, Storia del Banco di Roma (Rome; Banco di Roma, 1982) Vol. I, Chapter 5.

⁴⁴    Luigi De Rosa, Storia del Banco di Roma (Rome; Banco di Roma, 1982) Vol. I, p. 252.

⁴⁵    Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1932 (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 1994) p. 64.

⁴⁶    Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Stephen Swift, 1912) p. 69.

47    Arthur Silva White, The Development of Africa (London; George Philip, 1890) p. 221. For details of Italian investments see: Eugene A Staley, War and the Private Investor: A Study in the Relations of International Politics and International Private Investment (Garden City, NY; Doubleday Doran, 1935) pp. 62-70.

⁴⁸    Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) p. 171.

⁴⁹    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 18.

⁵⁰    Gioacchino Volpe, Italia moderna: Volume III 1910-1914 (Firenze; Le lettere, 2002) p. 81

⁵¹    Charles Wellington Furlong was an explorer, anthropologist, painter, teacher, writer, lecturer, and soldier. His papers are held at the Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH. http://ead.dartmouth.edu/html/stem197.html

⁵²    Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) pp. 181-2.

⁵³    Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) p. 32.

⁵⁴    Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) pp. 39-40.

⁵⁵    Arthur Silva White, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, was the first secretary of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society and editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. See: David N Livingstone, ‘Tropical Climate and Moral Hygiene: The Anatomy of a Victorian Debate’ in The British Journal for the History of Science, 1999, Volume 32, pp. 93-110; Dalvan M. Coger, ‘Africana in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1885-1914’ in African Studies Bulletin, Vol. 9, No. 3 (December 1966), pp. 88-102.

⁵⁶    Arthur Silva White, The Development of Africa (London; George Philip, 1890) p. 62.

⁵⁷    Arthur Silva White, The Development of Africa (London; George Philip, 1890) pp. 221-2.

⁵⁸    Charles Wellington Furlong, The Gateway to the Sahara: Observations and Experiences in Tripoli (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909) p. 296. Furlong was prescient; large reserves of fossil water fairly near the surface were serendipitously discovered in Libya during the 1950’s whilst drilling for oil. Omar Salem, ‘Management of Shared Groundwater Basins in Libya’ in African Water JournalVolume I, Number 1, March 2007, pp. 106-117. Patrick E Tyler, ‘Libya’s Vast Pipe Dream Taps Into Desert’s Ice Age Water’ in The New York Times, 2 March 2004.

⁵⁹    Douglas J Forsyth, The Crisis of Liberal Italy: Monetary and Financial Policy, 1914-1922 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1993) p. 47.

⁶⁰    Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 32. Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma; Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1970) pp. 15-20.

⁶¹    Eugene A Staley, War and the Private Investor: A Study in the Relations of International Politics and International Private Investment (Garden City, NY; Doubleday Doran, 1935) p. 67.

⁶²    Louis Leo Snyder, Historic Documents of World War I (Westport, CT; Greenwood Press, 1977) p. 44.

⁶³    Statement by San Giuliano of 24 September 1910. Quoted in Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Stephen Swift, 1912) pp. 66-7. Also quoted in part, without attribution, in: Paolo De Vecchi, Italy’s Civilizing Mission in Africa (New York, Brentano’s, 1912) p. 27

⁶⁴    Adrian Lyttelton (Ed. and Intro), Italian Fascisms from Pareto to Gentile(New York; Harper & Row, 1975) pp. 146-7. Martin Blinkhorn, Fascism and the Right in Europe, 1919-1945 (Harlow; Pearson Education, 2000) p. 120.

⁶⁵    Mussolini opined in a similar manner: ‘War alone keys up all human energies to their maximum tension and sets the seal of nobility on those peoples who have the courage to face it.’ He is also recorded, whilst at a conference with Hitler at the Brenner Pass on 18 March 1940, as stating that ‘To make a people great it is necessary to send them to battle […].’ He added, ‘even if you have to kick them in the backside.’ Benito Mussolini, Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions (Rome; Ardita, 1935) p. 19; Hugh Gibson, The Ciano Diaries, 1939-1943: The Complete, Unabridged Diaries of Count Galeazzo Ciano, Italian Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1936-1943 (Garden City, NY; Doubleday, 1946) pp. 235-6.

⁶⁶    See: Giulio Benedetti, Enrico Corradini; Profilo (Piacenza; Presso la Società tipografica editoriale Porta, 1922). For an overview of the rise of nationalism up to the outbreak of war in 1911 see: Salvatore Saladino, ‘Italy’ in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber (Eds.), The European Right: a Historical Profile (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1974) pp. 208-240.

⁶⁷    Bosworth. pp. 143-5.

⁶⁸    Ronald S Cunsolo, ‘Libya, Italian Nationalism, and the Revolt against Giolitti’ in The Journal of Modern History, 37, June 1965. p. 189.

⁶⁹    Ronald S Cunsolo, ‘Libya, Italian Nationalism, and the Revolt against Giolitti’ in The Journal of Modern History, 37, June 1965. p. 190.

70    Bosworth. p. 145. Alan Cassels, Fascist Italy (Arlington Heights, IL; H Davidson, 1985) p. 9.

⁷¹    The Times, 30 September 1911

⁷²    Bosworth. p. 149.

⁷³    Mark I Choate, Emigrant Nation: The Making of Italy Abroad (Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press, 2008) p. 168.

⁷⁴    Ciro Paoletti, A Military History of Italy (Westport, CT; Praeger Security International, 2008) p. 134.

⁷⁵    Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 39.

⁷⁶    Bosworth. p. 150.

⁷⁷    Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 36.

⁷⁸    For a detailed study of the affair see: Geoffrey Barraclough, From Agadir to Armageddon: Anatomy of a Crisis (New York; Holmes & Meier, 1982). Also: Ima C Barlow, The Agadir Crisis (Hamden CT; Archon Books, 1971).

⁷⁹    Memorandum by Kiderlen-Wächter, 3 May 1911. in E T S Dugdale (Selected and Trans.) German Diplomatic Documents, 1871-1914.Vol. IV The Descent to the Abyss, 1911-14 (London: Methuen, 1931) pp. 2-4.

⁸⁰    Edward Crankshaw, The Fall of the House of Hapsburg (New York; Viking, 1963) p. 369.

⁸¹    Konrad H Jarausch, The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethmann Hollweg and the Hubris of Imperial Germany (New Haven CT; Yale University Press, 1973) p. 126.

⁸²    Roughly the area of the present-day Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Chad and the Central African Republic.

⁸³    Ernst Jäckh, (Ed.) Kiderlen-Wächter, der Staatsmann und Mensch: Briefwechsel und Nachlaß. Two Volumes (Stuttgart; Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1924) Vol. II. p. 128.

⁸⁴    Winston S Churchill, The World Crisis 1911-1918Volume I (London; Odhams Press, 1938) p. 29.

⁸⁵    Sir James Rennell Rodd, Social and Diplomatic Memories, Third Series [Volume 3] 1902-1919 (London; Edward Arnold, 1925) p. 141.

⁸⁶    Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Steven Swift, 1912) pp. 18-19.

⁸⁷    Charles Lapworth and Helen Zimmern, Tripoli and Young Italy (London; Steven Swift, 1912) p. 92.

⁸⁸    Jay Spaulding and Lidwien Kapteijns, An Islamic Alliance:Ali Dinar and the Sanusiya, 1906-1916 (Evanston, IL; Northwestern University Press, 1994) p. 35.

⁸⁹    Ian Mugridge, The View from Xanadu: William Randolph Hearst and United States Foreign Policy (Montreal; McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1995) pp. 7-18. Denis Brian, Pulitzer: A Life (New York; John Wiley and Sons, 2001) pp. 2, 390.

⁹⁰    W Joseph Campbell, Yellow Journalism: Puncturing the Myths, Defining the Legacies (Westport, CT; Praeger, 2001) p. 97.

⁹¹    Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) p. 66.

⁹²    San Giulano to Giolotti and Victor Emmanuel III. 28 July 1911. Quoted in: Claudio Pavone, (ed.), Dalle carte di Giovanni Giolitti: Quarant’anni di politica italiana, Volume III, Dai prodromi della grande guerra al al fascismo (Milano; Feltrinelli 1962) pp. 52-56.

⁹³    Handan Nezir Akme e, The Birth of Modern Turkey: The Ottoman Military and the March to World War I (London; Tauris, 2005) p. 112. Lawrence Sondhaus, Naval Warfare, 1815-1914 (Abingdon; Routledge, 2001) p. 220. Robert Gardiner and Randal Gray (Eds.), Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, 1906-1921 (Annapolis, MD; Naval Institute Press, 1985) p. 391. M J Whitley, Battleships of World War Two: An International Encyclopaedia (Annapolis, MD; Naval Institute Press, 1998) p. 237.

⁹⁴    See also: Theodore Ropp, ‘The Modern Italian Navy’ [since 1900] in Military Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer, 1941), pp. 104-116.

⁹⁵    Grey to Rodd. 28 July 1911. UK NA CAB 37/107/112.

⁹⁶    Grey to Lowther. 30 August 1911. UK NA CAB 37/107/112.

⁹⁷    Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 49.

⁹⁸    Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 335-7.

⁹⁹    Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 334.

¹⁰⁰  Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 327.

¹⁰¹  Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) pp. 126-7.

¹⁰²  Rodd to Grey. 4 September 1911. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Vol. IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) pp. 267-8.

¹⁰³  Paolo Maltese, La terra promessa: La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Libia 1911-12 (Milano; Mondadori, 1976) pp. 73-4; Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) pp. 61-2.

104  Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma: Edizioni de Storia e Letteratura, 1970) p. 131. R J B Bosworth, Italy the Least of the Great Powers: Italian Foreign Policy before the First. World War (London: Cambridge University Press, 1979) p. 160.

¹⁰⁵  Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 60.

¹⁰⁶  San Giulano to Giolotti. 2 September 1911. Quoted in: Claudio Pavone, (ed.), Dalle carte di Giovanni Giolitti: Quarant’anni di politica italiana, Volume III, Dai prodromi della grande guerra al al fascismo (Milano; Feltrinelli 1962) p. 59. Brian R Sullivan, ‘The Strategy of the Decisive Weight: Italy, 1882-1922’ in Williamson Murray, MacGregor Knox, and Alvin Bernstein (Eds.) The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1994) p. 324.

¹⁰⁷  Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 60.

¹⁰⁸  Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 355.

¹⁰⁹  Pansa to San Giuliano. 23 September 1911. Quoted in Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 62.

¹¹⁰  Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 357.

¹¹¹  David G Herrmann, The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War (Princeton, NJ; Princeton University Press, 1997) pp. 137-8.

¹¹²  This documentation is contained in the Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia and was utilized by David G Herrmann for his groundbreaking work on Italian Strategy. See: David G Herrmann, ‘The Paralysis of Italian Strategy in the Italian-Turkish War, 1911-1912’ in The English Historical Review, Vol. 104, No. 411, April 1989. p. 335.

¹¹³  Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia, 215/2: ‘Studio per l’occupazione della Tripolitania, Agosto I911.’ Campagna di Libia, Volume 1 p. 269.

¹¹⁴  Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 358.

¹¹⁵  For a complete history up until 1918 see: Odoardo Marchetti, Il servizio informazione dell’esercito italiano nella grande Guerra (Roma; Tipografia Regionale, 1937).

¹¹⁶  Giuseppe De Lutiis, Storia dei servizi segreti in Italia [History of the Secret Services in Italy] (Roma: Riuniti, 1984) p. 303.

¹¹⁷  Giuseppe De Lutiis, Storia dei servizi segreti in Italia [History of the Secret Services in Italy] (Roma: Riuniti, 1984) p. 8. Marco Meini, Il decimo corridoio [The Tenth Corridor] (Roma: Robin, 2005) pp. 343-4. n. 8.

¹¹⁸  Paolo Maltese, La terra promessa: La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Libia 1911-12 (Milano; Mondadori, 1976) p. 85-6.

¹¹⁹  San Giuliano circular telegram to Ambassadors at Berlin, London, Madrid, Paris, St. Petersburg and Vienna. 24 September 1911. Quoted in Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma; Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1970) p. 106.

¹²⁰  The New York Times. 25 September 1911.

¹²¹  W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912 (Annapolis, MD; William H Beehler, 1913) pp. 12-3. Childs. p. 25.

¹²²  William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 55.

¹²³  Orhan Kolo lu, 500 Years In Turkish-Libyan Relations: SAM Paper 1/2007 (Ankara; Stratejik Arastirmalar Merkezi (SAM), 2007) p. 174.

¹²⁴  Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 64.

¹²⁵  Francesco Malgeri, La Guerra Libica 1911-1912 (Roma; Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1970) pp. 125, 138, 140.

¹²⁶  Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 64.

¹²⁷  Raymond Poincaré (Trans. Sir George Arthur), The Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré, Volume I: 1912 (London: William Heinemann, 1926) p. 19.

¹²⁸  Translation taken from: ‘Ultimatum from Italy to Turkey Regarding Tripoli’ in The American Journal of International Law, Volume 6, No. 1. Supplement: Official Documents (January 1912), pp. 11-12.

¹²⁹  The ‘surprise’ evinced by Hakki comes from an account by the well-connected Marquess Alberto Theodoli, the Italian delegate on the Ottoman Public Debt Council who had lived in Istanbul since 1905. Alberto Theodoli, ‘La preparazione dell’impresa di Tripoli. Ricordi di una missione in Turchia’ in Nuova Antologia, 16 July 1934. p. 242. His account is used by Childs and Del Boca: Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 66. Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Millan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 73.

¹³⁰  Translation taken from: ‘The Turkish Reply to Italian Ultimatum Regarding Tripoli’ in The American Journal of International Law, Volume 6, No. 1. Supplement: Official Documents (January 1912). pp. 12-14.

¹³¹  Sir Thomas Barclay, (With an Additional Chapter on Moslem Feeling by Ameer Ali), The Turco-Italian War and its Problems, with Appendices Containing the Chief State Papers Bearing on the Subject (London; Constable, 1912) pp. 112-13.

CHAPTER FOUR

1      Prime Minster Antonio Salandra on Italy’s entry into the Great War on the side of the Entente Powers. 23 May 1915. Charles F Horne, Walter F Austin and Leonard P Ayres (Eds.), Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931) p. 224.

²      Machiel Kiel, Ottoman Architecture in Albania, 1385-1912 (Istanbul; Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture, 1990) p. 90.

³      For a discussion on whether or not Bismarck said it: Charles Stephenson, Germany’s Asia-Pacific Empire: Colonialism and Naval Policy 1885–1914 (Woodbridge; Boydell Press, 2009) p. 220.

⁴      Cartwright to Nicolson. 12 October 1911. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 307. Sir Arthur Nicolson was the British Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs from 1910–1916.

⁵      Edward J. Erickson,Defeat in Detail: the Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912-1913 (Westport, CN; Praeger, 2003) pp. 47-8. Hasan Kayalı, Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918 (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1997) p. 111-12.

⁶      Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 373-4.

⁷      Charles F Horne, Walter F Austin and Leonard P Ayres (Eds.), Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931) p. 224.

⁸      E Alexander Powell, The New Frontiers Of Freedom: From The Alps To The Aegean (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920) p. 138.

⁹      Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 374.

¹⁰    Despatch dated 7 October 1911 from Vienna. The Pittsburg Press. 8 October 1911.

¹¹    For accounts of this incident see: Samuel R Williamson, Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (London; Macmillan, 1991) pp. 789. Alfred von Wittich (Trans. Oliver L Spaulding), Marshal Conrad in the Preparation for War (Washington, DC; Army War College, 1936) pp. 6-7. Morris Beatus, The Views of Conrad von Hötzendorf: Politics, Diplomacy, and War, 1906-1914 [MA Thesis] (Madison, WI; University of Wisconsin, 1970) pp. 44-5. Lawrence Sondhaus,The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867 - 1918: Navalism, Industrial Development, and the Politics of Dualism (West Lafayette, IN; Purdue University Press, 1994) p. 205. Gunther E Rothenberg, The Army of Francis Joseph (West Lafayette, IN; Purdue University Press, 1998) pp. 163-4.

¹²    Lawrence Sondhaus, The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867-1918: Navalism, Industrial Development, and the Politics of Dualism (Lafayette, IN; Purdue University Press, 1994) p. 205.

¹³    Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 67.

¹⁴    See: Mirella Tenderini and Michael Shandrick, The Duke of the Abruzzi: An Explorer’s Life (Seattle, WA; The Mountaineers, 1997).

¹⁵    Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 66.

¹⁶    Wm Morton Fullerton, Problems of Power: A Study of International Politics from Sadowa to Kirk-Kilisse (New York, NY; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913) p. 290.

¹⁷    Prime Mnister Antonio Salandra on Italy’s entry into the Great War on the side of the Entente Powers. 23 May 1915. Charles F Horne, Walter F Austin and Leonard P Ayres (Eds.), Source Records of the Great War, Volume 3, AD 1915 (Indianapolis, IN; The American Legion, 1931) p. 224.

¹⁸    Haroon-ur Rasheed, Pakistan: The Successful Culmination (Lahore; Publishers Emporium, 1996) p. 478.

¹⁹    Rajendra Prasad, India Divided (Bombay; Hind Kitabs, 1947) p. 18.

²⁰    Hardinge to Crewe. Letter dated 12 October 1912. Quoted in P Hardy, The Muslims of British Indian (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1972) pp.182-83.

²¹    See: Muhammad Yusuf Abbasi, The Political Biography of Syed Ameer Ali (Lahore; Wajidalis, 1989).

²²    According to the 1911 census, the total population of India amounted to 315,156,396, 244,267,542 or 77.5 per cent of which resided in directly ruled British territory and 70,888,854 or 22.5 per cent in the ‘native states.’ The Muslim population was calculated at 65,921,820, or just under 21 per cent, of the total. http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/old_report/Census_1911.html

²³    Reproduced in: Shan Muhammad (Ed.), The Right Honourable Syed Ameer Ali: Political Writings (New Delhi; Ashish, 1989) pp. 244-5.

²⁴    See: Azmi Özcan, Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924) (Leiden; Brill, 1997) pp. 139-145.

²⁵    Abu Yusuf Alam, Muslims and Bengal Politics (1912-24) (Kolkata [Calcutta]; Raktakarabee, 2005) p. 155.

²⁶    Azmi Özcan, Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924) (Leiden; Brill, 1997) p. 140.

²⁷    Ishtiaq Ahmad, ‘Turkish-Pakistan Relations: Continuity and Change’ in Mehmet Tahiroglu and Tareq Y Ismael (Eds.), Turkey in the 21st Century: Changing Role in World Politics (Gazimagusa; Eastern Mediterranean University Press, 2000) pp. 143-144.

28    M Naeem Qureshi, Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918-1924 (Leiden; Brill, 1999) p. 55. See also: Stuart E Brown, ‘Modernism, Association, and Pan-Islamism in the Thought of Ali Bash Hanbah’ in Donald P Little (Ed.), Essays on Islamic Civilization: Presented to Niyazi Berkes (Leiden; Brill, 1976) p. 76.

²⁹    Hardinge to Nicolson. 15 October 1911. UK NA FO 800/351, Miscellaneous Correspondence Volume 5, September-November 1911.

³⁰    John Charmley, Splendid Isolation?: Britain and the Balance of Power 1874-1914 (London; Hodder & Stoughton, 1999) p. 325.

³¹    David Lloyd George, War Memoirs. Two-volume edition (London; Odhams, 1938) Vol. I pp. 27-8.

³²    Winston S Churchill, The Grand Alliance (Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin, 1950) p. 71.

³³    For details see: C J Lowe, ‘Grey and the Tripoli War’ in F H Hinsley (Ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1977) pp. 315-323.

³⁴    Grey to Rodd. 29 September 1911. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 285.

³⁵    Raymond Poincaré (Trans. Sir George Arthur), The Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré, Volume I: 1912 (London: William Heinemann, 1926) p. 19.

CHAPTER FIVE

¹      Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 9.

²      John Baldry, ‘Anglo-Italian Rivalry in Yemen and As r 1900-1934’ in Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 17, Issue 1/4 (1976 - 1977) p. 155.

³      Mehmed Selahaddin, ttihad ve Terakki’nin Kurulu u ve Osmanlı Devleti’nin Yıkılı ı Hakkında Bildiklerim (Istanbul; nkilab, 1989) p. 38.

⁴      Joshua Teitelbaum,The Rise and Fall of the Hashimite Kingdom of Arabia (New York; New York University Press, 2001) p. 64.

⁵      For brief accounts see: Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 64. n. 3. Giorgio Giorgerini and Augusto Nani (Eds.), Gli incrociatori italiani, 1861-1975 (Roma; Ufficio storico marina militare, 1976) pp. 144, 180.

⁶      One, Regina Elena, did not join his command until 5 October 1911.

⁷      Unless otherwise stated, all information on naval operations is derived from: Giovanni Roncagli and Camillo Manfroni (Eds.), Guerra italo-turca (1911-1912): Cronistoria delle operazioni navali. Two Volumes: Vol. I: Dalle origini al decreto di sovranità su la Libia. Vol. II: Dal decreto di sovranità su la Libia alla conclusione della pace. (Milano/Roma; Hoepli/Poligrafico Editorial, 1918/1926).

⁸      Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 3.

⁹      Gianpaolo Ferraioli, Politica e diplomazia in Italia tra XIX e XX secolo: Vita di Antonino di San Giuliano (1852-1914) (Soveria Mannelli; Rubbettino, 2007) p. 357.

¹⁰    Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918). Written in German, a language in which Enver was competent, and couched in terms of a diary with dated entries, it is not however thought that it was compiled contemporaneously. Rather it was probably constructed later using reports and letters that Enver had sent to colleagues and friends in Germany during his time in the theatre of war. This perhaps accounts for the fact that there appears to be no original Turkish text, despite an acknowledgment to ‘Friedrich Perzynski’ for transcription and, possibly, translation. It was translated into Turkish and published as part of a larger work on the Ottoman forces during the war by Orhan Kolo lu in 1979 [Trablusgarp Sava ı ve Türk Subayları 1911-12 (Ankara; Basın Yayın Genel Müdürlü ü, 1979) and then into Arabic by Abdelmola Salah al-Hariri the following year. An Italian translation by Salvatore Bono, with additional notes and appendices, appeared in 1986 [Enver Pascià: diario della guerra libica (Bologna; Cappelli, 1986)] but so far no English language edition has been published.

¹¹    Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 9-10.

¹²    The New York Times, 30 September 1911.

¹³    Sukru Hanioglu (Ed.), Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa (Istanbul; Der Yayınları, 1989) pp. 75-6.

¹⁴    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Gorrespondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 48.

¹⁵    Harvey E Goldberg, Jewish Life in Muslim Libya: Rivals & Relatives (Chicago, IL; University of Chicago Press, 1990) p. 50.

¹⁶    Mordecai ha Cohen, Higgid Mordecai (Jerusalem: Ben-Zvi Institute, 1978) pp. 185, 340-343, 348.

¹⁷    For an account of these troops during the initial phases of the ‘Libyan enterprise’ see: L Fulvi, T Marcon, and O Miozzi, Le fanterie di marina italiane (Roma; Ufficio storico della Marina militare, 1998). pp. 37-54.

¹⁸    Great Britain Naval Intelligence Division, A Handbook of Libya (London; HMSO, 1917) p. 138.

¹⁹    William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya: A study in Mediterranean Politics and European Alignments, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 28. Lisa Anderson, The State and Social Transformation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980 (Princeton, NJ; Princeton University Press, 1986) pp. 189-90.

20    Chris B. Rooney, ‘The international significance of British naval missions to the Ottoman Empire, 1908-14’ in Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 34, Issue 1 January 1998. pp. 1-29. Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Güleryüz (James Cooper Ed. and Trans.), The Ottoman Steam Navy, 1828-1923 (London; Conway Maritime Press, 1995) p. 197.

²¹    Benito Mussolini in the Popolo d’ Italia, 14 January 1915.

²²    Augustus Henry Keane, Africa Volume I: North Africa (London; Edward Stanford, 1895) p 169.

²³    Daily Express. 11 October 1911.

²⁴    Pollio, ‘Memoria sulla occupazione della Tripolitania e della Cirenaica,’ 19 September 1911. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia. Raccoglitore I, Fascicolo 14.

²⁵    San Giuliano to Spingardi. 24 September 1911. Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Archivio di Gabinetto Casella 44, No. 40.

²⁶    Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia, 215/2: Studio per l’occupazione della Tripolitania, August 1911.

²⁷    See: ‘The Landing at Derna’ in The RUSI Journal, Volume 56, Issue 413 July 1912, page 890.

²⁸    Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State formation, Colonization, and Resistance, 1830-1932 (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 1994) pp. 75-6.

²⁹    Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 35-36.

³⁰    Mohammed Bescir Fergiani, The Libyan Jamahiriya (Tripoli; Dar Al-Fergiani, 1976) p. 99

³¹    W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 56-7.

³²    Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 51.

³³    The Parliamentary Debates (Official Report), Fifth Series, Volume XXX (London; HMSO, 1911) p. 1794.

³⁴    Lord Keyes, Amphibious Warfare and Combined Operations (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1943) p. 7.

³⁵    Arianna Sara De Rose, Marcello Piacentini: opere 1903-1926 (Modena; Panini, 1995) p. 117.

³⁶    Guido Bonsaver, Censorship and Literature in Fascist Italy (Toronto; University of Toronto Press, 2007) p. 15.

³⁷    Caneva to Spingardi. 18 October 1911. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito. 2/10.

³⁸    Reuters Telegram from Tripoli. 13 October 1911. Reproduced internationally.

³⁹    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert and Daniel, 1913) p. 72

⁴⁰    David Nicolle, The Italian Army of World War I (Oxford; Osprey, 2003) p. 3.

⁴¹    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert and Daniel, 1913) p. 72

CHAPTER SIX

¹      H W Halleck, International Law: or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (San Francisco; H H Bancroft, 1861) p. 442.

²      “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 832.

³      Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 16.

⁴      Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Millan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 74; Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 162; Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) pp. 238-240.

⁵      W T Stead, ‘Francis McCullagh of Tripoli’ in W T Stead (Ed.) ‘The Reviews Reviewed’ in The Review of Reviews for Australasia, February 1912, p. 611.

⁶      W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 60.

⁷      Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 118.

⁸      Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) pp. 124-5, 127.

⁹      Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 132.

¹⁰    Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 24.

11    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 218. The General Staff had issued a handbook for officers on how to conduct themselves in respect of the local population. Although paternalistic (‘The natives are like children: they should be treated with kindness, correctly but firmly) it had stressed the need to respect local customs, particularly those associated with religion, and that it was ‘absolutely necessary to respect the women.’ It had though also remarked that it was necessary to severely punish ‘any attempt, however small, to avoid European authority.’ Campagna di libia, Volume I: Parte generale - operazione in Tripolitania dall’inizio della campagna alla occupazione di Punta Tagiura (ottobre-dicembre 1911) (Roma, Stabilimento Poligrafico per l’Amministrazione della Guerra, 1922). p. 369.

¹²    “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 835.

¹³    Felice Picciole, Diario di un bersagliere (Milano, formichiere, 1974) p. 26.

¹⁴    “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 837.

¹⁵    Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 202.

¹⁶    “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 837.

¹⁷    Daily Mirror, 2 November 1911.

¹⁸    H W Halleck, International Law: or, Rules Regulating the Intercourse of States in Peace and War (San Francisco; H H Bancroft, 1861) p. 442.

¹⁹    The United Nations War Crimes Commission, Law Reports of Trials of War CriminalsVolume IV. (London: HMSO, 1948) p. 33.

²⁰    Quinto Poggioli, ‘Aeroplanes at Tripoli’ in Flight magazine, 11 November 1911, p. 989. Walter J Boyne, The Influence of Air Power upon History (Gretna, LA; Pelican, 2003) p. 37.

²¹    McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 202.

²²    Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 144.

²³    An ‘anglais Israelite’ according to one who met him there. See: Guy d’Aveline, La guerre à Tripoli, par un témoin oculaire [The War in Tripoli, by an Eyewitness] (Paris; Charles Amat, 1912) p. 208. Guy d’Aveline was the pen name of Jeanne Gazala nee Kieffer, the wife of Dr Suleiman Gazala, or Gazala Bey, who had been a medical student in Paris, and then a doctor who studied, and wrote about, outbreaks of cholera and plague in Mesopotamia (Iraq). She later translated his memoirs from Arabic and published them in France. See: Guy d’Aveline, Mémoires d’un délégué sanitaire [Memoirs of a Sanitary Delegate] (Paris; N Maloine, 1931).

²⁴    The New York Times, 13 January 1912.

²⁵    Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 95.

²⁶    McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 202.

²⁷    Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 95.

²⁸    Ashmead Bartlett’s despatch is reproduced in: W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 253-259.

²⁹    Quoted in: McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 228.

³⁰    Quoted in: McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 292.

³¹    Quoted in: McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) pp. 253-59.

³²    McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 250.

³³    “Kepi,” ‘The Italians at Tripoli,’ in Blackwood’s Magazine No. MCLIV, December 1911. Vol. CXC. p. 838-9.

³⁴    Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 27. Commodore W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War (Annapolis, MD; United States Naval Institute, 1913) p. 34.

³⁵    See: Mohamed al-Jefa’iri et al, The Libyan Deportees in the Prisons of the Italian Islands: Documents, Statistics, Names, Illustrations (Tripoli: Libyan Studies Centre, 1989). Eliana Calandra, ‘Prigionieri arabi a Ustica: un episodio della guerra italo-turca attraverso le fonti archivistiche’ in Carla Ghezzi (Ed.), Fonti e problemi della politica coloniale italiana (Roma; Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, 1996) Volume II, pp. 1150-1167.

³⁶    Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 45.

37    Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 163-4.

³⁸    Quoted in: W T Stead, Tripoli and the Treaties or Britain’s Duty in this War (London; Stead’s Publishing, 1911) pp. 62-4.

³⁹    W T Stead, ‘Francis McCullagh of Tripoli’ in W T Stead (Ed.)‘The Reviews Reviewed’ in The Review of Reviews for Australasia, February 1912, p. 563.

⁴⁰    F T Marinetti, La battaglia di Tripoli 26 ottobre 1911: vissuta e cantata da F.T. Marinetti (Milano; Edizioni Futuriste di Poesia, 1912).

⁴¹    Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Milano; Mondadori, 1986) p. 118.

⁴²    Quoted in McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 304.

⁴³    Grey River Argus, 6 March 1912

⁴⁴    Quoted in McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert: Being Some Experiences of a War-Correspondent with the Italians in Tripoli (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 394.