CHAPTER SEVEN
1 Domenico Tumiati, ‘Le fauci del Sahara’ in Tripolitania (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1911) p. 90.
2 Johannes Lepsius, Albrecht Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Friedrich Thimme (eds), Die Große Politik der Europäischen Kabinette 1871 bis 1914I, Vol. XXX part 1 (Berlin; Deutsche Verlaggesellschaft fur Politik und Geschichte, 1926).
3 Geoffrey A Haywood, Failure of a Dream: Sidney Sonnino and the rise and fall of Liberal Italy 1847-1922 () p. 396.
4 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 380-82.
5 Foreign Office Historical Section, Italian Libya (London; HMSO, 1920) p. 58.
6 W T Stead, Tripoli and the Treaties: or Britain’s Duty in This War (London; Stead’s, 1911) p. 17.
7 Lassa Oppenheim and Ronald F Roxburgh (Ed.), International Law: A Treatise, Vol. I. Peace (London; Longmans, Green, 1920) p. 397.
8 Charles E P Brome Weigall, A History of Events in Egypt from 1798 to 1914 (London; William Blackwood, 1915).
9 Taner Akçam. Insan Haklari ve Ermeni Sorunu: Ittihat ve Terakki’den Kurtulus Savasina (Ankara; IMGE Kitabevi, 1999) pp. 92-3. See also: Philip Hendrick Stoddard (Trans. Tansel Demirel), Te kilat-ı Mahsusa: Osmanlı Hükümeti ve Araplar 1911-1918 Te kilat-ı Mahsusa üzerine bir ön çalı ma (Istanbul; Arba Yayinlari, 1994). A translation of Hendrick’s PhD thesis, The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskiat-i Mahsusa (Ann Arbor, MI; University Microfilms, 1963)]
10 Ottoman titles have no direct European equivalents, but men could be granted the right to be known as Effendi, Bey, and Pasa (Pasha), in ascending order.
11 Robert Graves, Lawrence and the Arabs (London; Jonathan Cape, 1934) p. 14.
12 Salvatore Bono, Enver Pascià: diario della guerra libica (Bologna; Cappelli, 1986) p. 74. n. 10.
13 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 15-16.
14 A zavia or zawia ‘is, at the same time, a religious seminary and a pious and gratuitous hotel.’ The abode of a marabout, a religious leader and teacher, man devoted to the religious observance of the Koran, and to the edification of the faithful. See: Amos Perry, Carthage and Tunis, Past and Present: In Two Parts (Providence, RI; Providence Press, 1869) pp. 262, 275.
15 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 23.
16 Andrew Mango, Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 105.
17 Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (London; John Murray, 2004) p. 105.
18 Sukru Hanioglu (Ed.), Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa (Istanbul; Der Yayınları, 1989) p. 88.
19 Sukru Hanioglu (Ed.), Kendi Mektuplarinda Enver Pasa (Istanbul; Der Yayınları, 1989) pp. 75-6.
20 Philip Hendrick Stoddard (Trans. Tansel Demirel), Te kilat-ı Mahsusa: Osmanlı Hükümeti ve Araplar 1911-1918 Te kilat-ı Mahsusa üzerine bir ön çalı ma (Istanbul; Arba Yayinlari, 1994) [The Special Organisation: The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918 a Preliminary Study of the Special Organisation. A translation of Hendrick’s PhD thesis, The Ottoman Government and the Arabs, 1911 to 1918: A Preliminary Study of the Teskiat-i Mahsusa (Ann Arbor, MI; University Microfilms, 1963)] p. 84.
21 E E Evans-Pritchard, The Sanusi of Cyrenaica (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1949). Muhammad Khalil, ‘Renaissance in North Africa: The Sanusiyyah Movement’ in M M Sharif (Ed.) A History of Muslim Philosophy with Short Accounts of Other Disciplines and the Modern Renaissance in Muslim Lands, Volume II (Wiesbaden; Otto Harrassowitz, 1966). Knut S Vikør, Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad b. Ali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood (Evanston, Ill; Northwestern University Press, 1995). N.A. Ziadeh, Sanusiya: A Study of a Revivalist Movement in Islam (Leiden; Brill, 1958). Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi, The Sanusiyyah Movement Of North Africa: An Analytical Study (Islamabad; Shariah Academy, 2001).
22 Knut S Vikør, Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge: Muhammad b. Ali Al-Sanusi and His Brotherhood (Evanston, Ill; Northwestern University Press, 1995) p. 1.
23 Hanns Vischer, Across the Sahara from Tripoli to Bornu (London; Edward Arnold, 1910) p. 69.
24 Hanns Vischer, Across the Sahara from Tripoli to Bornu (London; Edward Arnold, 1910) p. 68.
25 Rosita Forbes, The Secret of the Sahara: Kufara (New York; George H Doran, 1921) p. 331.
26 Ali Abdullatif Ahmida, The Making of Modern Libya: State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance (Albany, NY; State University of New York Press, 2009) p. 1.
27 Amal Obeidi, Political Culture in Libya (Richmond UK; Curzon, 2001). Abdulmola El-Horeir, Social and Economic Transformations in the Libyan Hinterland during the Second Half of the 19th Century: The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi (Los Angeles, CA; University of California, 1981). Mohamed Zahi El-Mogherbi, Tribalism, Religion and the Challenge of Political Participation: The Case of Libya. (A Paper presented to Conference on Democratic Challenges in the Arab World, Centre for Political and International Development Studies, Cairo, 22–27 September 1992). Ernest Gellner and Charles Micaud, Arabs and Berbers: from Tribe to Nation in North Africa (London; D C Heath, 1973).
28 Gerhard Rohlfs, Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra (Leipzig; F A Brockhaus, 1881).
29 Lisa Anderson, ‘The Development of Nationalist Sentiment in Libya, 1908-1922’ in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslih and Reeva S Simon (Eds.) The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York; Columbia University Press, 1991) p. 229.
30 Abdul-mola al-Horeir, Social and Economic Transformations in the Libyan Hinterland during the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century: The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi (Los Angeles; University of California, 1981) pp. 224-5.
31 Muhammad Khalil, ‘Renaissance in North Africa: The Sanusiyyah Movement’ in M M Sharif (Ed.) A History of Muslim Philosophy with Short Accounts of Other Disciplines and the Modern Renaissance in Muslim Lands, Volume II (Wiesbaden; Otto Harrassowitz, 1966)
32 Mesut Uyar and Edward J Erickson, A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Ataturk (Westport, CT; Praeger, 2009) p. 223.
33 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, Studi per un’eventuale occupazione dell’isola di Rodi o altre isole turche, L8, R1, C18.
34 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 200.
35 Ernest Nathaniel Bennett for the Manchester Guardian and George Frederick Abbott left London together on 23 November for Tunis. Bennett was an experienced hand and the author of several books detailing his experiences, including The Downfall of the Dervishes: Being a Sketch of the Final Sudan Campaign of 1898 (1898) and With Methuen’s Column on an Ambulance Train (1900). Abbott was also well travelled and had written widely. His books included Songs of Modern Greece (1900), Macedonian Folk-Lore (1903), The Tale of a Tour in Macedonia (1903), Through India with the Prince (1906), Greece in Evolution (1909), Turkey in Transition (1909), The Philosophy of a Don (1911), and The Ambassador of Loss (1911).
36 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 96-7.
37 F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 50.
38 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 102-3.
39 Le Matin. 30 November 1911.
40 Quoted in: Duncan Anderson, Glass Warriors: The Camera at War (London; Collins, 2005) p. 78.
41 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 103.
42 Richard Bagot, The Italians of To-Day (London; Mills & Boon, 1912) p. 98.
43 Nicola Labanca, ‘The Embarrassment of Libya: History, Memory, and Politics in Contemporary Italy’ in California Italian Studies Journal, Volume 1, Issue 1, 2010.
44 Salvatore Bono, ‘Lettere dal fronte libico (1911-1912)’ in Nuova Antologia No. 2052. December 1971.
45 Lucia Re, ‘Italians and the Invention of Race: The Poetics and Politics of Difference in the Struggle over Libya, 1890-1913’ in California Italian Studies Journal 1.1. (2010). p. 28.
46 Carolina Invernizio, Odio di araba [The Hatred of Arabs] (Firenze; Salani, 1912) p. 5.
47 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 313.
1 Charles Wellington Furlong, ‘Italy finds Tripoli a Hard Nut to Crack’ in The New York Times, 4 May 1912.
2 Quinto Poggioli, ‘Aeroplanes at Tripoli’ in Flight magazine, 11 November 1911, p. 989.
3 Leslie Gardiner, Lunardi: The Story of Vicenzo Lunardi (Shrewsberry; Airlife, 1963).
4 Lieutenant General [Gugliemo] Pepe, Narrative of Scenes and Events in Italy from 1847 to 1849, Including the Siege of Venice, Volume II (London; Henry Colburn, 1850) p. 116.
5 Angelo Lodi, Storia delle origini dell’aeronautica militare, 1884-1915: aerostieri, dirigibilisti, aviatori dell’Esercito e della Marina in Italia nel periodo pionieristico (Roma; Bizzarri, 1976) Volume 1. Gaetano V Cavallaro, The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914-1917 (Bloomington, IN; Xlibris, 1999) Volume I, p. 107.
6 Andrea Curami, ‘La nascita dell’industria aeronautica’ in Paolo Ferrari (Ed.), L’aeronautica italiana: una storia del Novecento (Milano; Franco Angeli, 2004) pp. 22-23
7 Sebastiano Licheri, ‘Gli ordinamenti dell ‘aeronautica militare italiana dal 1884 al 1918’ in Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali Ufficio centrale per i beni archivistici, Le fonti per la storia militare italiana in età contemporanea. Atti del III seminario, Roma, 16-17 dicembre 1988 (Roma; Ediprint, 1993) p. 479.
8 RUSI Journal, 1911.
9 Edgar C Middleton, Airfare of To-Day and of the Future (London; Constable, 1917) p. 30.
10 C Canovetti ‘L’ Aviazione in Libia’ in Emporium: rivista mensile illustrata d’arte, letteratura, scienze e varietà, Vol. XXXV (Bergamo; Istituto Italiano d’Arti Grafiche, 1912) pp. 456-7.
11 Quoted in: Bertha von Suttner. ‘Randglossen zur Zeitgeschichte’ in Alfred M Fried (Ed.), Die Friedens-Warte: Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation (Berlin; Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation, 1912) pp. 99-100.
13 Anthony Aufrere (Trans.), Narrative of an Expedition from Tripoli in Barbary to the Western Frontier of Egypt, in 1817, by the Bey of Tripoli; in letters to Dr Viviani of Genoa, by Paolo Della Cella, Physician Attendant on the Bey; with an Appendix containing Instructions for Navigating the Great Syrtis (London; John and Arthur Arch, 1822) pp. 15-18.
14 H C Seppings Wright, Two Years Under the Crescent (Boston; Small, Maynard and Co., 1913) p. 59.
15 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London;, 1912) p. 46.
16 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 48.
17 A Fenduk, or Caravanserai, was a type of inn or lodging house consisting of a more or less square enclosure surrounded by a wall and pierced by an arched gateway. Built on the inside of the wall were a number of bare windowless rooms with doors that opened into the square, which contained a well or water source. Animals, such as camels or horses, would remain tethered in the square whilst their owners could store their possessions, and sleep, in the rooms. The gate was locked during the night affording some security, and whilst no charge was made to stay, those who could afford to were expected, on leaving, to leave a small gratuity to the porter.
18 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 1.
19 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 55.
20 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 45.
21 Charles Wellington Furlong, ‘Italy finds Tripoli a Hard Nut to Crack’ in The New York Times, 4 May 1912.
22 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 248-9.
23 Herbert Gerald Montagu, despatch to The Central News dated 14 January 1912. Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) pp. 68-9.
24 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 51.
25 Interview with Marconi, New York Times 24 March 1912.
26 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 249.
27 Diario storico del Comando I Gruppo Artiglieria da Fortezza di Tripoli (28 settembre 1911-16 ottobre 1912). Gianni Oliva, Storia degli alpini (Milano; Rizzoli, 1985).
28 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 54.
29 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 55.
30 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 76.
31 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 56.
32 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 50.
33 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 56.
34 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 57.
35 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 82.
36 Reuters despatch from Tripoli City. 6 December 1911.
37 David Nicolle and Raffaele Ruggeri, The Italian Army of World War I (Oxford; Osprey, 2003) p. 34.
38 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 122.
CHAPTER NINE
1 Alan Ostler, The Arabs in Tripoli (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 58.
2 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 108.
3 The inventor was French farmer Paul Decauville, who conceived the idea after visiting the narrow gauge Rheilffordd Ffestiniog (Ffestiniog Railway) between Blaenau Ffestiniog and Porthmadog in North Wales. He originally devised it as a means of improving access to his land, but realised that it could be adapted for other purposes. He formed a company to produce track and rolling stock in 1875. The French Army adopted the system in 1888 and it had become standardised equipment for the militaries of several countries by 1914. See: ‘Portable Railways’ in Scientific American Supplement No. 446 New York, 19 July 1884; Pascal Ory, 1889 La Mémoire des siècles: L’Expo universelle (Paris; Editions Complexe, 1989) p. 119; Ffestiniog Railway Company, Rheilffordd Ffestiniog Guide Book (Porthmadog; Ffestiniog Railway Company, 1997); Jim Harter,World Railways of the Nineteenth Century: A Pictorial History in Victorian Engravings (Baltimore MD; John Hopkins University Press, 2005) p. 141.
4 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia 180/5: Caneva to Pollio, 19 Dec. I911; AUSSME 180/5: Intendenza, Corpo di Spedizione in Libia, reports of 19 & 27 Dec. 1911.
5 Claud H Williams, Report on the Military Geography of the North-Western Desert of Egypt (London; HM Government, 1919) p. 60. See also: Jim Harold, ‘Cars, Deserts, Maps and Naming: An Analysis of Captain Claud H Williams’ Report on the Military Geography of the North-Western Desert of Egypt, (1917).’ A paper presented to the Fifth Biennial ASTENE (Association for the Study of Travel in Egypt and the Near East) Conference, held on Friday 11 July - Monday 14 July 2003 at Worcester College, Oxford.
6 Cape Times, 29 May 1906.
7 Charles à Court Repington, ‘Italy’s Difficulties’ in The Times, 30 December 1911.
8 Winston S Churchill, The River War: The Reconquest of the Sudan (London; New English Library, 1985) p. 262.
9 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 132.
10 Baedeker’s Mediterranean: Seaports and Sea Routes including Madeira, The Canary Islands, The Coast of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia (Leipzig; Karl Baedeker, 1911) p. 404.
11 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 264.
12 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 130.
13 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) pp. 106-7.
14 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 112-3.
15 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 132.
16 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 132.
17 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 113.
18 Respectively: Ciro Paoletti, A Military History of Italy (Westport, CT; Praeger Security International, 2008) p. 134; Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 263; W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 114; Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War For A Desert: Being Some Experiences Of A War Correspondent With The Italians In Tripoli (Chicago, IL; F G Browne, 1913) p. 30.
19 Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922 [The Italians in Libya: Tripoli Beautiful Land of Love], Vol. I (Millan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 135.
20 Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922 [The Italians in Libya: Tripoli Beautiful Land of Love], Vol. I (Millan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 136.
21 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 115.
22 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 137.
23 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) pp. 108-9.
24 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 117.
25 The correspondence between Frugoni and Peccori-Giraldi was published as ‘Il Memoriale di Pecori-Giraldi’ in La Stampa. 12 March 1912.
26 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 120.
27 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 143.
28 Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito: Carteggio Libia 2/15: Maj. Gen. Gaetano Giardina to Giolitti, San Giuliano, Spingardi, and Pollio. 4 January 1912.
29 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 123.
30 Charles à Court Repington, ‘Italy’s Difficulties’ in The Times, 30 December 1911.
31 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) p. 121.
32 Pol Tristan, ‘Le combat de Gargaresch’ in L’Ouest-Éclair, 24 Fevrier 1912.
33 Pol Tristan, ‘Le combat de Gargaresch’ in L’Ouest-Éclair, 24 Fevrier 1912.
34 Alan Ostler, ‘An Arab Joan of Arc’ in the New York Daily Tribune 10 March 1912.
35 Georges Remond, Aux Camps Turco-Arabes: Notes de Route et de guerre en Cyrénaïque et en Tripolitaine (Paris; Hachette, 1913) p. 56.
36 C R Pennell, ‘Women and Resistance to Colonialism in Morocco: the Rif 1916–1926’ in The Journal of African History, Volume 28, 1987. p. 115.
37 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 32.
38 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 35.
39 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 35.
40 Andrew Mango, Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 105.
41 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 30.
42 Wilfred T P Castle, Grand Turk: An Historical Outline of Life and Events, of Culture and Politics, of Trade and Travel during the Last Years of the Ottoman Empire and the First Years of the Turkish Republic (London; Hutchinson, 1943) p. 90.
43 Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 106.
44 Captain R Murdoch Smith RE and Commander E A Porcher RN, History of the Recent Discoveries at Cyrene, made during an Expedition to the Cyrenaica in 1860-61, under the Auspices of Her Majesty’s Government (London; Day & Son, 1864) pp. 59-60.
45 Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger of 28 January 1912.
46 Renato Tittoni, The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12): Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff (Kansas City, MO; Franklin Hudson, 1914) pp. 43-4.
47 Relazione sul combattimento di Koefia del Generale d’Amico, Comandante la 3a Brigata di Fanteria (28 novembre 1911). Archivo Storico Stato Maggiore Esercito. 144. 6.
48 Ilhan Aksit (Ed.), Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (Istanbul; Cagalog lu, 1998) p. 33.
49 Jacob M Landau, Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey (Boulder, CO; Westview Press, 1984) p. 22.
50 Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 105.
51 Renato Tittoni, The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12): Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff (Kansas City, MO; Franklin Hudson, 1914) p. 81.
52 Patrick Kinross, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (New York; Morrow, 1965) p. 63.
53 Quoted in Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 106.
54 Quoted in Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (Woodstock, NY; Overlook Press, 2002) p. 106.
55 Massimiliano Munzi, ‘Italian Archaeology in Libya: From Colonial Romanita to Decolonization of the Past’ in Michael L Galaty and Charles Watkinson, Archaeology under Dictatorship (New York, NY; Springer, 2004) p. 79.
56 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 267.
57 Otfried Layriz and R B Marston (Trans.), Mechanical Traction in War for Road Transport with Notes on Automobiles Generally (London; Sampson Low, Marston, 1900) pp. 26-7, 69-71. L Giletta, ‘Le locomotive stradali e la mobilitazione dell’esercito’ in Rivista Militare Italiana, September 1876, p. 404. P Mirandoli, ‘Le locomotive stradali’ in Rivista Militare Italiana, January 1883, p. 73 and February 1883, p. 293.
58 ‘Motor Vehicles in Warfare’ in The Horseless Age: A Monthly Journal Devoted to Motor Interests, Volume 11, Number 9, July 1897. p. 14.
59 J F C Fuller, The Conduct of War 1789-1961 (London; Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1961) p. 136. For some splendid photographs see: Richard Willcox, The Traction Engine Archive (Stonehouse, UK; The Road Locomotive Society, 2004).
60 Major General Sir John Headlam, The History of the Royal Artillery from the Indian Mutiny to the Great War, Volume II 1899-1914 (Woolwich; Royal Artillery Institution, 1937) p. 260.
61 Renato Tittoni, The Italo -Turkish War (1911-12): Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff (Kansas City, MO; Franklin Hudson, 1914) p. 109.
62 E Bartholomew, Early Armoured Cars (Oxford; Shire Publications, 1988).
63 Cesare Causa, La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Tripolitania e della Cirenaica dallo sbarco di tripoli alla pace di losanna (Firenze; Salani, 1912) p. 668.
64 Cesare Causa, La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Tripolitania e della Cirenaica dallo sbarco di tripoli alla pace di losanna (Firenze; Salani, 1912) p. 668. Ispettorato generale della motorizzazione, L’Albo d’Onore del Servizio della Motorizzazione (Roma; Ispettorato generale della motorizzazione, 1966) p. I.
65 Horace Wyatt, Motor Transports in War (London; Hodder and Stoughton, 1914) pp. 67-8.
66 H C Seppings Wright, Two Years Under the Crescent (Boston; Small, Maynard, 1913) p. 105. Seppings Wright (1849-1937) worked for The Pictorial World from about 1883, before joining the Illustrated London News in 1888. He covered the Ashanti and Dongola Campaigns and Spanish-American War for them, and was Armstrong-Whitworth’s representative in the Russo-Japanese War. He went out to Tripoli, for the Central News. R Wilkinson-Latham, From Our Special Correspondent: Victorian War Correspondents and their Campaigns (London; Hodder & Stoughton, 1979).
67 Carlo Rinaldi, I dirigibili italiani nella campagna di Libia, Storia Militare N° 18/marzo 1995 pag 38-49.
68 H C Seppings Wright, Two Years Under the Crescent (Boston; Small, Maynard, 1913) p. 106.
69 G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) pp. 291-2.
70 The New York Times, 7 March 1912.
71 Renato Tittoni, The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12): Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff (Kansas City, MO; Franklin Hudson, 1914) p. 100.
72 Report on Italian Aviation in the Turco-Italian War, 1912, Air 1/2133/207/154/12, PRO. Amadeo Chiusano and Maurizio Sapotiti, Palloni, dirigibili ed aerie del Regio Esercito (1884-1923) (Roma; Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, 1998).
73 Luigi Sacco’s report, Relazione circa le esperienze compiute dal Comm. Marconi nei giorni 16 e 17 dicembre 1911 a Tripoli, can be viewed at http://luigisacco.bonavoglia.eu/relazione_19111220.pdf Interview with Marconi, reported on 30 December 1911 in The New York Times. Franco Soresini, 90 anni di trasmissioni nell’esercito italiano: segnalazioni, telegrafia, telefonia e radio (Maser; Mose, 1998)
CHAPTER TEN
1 H N Brailsford, The War of Steel and Gold (London; G Bell, 1914) p. 169.
2 Joseph Heller, British policy towards the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1914 (London; Frank Cass, 1983) p. 53.
3 Quoted by W T Stead, in an untitled posthumously published piece dated 1 April 1912 in The Review of Reviews for June 1912.
4 Giorgio Rochat and Giulio Massobrio, Breve storia dell’esercito italiano dal 1861 al 1943 (Turin; Einaudi, 1978) p. 163.
5 Avanti 1 October 1911.
6 A James Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1979) p. 129.
7 J Gentilli, Italian Roots in Australian Soil: Italian Migration to Western Australia 1829-1946 (Marangaroo, Western Australia; Italo-Australian Welfare Centre, 1983) p. 58.
8 C J Lowe, ‘Grey and the Tripoli War, 1911-1912’ in F H Hinsley (Ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1977) p. 315
9 A despatch from St Petersburg dated 29 September 1911, quoted in the Novoe Vremya.
10 G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 780.
11 Helmuth von Moltke, Briefe über Zustände und Begebenheiten in der Türkei aus den Jahren 1835-39 (Berlin; Mittler, 1841).
12 Karl Küntzer, Abdul Hamid II und die Reformen in der Türkei (Dresden/Leipzig; Carl Reissner, 1897) p. 22.
13 Merwin Albert Griffiths. The Reorganization of the Ottoman Army under Abdülhamid II, 1880-1897 (Los Angeles, CA; University of California, 1968) p. 67.
14 Rifat Önsoy, Türk-Alman iktisadî münasebetleri (1871-1914) (Istanbul; Ünal Matbaası, 1982); Andreas Birken, Die Wirtschaftsbeziehungen zwischen Europa und dem Vorderen Orient im ausgehenden 19. Jahrhundert (Wiesbaden; L Reichert, 1980).
15 Boris Barth, Die deutsche Hochfinanz und die Imperialisten: Banken und Aussenpolitik vor 1914 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1995).
16 Mustafa Aydin, Turkish Foreign Policy: Framework and Analysis (Ankara; Center for Strategic Research, 2004) p. 6.
17 Milos Kovic, Disraeli and the Eastern Question (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 2011) p. 165.
18 Commodore W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War (Annapolis, MD; United States Naval Institute, 1913) p. 46.
19 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 96.
20 Luigi Albertini, Le origini della guerra del 1914: Vol. I, Le relazioni europee dal Congresso di Berlino all’attentato di Sarajevo (Milano; Bocca, 1941)p. 358.
21 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi [Memories of My Life, with a study by Olindo Malagodi] (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 392.
22 Ronald P Bobroff, Roads to Glory: Late Imperial Russia and the Turkish Straits (London; I B Tauris, 2006) pp. 29-31.
23 Hansard’s Commons Debates, 4 July 1907, Volume 177 columns 863-4.
24 A Silva White, The Expansion of Egypt under Anglo-Egyptian Condominium (London; Methuen, 1899)
25 Agenzia Diplomatica, 2013/752. Archivio Centrale del Stato, Presidenza Consiglio Ministero collection, Archivio Centrale del Stato, Roma.
26 Reuters Telegram 10 January 1912.
27 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 15.
28 Questions diplomatiques et coloniales: revue de politique extérieure paraissant le 1er et le 16 de chaque mois quatorzieme. Année – 1919 tome XXX (Juillet-Décembre) (Paris; Rédaction at administration, 1910) p. 432.
29 Anthony Clayton, Histoire de l’armée française en Afrique: 1830-1962 (Paris; Albin Michel, 1994) p. 104.
30 Brian R Sullivan, ‘The Strategy of the Decisive Weight: Italy, 1882-1922’ in Williamson Murray, MacGregor Knox and Alvin Bernstein (Eds.) The Making of Strategy: Rulers, States, and War (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1994) p. 326.
31 Flight: A Journal Devoted to the Interests, Practice, and Progress of Aerial Locomotion and Transport, Volume 2, Part 2 1910, p. 585.
32 Cour Permanente D’arbitrage, Affaire du Carthage. France contre Italie. Sentence Arbitrale, La Haye, Le 6 Mai 1913. Cour Permanente D’arbitrage, Affaire du Manouba. France contre Italie. Sentence Arbitrale, La Haye, Le 6 Mai 1913.
33 See: Yavuz Kansu, Sermet Senso z, Yılmaz O ztuna, Havacılık Tarihinde Türkler (Ankara; Hava Kuvvetleri Basım ve Nesriyat Mud, 1971) p. 124. Bülent Yilmazer, ‘Ottoman Aviation, Prelude to Military Use of Aircraft’ Appendix A of Edward J Erickson, Defeat in Detail: the Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912-1913 (Westport, CN; Praeger, 2003) p. 350-51. Süreyya lmen,Turkiye’de Tayyarecilik ve Balonculuk Tarihi (Istanbul; brahim Horoz Basımevi, 1947) pp. 51-54. For the German-Japanese combat see Charles Stephenson, Germany’s Asia-Pacific Empire: Colonialism and Naval Policy, 1885-1914 (Woodbridge; Boydell Press, 2009) pp. 153-176.
34 Raymond Poincaré and Sir George Arthur (Trans.), The Memoirs of Raymond Poincaré, Volume I (London; Heinemann, 1926); J F V Keiger, Raymond Poincaré (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1997).
35 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi [Memories of My Life, with a study by Olindo Malagodi] (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 387.
36 Sir James Rennell Rodd, Social and Diplomatic Memories, Third Series [Volume 3] 1902-1919 (London; Edward Arnold, 1925) p. 153.
37 The New York Times, 28 January 1912.
38 ‘Note commune du 26 Janvier 1912 concernant le règlement des affaires du “Carthage” et du “Manouba”’ in James Brown Scott (Ed.), Les travaux de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage de La Haye: recueil de ses sentences, accompagnees de resumes des differentes controverses, des compromis d’arbitrage et d’autres documents soumis a la cour et aux commissions internationales d’enquete en conformite des conventions de 1899 et de 1907 pour le reglement pacifique des conflits internationaux (New York; Oxford University Press, 1921).
39 Quoted in: G P Gooch, Before the War: Studies in Diplomacy, Vol. II: The Coming of The Storm (London; Longmans, Green, 1938) p. 143.
40 J F V Keiger, Raymond Poincaré (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1997) p. 135.
41 Viscount Grey of Falloden, Twenty-Five Years: 1892-1916 (London; Hodder & Staughton, 1925) Vol. I. p.195.
42 Commodore W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War (Annapolis, MD; United States Naval Institute, 1913) p. 56.
43 Sir James Rennell Rodd, Social and Diplomatic Memories, Third Series [Volume 3] 1902-1919 (London; Edward Arnold, 1925) p. 153.
44 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 142.
45 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 112.
46 Tullio Irace, With the Italians in Tripoli: The Authentic History of the Turco-Italian War (London; John Murray, 1912) p. 313.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
1 James Elroy Flecker and Sir John Squire (Ed.), The Collected Poems of James Elroy Flecker (London; Secker & Warburg, 1947) p. xvii.
2 Achile Rastelli, ‘les operations navales durant la de guerre de 1911 entre l’Italie et la Turquie’ in revue Navires et Histoires, No.s 22 and 23 fevrier and mars 2004.
3 Hansard’s Commons Debates, 14 March 1912, Volume 35, Columns 1243-4.
4 Muhammad Yusuf Abbasi, London Muslim League, 1908-1928: An Historical Study (Islamabad; National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, 1988) p. 262.
5 John Slight, The British Empire and the hajj 1865-1939. http://hdl.handle.net/10036/82014
6 Azmi Özcan, Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain (1877-1924) (Leiden; Brill, 1997) p. 141.
7 Ufuk Gülsoy, Hicaz Demiryolu (stanbul, Eren, 1994)
8 Edmund Burke III, ‘A Comparative View of French Native Policy in Morocco and Syria, 1912-1925’ in Middle Eastern StudiesVol. 9, No. 2 (May, 1973). William I Shorrock, ‘The Origin of the French Mandate in Syria and Lebanon: The Railroad Question, 1901–1914’ in International Journal of Middle East Studies (1970), 1. Jan Karl Tanenbaum, ‘France and the Arab Middle East, 1914-1920’ in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 68, No. 7 (1978).
9 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 121.
10 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 416-7. Sergio Romano, Giuseppe Volpi: Industrie e finanzafra Giolitti e Mussolini (Milan: Bompiani, 1979).
11 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 121.
12 Commodore W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War (Annapolis, MD; United States Naval Institute, 1913) p. 56.
13 The Times, 26 February 1912.
14 26 February 1912. The New York Times.
15 Howard Bliss, ‘Report Sent to the Board of Trustees, New York, 27 February 1912’ in Main Gate, American University of Beirut Quarterly Magazine, Fall 2006 Vol. V, No. 1.
16 Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 208.
17 Report in The Times, 26 February 1912.
18 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 393-4.
19 ‘Beirut Affair’ in the Evening Post, 27 February 1912.
20 Report in The Times, 26 February 1912.
21 Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 208.
22 Various news agency reports, 24 and 27 February 1912.
23 Circular telegram from Foreign Office to British Ambassadors to France, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia. 28 February 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 368.
24 Buchanan to Grey. 5 March 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 373.
25 James Brown Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Part I (New York; Oxford University Press, 1916) p. 342.
26 Alfred Franzis Pribram (Ed.), The Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary 1879-1914 (Cambridge; Harvard University Press, 1920) Vol. I. p. 225.
27 Alfred Franzis Pribram (Ed.), The Secret Treaties of Austria-Hungary 1879-1914 (Cambridge; Harvard University Press, 1920) Vol. I. p. 243.
28 Lamar Cecil, Wilhelm II Volume II: Emperor and exile, 1900-1941 (Chapel Hill, NC; University of North Carolina Press, 1996) p. 15. Lamar Cecil, Wilhelm II Volume II: Emperor and exile, 1900-1941 (Chapel Hill, NC; University of North Carolina Press, 1996) p. 15. Isabel V Hull, The Entourage of Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1888-1918 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2004) p. 34.
29 Luigi Albertini, Le origini della guerra del 1914: Vol. I, Le relazioni europee dal Congresso di Berlino all’attentato di Sarajevo (Milano; Bocca, 1941) pp. 358-9.
30 James Brown Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Part I (New York; Oxford University Press, 1916) p. 342-3.
31 James Brown Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Part I (New York; Oxford University Press, 1916) p. 344.
32 J K L Fitzwilliams, ‘The Coast Defenses of Turkey’ in the Journal of the United States ArtilleryVol. 43 No. 1 January-February 1915.
33 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 399.
34 Luigi Albertini, Le origini della guerra del 1914: Vol. I, Le relazioni europee dal Congresso di Berlino all’attentato di Sarajevo (Milano; Bocca, 1941) pp. 359-60.
35 Grey to Rodd. 19 April, and Grey to Lowther, 20 April 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) pp. 387-8.
36 Grey to Rodd. 22 April 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 388. Viscount Morley, reply to the Marquess of Lansdowne. House of Lords Debates, 22 April 1912, Volume 11, Columns 797-8.
37 Bilâl N im ir (Ed.), Ege Sorunu: Belgeler Cilt-1 1912-1913 (Ankara : Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1976) p. 75.
38 Berchtold to von Merey (Rome) and Szogyeny (Berlin). 24 July 1914. Austrian Red Book: Official Files Pertaining to Pre-War History, Part I, 28 June to 23 July 1914 (London; George Allen & Unwin, 1920) p. 110.
39 Grey to Lowther. 30 April 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 390.
40 Grey to Rodd. 30 April 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 390.
41 Rodd to Grey. 1 May 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 391.
42 Buchanan to Nicolson (Private Letter). 2 May 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 394.
43 C J Lowe, ‘Grey and the Tripoli War, 1911-1912’ in F H Hinsley (Ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1977)
44 Minutes of meeting of 9 November 1911. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, L8, R1.
45 Spingardi to Pollio. Letter dated 12 January 1912. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, L8, R2.
46 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 403.
47 Fritz Fischer, War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1975) p. 145.
48 M G Pasqualini, L’esercito italiano nel Dodecaneso 1912-1943, speranze e realtà, i documenti dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito (Roma; Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, 2006) pp. 18-34.
49 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 402.
50 Ernest N Bennett, With the Turks in Tripoli: Being Some Experiences in the Turco-Italian War of 1911 (London; Methuen, 1912) p. 294.
51 W H Beehler, The History of the Italian-Turkish War, September 29, 1911, to October 18, 1912 (Annapolis, MD; William H Beehler, 1913) p. 53.
CHAPTER TWELVE
1 Rear-Admiral ECT Troubridge, Memorandum of 29 June 1912: ‘Italian occupation of Aegean Islands and its effect on naval policy’
2 Giuseppe Bevione, ‘La meravigliosa avventura nei Dardanelli narrate do Guiseppe Bevione’ in La Stampa, 25 luglio 1912.
3 Mariano Gabriele, La marina nella guerra italo-turca: il potere marittimo strumento militare e politico (1911-1912) (Roma; Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1998) p. 164. M G Pasqualini, L’esercito italiano nel Dodecaneso 1912-1943, speranze e realtà, i documenti dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito (Roma; Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, 2006) p. 39.
4 Memoria sulla costituzione del Distaccamento di Bomba, in Direttive per l’occupazione dell’ isola di Rodi, 22 aprile 1912, L8 R 180.
5 Direttive per l’occupazione dell’ isola di Rodi, 22 aprile 1912. Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, L8 R61.
6 Count Berchtold to Kajetan von Merey. (Telegram) Vienna, 23 May 1912. James Brown Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Part I (New York; Oxford University Press, 1916) p. 345.
7 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi [Memories of My Life, with a study by Olindo Malagodi] (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 403.
8 Ladislaus Count von Szögyény-Marich, the Austro-Hungarian ambassador in Berlin, to Count Berchtold. (Telegram.) Berlin, May 21, 1912. James Brown Scott (Ed.), Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War, Part I (New York; Oxford University Press, 1916) p. 344.
9 Rear-Admiral ECT Troubridge, Memorandum of 29 June 1912: ‘Italian occupation of Aegean Islands and its effect on naval policy’ in G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Vol. IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) no. 430, pp. 413–15.
10 C J Lowe, ‘Grey and the Tripoli War, 1911-1912’ in F H Hinsley (Ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1997) p. 322.
11 Randolph S Churchill, Winston S Churchill, Companion Volume II, Part 3 1911-1914 (London; Heinemann, 1969) p. 1565.
12 Joseph S Roucek, ‘The Legal Aspects of Sovereignty over the Dodecanese’ in The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct., 1944) p. 701.
13 HC Deb 12 August 1913 vol 56 cc2281-352.
14 Jeanne Z Stephanopoli, Les Iles de l’Egee Leurs Privileges (avec documents et notes statistiques) (Atene; Apostolopoulos, 1912) p. 147.
15 Dr Skevos Zervos, The Dodecanese: The History of the Dodecanese through the Ages - Its Services to Mankind and its Rights (No Place; No Publisher, 1918-19) p. 65.
16 Quoted in Renzo Sertoli Salis, Le isole italiane dell’Egeo dall’occupazione alla sovranità (Roma; Vittoriano, 1939) p. 19.
17 Quoted in Renzo Sertoli Salis, Le isole italiane dell’Egeo dall’occupazione alla sovranità (Roma; Vittoriano, 1939) p. 20.
18 Dr Skevos Zervos, Le Dodécanèse: l’histoire du Dodécanèse à travers les siècles - les services qu’il a rendus à l’humanité ses droits (London; no publisher, no date -probably 1920) p. 71.
19 Joseph S Roucek, ‘The Legal Aspects of Sovereignty over the Dodecanese’ in The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct., 1944) p. 701. Dr Skevos Zervos, Le Dodécanèse: l’histoire du Dodécanèse à travers les siècles - les services qu’il a rendus à l’humanité ses droits (London; no publisher, no date-probably 1920) pp. 72-3.
20 L Divanis, F Constantopoulou et al, The Dodecanese: The long road to union with Greece. Diplomatic Documents from the Historical Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Athens; Kastaniotis, 1997) p. 17. William Miller, The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913 (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1913) p. 497.
21 M G Pasqualini, L’esercito italiano nel Dodecaneso 1912-1943, speranze e realtà, i documenti dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito (Roma; Archivio dell’Ufficio Storico dello Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito, 2006) p. 72. For a Greek perspective see: Αυτώνη Σεβ. Μαίλλη, ‘Η κατάληψη της Ρόδου: Χρονικό της ιολεμικής εειχείρησης του ιταλικών στρατιωτικών δυνάμεων’ in ΕΕτα Ημερεσ, Κυριακη 30 Νοεμβριου 1997. p. 4.
22 R J B Bosworth, ‘Italy and the End of the Ottoman Empire’ in M Kent (Ed.) The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire (London: Allen and Unwin 1984) p. 64. Cesare Cesari, Colonie e possedimenti coloniali. Cenni storici e geografici. Con 15 tavole ed una breve appendice riassuntiva delle varie questioni d’Oriente (Roma; Libreria di Scienze e Lettere, 1926) . p. 161.
23 Albert Legrand to Justin de Selves, 20 November 1911. Commission de publication des documents relatifs aux origines de la guerre de 1914, Documents diplomatiques francais 1871-1914. 3. serie (1911-1914) tome 1 (Paris; Imprimerie nationale, 1929) p. 161.
24 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill) p. 114.
25 Generale Alberto Pollio, promemoria sulla nostra situazione politico-militare trasmesso a Paolo Spingardi il 30 giugno 1912, in Carte Giolitti, Sottofasc c/5, Archivio Centrale dello Stato.
26 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi [Memories of My Life, with a study by Olindo Malagodi] (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 471.
27 Camillo Manfroni (Ed.), Guerra italo- turca (1911-1912): Cronistoria delle operazioni navali, Vol. II: Dal decreto di sovranità su la Libia alla conclusione della pace (Roma; Poligrafico, 1926) p. 171. The whole story of the attack can be found in this work on pp. 168-179, and unless otherwise stated it is the source of this section. Millo’s report can be found in the Archivo Storico Stato Maggiore Esercito, 223, Forzamento dei Dardanelli - Telegrammi del Comandante Millo e dell’Ammiraglio Viale (19-20 luglio 1912).
28 Report from Naval Attaché Rome, to Sir Rennell Rodd. 23 July 1912. UK National Archives. PRO ADM 116/1154.
29 Alfredo Frassati, ‘Cinque torpediniere italiene s’inoltrano per 20 chilometri nei Dardanelli sotto il fuoco incrociato dei forti turchi’ in La Stampa, 21 luglio 1912.
30 Giuseppe Bevione, ‘La meravigliosa avventura nei Dardanelli narrate do Guiseppe Bevione’ in La Stampa, 25 luglio 1912.
31 Giovanno Giolotti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi [Memories of My Life, with a study by Olindo Malagodi] (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 406.
32 Marling to Grey. No. 624. 23 July 1912, UK National Archives. PRO ADM 116/1154.
33 Mariano Gabriele, La marina nella guerra italo-turca: il potere marittimo strumento militare e politico (1911-1912) (Roma; Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1998) p. 170
34 E Ashmead-Bartlett, The Uncensored Dardanelles (London; Hutchinson, 1928) p. 177.
35 B H Liddell Hart, The Defence of Britain (London; Faber and Faber, 1939) p. 130.
36 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Publication 3-02; Amphibious Operations. 10 August 2009. Available at http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp3_02.pdf
37 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 48.
38 Rear-Admiral William Henry Smyth, The Mediterranean: A Memoir Physical, Historical, and Nautical (London; John Parker, 1854) p. 87.
39 Enver Pasa, Um Tripolis (Munchen, Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 48-9.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
1 ‘La Misura,’ an article in Rome’s La Tribuna. Quoted in Carl Ludwig Siemering, ‘Artikel Rundschau’ in Alfred M Fried (Ed.), Die Friedens-Warte: Zeitschrift für zwischenstaatliche Organisation (Berlin; 1912) p. 360.
2 J C Hobhouse, A Journey through Albania and Other Provinces of Turkey in Europe and Asia to Constantinople during the Years 1809 and 1810, Volume I (London; James Cawthorn, 1813) Letter XIV pp. 159-60.
3 Jovan M Jovanovi, Borba za narodno ujedinjenje 1903–1908 (Belgrade; Geca Kon, 1938) pp. 81–4.
4 For the text of these agreements see: ‘Diplomatist’ [Sir George Young] and Lord Courtney of Penwith (Ed.), Nationalism and War in the Near East (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1915) pp. 387-400.
5 Imre Ress, ‘The Value System of Serb Liberalism’ in Iván Zoltán Dénes (Ed.), Liberty and the Search for Identity: Liberal Nationalisms and the Legacy of Empires (Budapest; Central European University Press, 2006) p. 354
6 Murat Ocak, Hasan Celâl Güzel, Cem O uz, Osman Karatay (Eds.), The Turks, 6 Volumes, Volume 4, Ottomans (Ankara; Yeni Tu rkiye, 2002).
7 Antonino di San Giuliano, Lettere sull’Albania: pubblicate nel Giornale d’Italia (Roma; Giornale d’Italia, 1903).
8 ‘Diplomatist’ [Sir George Young] and Lord Courtney of Penwith (Ed.), Nationalism and War in the Near East (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1915) p. 160
9 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 234.
10 Other than those already mentioned, George Gooch and Harold Temperley, the editors of British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, placed their treatment of the Italo-Ottoman War firmly within the context of, and as a prelude to, the Balkan Wars. See: Gooch, G P and Temperley, H W V (Eds.). British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Vol. IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933).
11 Sir James Rennell Rodd, Social and Diplomatic Memories, Third Series [Volume 3] 1902-1919 (London; Edward Arnold, 1925) p. 160.
12 Quoted by W T Stead, in an untitled posthumously published piece dated 1 April 1912 in The Review of Reviews for June 1912.
13 [Ministry of Foreign Affairs], The Bulgarian Question and the Balkan States (Sofia; State printing Press, 1919) p. 22.
14 Celal Bayar, Ben de Yazdım: Milli Mücadeleye gidi, Vol III (stanbul: Sabah Kitapları, 1997) p. 814.
15 Re at Halli, Balkan Harbi (1912-1913): I.Cilt [Volume I], Harbin Sebepleri, Askeri Hazirliklar ve Osmanli Devletinin Harbe Girii (Ankara; Genelkurmay, 1970) p. 119.
16 Report by H Conyers Surtees, military attaché, Constantinople. 20 June 1909. PRO/FO 195/2323.
17 Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett, With the Turks in Thrace (New York; George H Doran, 1913) p. 55.
18 Brigadier Henry Wilson, War Staff Memorandum on Coercive Action against Turkey, 24 April 1911. UK NA WO 106/43.
19 Re at Halli, Balkan Harbi (1912-1913): I.Cilt [Volume I], Harbin Sebepleri, Askeri Hazirliklar ve Osmanli Devletinin Harbe Giri i (Ankara; Genelkurmay, 1970) pp. 130-31.
20 Cemal Kutay, Trablus Garb’de Bir Avuç Kahraman (Istanbul; Kutay, 1978) pp. 86–111. Hamdi Ertuna, Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri Tarihi, Osmanlı Devri, Osmanlı-talyan Harbi (Ankara; Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1981) pp. 152-58.
21 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 10.
22 The main source for this section dealing with the fall of the Sait Pasa government and its replacement is Childs. Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) pp. 168-70.
23 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 61-2.
24 List of Ottoman Ministers of War 1908-1914 in Edward J Erickson, Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans 1912-1913 (Westport, CT; Greenwood, 2003) p. 22.
25 Paolo Maltese, La terra promessa: La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Libia 1911-12 (Milano; Mondadori, 1976) pp. 297-8.
26 Vossische Zeitung 31 August 1908.
27 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) pp. 171-2.
28 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 67.
29 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi(Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 425.
30 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) pp. 160-1.
31 William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 239.
32 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 429.
33 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 435-6.
34 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 172. n. 60.
35 William C Askew, Europe and Italy’s Acquisition of Libya, 1911-1912 (Durham, NC; Duke University Press, 1942) p. 241.
36 Luigi Albertini and Ottavio Bari (Ed.), Epistolario 1911-1926, Vol. I Dalla guerra di Libia alla Grande Guerra (Milano; Mondadori, 1968) p. 132.
37 Benedetto Cirmeni in an article in Vienna’s Neue Freie Presse, 18 January 1912.
38 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. p. 408.
39 Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 248.
40 Cable Press Association despatch. Rome 5 September 1912.
41 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 53.
42 Preparations for assaulting the Italian defences had been ongoing for several months. See Appendix B for example.
43 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 77.
44 Enver had formed units of Arab volunteers, ‘the sons or relatives of influential sheikhs,’ into infantry companies under the command of regular Ottoman officers. These were trained in conventional infantry tactics, armed with Mauser rifles, and wore the uniform of the Ottoman army. A company thus constituted he termed a Gardekompagnie. Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 37, 38, 42, 43, 45, 56, 59, 79, 99.
45 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 79-83.
46 Renato Tittoni, The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12): Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff (Kansas City, MO; Franklin Hudson, 1914) pp. 75-6.
47 W K McClure, Italy in North Africa: An Account of the Tripoli Enterprise (London; Constable, 1913) pp. 204-5.
48 Dario Temperino, Cavalleggeri di Lodi 1859-1995 (www.bibliomil.com/pdf/cavalleggeri_lodi.pdf, 2009) pp. 27-28.
49 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War For A Desert: Being Some Experiences Of A War Correspondent With The Italians In Tripoli (Chicago, IL; F G Browne, 1913) p. xxvii.
50 Baron Bernardo Quaranta di San Severino, ‘The Peace Negotiations between Italy and Turkey’ in The New York Times, 24 November 1912.
51 Correspondent at Andrievitza, ‘Berane Massacre’ in The Times, 3 September 1912.
52 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 195.
53 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 206.
54 Herbert Dering to Sir Edward Grey. 13 October 1912. G P Gooch and H W V Temperley (Eds.), British Documents on the Origins of the War: 1898-1914, Volume IX, The Balkan Wars, Part I, The Prelude: The Tripoli War (London; HMSO, 1933) p. 428.
55 ‘Italy Grants 3 Days’ Grace to Turkey’ in the New York Tribune, 13 October 1912.
56 Richard C Hall, The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: Prelude to the First World War (London; Routledge, 2000) p. 56.
57 Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) p. 224.
58 The text of both treaties can be found in: Timothy W Childs, Italo-Turkish Diplomacy and the War over Libya, 1911-1912 (Leiden; E J Brill, 1990) pp. 246-253.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
1 Italian proclamation to the Arabs. Quoted in: G F Abbott, The Holy War in Tripoli (London; Edward Arnold, 1912) p. 195.
2 Lines taken from: Rudyard Kipling, The White Man’s Burden: A Poem (New York; Doubleday and McClure, 1899).
3 Aldobrandino Malvezzi, L’Italia e L’Islam in Libia (Firenze; Fratelli Treves, 1913) p. 186.
4 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars (Washington DC; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1914) p. 49.
5 Deniz Bölükba ı, Turkey and Greece: The Aegean Disputes: A Unique Case in International Law (London; Cavendish, 2004) p. 832.
6 Bernd Langensiepen and Ahmet Guleryuz, The Ottoman Steam Navy: 1828-1923 (Annapolis, MD; Naval Institute Press, 1995) pp. 19–21, 25.
7 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Report of the International Commission to Inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars (Washington DC; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1914) p. 72.
8 Arnold J Toynbee, The Western Question in Greece and Turkey: A Study in the Contact of Civilisations (London; Constable, 1922) p. 139.
9 Richard C Hall, The Balkan Wars, 1912-1913: Prelude to the First World War (London; Routledge, 2000) p. 15.
10 Fabio Gramellini, Storia della guerra italo-turca 1911-1912 (Milano; CartaCanta, 2010) p. 222.
11 The New York Times, 17 October 1912.
12 Winston S Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, in response to a question in the UK Parliament on 10 October 1912. Hansard’s Commons Debates, 10 October 1912, Vol. 42, Column 506.
13 Luigi Albertini, Corriere della Sera. 16 October 1912.
14 Giovanno Giolitti, Memorie della mia vita, con uno studio di Olindo Malagodi (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1922) Volume II. pp. 469-71.
15 David Nicolle, The Venetian Empire 1200–1670 (Oxford; Osprey, 1989).
16 Sergio Romano, La quarta sponda: la guerra di Libia, 1911-1912 (Milano; Bompiani, 1977) p. 235; Paolo Maltese, La terra promessa: La guerra italo-turca e la conquista della Libia 1911-12 (Milano; Mondadori, 1976) pp. 333-4, 350-1.
17 Mariano Gabriele, La marina nella guerra italo-turca: il potere marittimo strumento militare e politico (1911-1912) (Roma; Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1998) p. 198.
18 Mario Montanari, Politica e strategia in cento anni di guerre italiane; vol. II: il periodo liberale; tomo I: le guerre d’Africa (Roma; Ufficio storico delleo stato Maggior dell’Esercito, 1999) p. 463.
19 Mariano Gabriele, La marina nella guerra italo-turca: il potere marittimo strumento militare e politico (1911-1912) (Roma; Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare, 1998) p. 195.
20 ‘Deputies Cheer Giolitti’ in The New York Times, 27 November 1912.
21 Guido Mussolini and Filippo Giannini, Benito Mussolini, l’uomo della pace: Da Versailles al 10 giugno 1940 (Milano; Greco & Greco, 1997) p. 71.
22 Sources include: The ‘Correlates of War’ project, an academic study of the history of warfare by the University of Michigan. www.correlatesofwar.org/; Renato Tittoni, The Italo-Turkish War (1911-12): Translated and Compiled from the Reports of the Italian General Staff (Kansas City, MO; Franklin Hudson, 1914).
23 ‘Diplomatist’ [Sir George Young] and Lord Courtney of Penwith (Ed.), Nationalism and War in the Near East (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1915) p. 158.
24 Giorgio Rochat and Giulio Massobrio, Breve storia dell’esercito italiano dal 1861 al 1943 (Turin; Einaudi, 1978) p. 163.
25 Antonella Randazzo, Roma predona: Il colonialismo italiano in Africa, 1870-1943 (Milano; Kaos, 2006) p. 45.
26 Dr Skevos Zervos, The Dodecanese: The History of the Dodecanese through the Ages - Its Services to Mankind and its Rights (No Place; The Executive Committee of the Dodecanesians, 1918-19) p. 75.
27 Dr Skevos Zervos, The Dodecanese: The History of the Dodecanese through the Ages - Its Services to Mankind and its Rights (No Place; The Executive Committee of the Dodecanesians, 1918-19) p. 76.
28 Dr Skevos Zervos and Paris J Roussos, The Dodecanese: Resolutions and Documents concerning the Dodecanese 1912-1919 (No place; The Executive Committee of the Dodecanesians, 1920?) p. 25.
29 Alexis Rappas, ‘National Allegiance and Imperial Loyalty: Greeks under European Colonial Rule.’ University Seminar #703: Modern Greek Studies held on 25 March 2010 at Columbia University. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/hellenicstudies/seminar_papers/2008-2009/Rappas%20Santarelli-Greek%20under%20Europeans.pdf
30 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 57.
31 From a report, Questione del Gebel. Situazione politica, by General Ottavio Ragni to the Colonial Ministry dated 19 January 1913. Luigi Tu ccari (Ed.), I governi militari della Libia, 1911-1919: Documenti (Roma; Stato maggiore dell’esercito, Ufficio storico, 1994) p. 51. Also quoted in Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 57.
32 Francesco Corò, ‘Una interessante pagina di storia libica. Suleiman el-Baruni. Il sogno di un principato berbero e la battaglia di Asàbaa 1913’ in Gli Annali dell’Africa Italian, anno I, n. 3-4, dicembre 1938, p. 960. Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 58.
33 Lisa Anderson, ‘The Development of Nationalist Sentiment in Libya, 1909-1922’ in Rashid Khalidi, Lisa Anderson, Muhammad Muslih and Reeva S Simon (Eds.), The Origins of Arab Nationalism (New York; Columbia University Press, 1991) p. 231.
34 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 60.
35 Helen Chapin Metz, Libya (Whitefish, MT; Kessinger, 2004) p. 43.
36 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 63.
37 General Ottavio Ragni to Minister Pietro Bertolini. 19 January 1913. Position 150/14, file 55. Archivio Storico del Ministero dell’Africa Italiana.
38 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 66.
39 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 67.
40 Cesira Filesi, L’archivio del Museo africano in Roma: presentazione e inventario dei documenti (Roma; Istituto italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 2001.) p. 88. Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Milan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 218.
41 Paolo Soave, Fezzan: il deserto conteso (1842-1921) (Milano; Giuffre, 2001) p. 277.
42 G W Prothero (Ed.) for the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, Peace Handbooks: Spanish and Italian Possessions: Independent States, Volume XX (London; HMSO, 1920) p. 24.
43 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) pp. 93-4.
44 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 95.
45 Majid Khadduri, ‘Aziz Ali Misri and the Arab Nationalist Movement’ in Albert Hourani (Ed.), St Antony’s Papers, 17: Middle Eastern Affairs, 4 (Oxford; Oxford University Press, 1965) pp. 140-163.
46 ‘Arab Ruse Duped Italians’ by cable from Chiasso, Switzerland dated 25 May 1913 in The New York Times, 26 May 1913. ‘General Disregards Danger Warning’ by Special Cable from Benghazi dated 25 May 1913 in The San Francisco Call, 26 May 1913.
47 Press Association Cable, dated 29 May 1913 from Rome.
48 Luigi Tu ccari (Ed.), I governi militari della Libia, 1911-1919 (Roma; Stato maggiore dell’Esercito, 1994) p. 143. Seealso: Renzo Catellani and Giancarlo Stella, Soldati d’Africa: storia del colonialismo italiano e delle uniformi per le truppe d’Africa del Regio Esercito 1897-1913 (Parma; Ermanno Albertelli, 2004) p. 126; Giuliano Bonacci, Da Tolmetta a Marsa Susa e da Derna a Sidi Garbaa: discorso letto in Roma all’Associazione della stampa il 30 Maggio 1913 (Roma; Bontempelli e Invernizzi, 1913).
49 Yunan Labib Rizk, ‘Aziz Al-Masri’s was a legend in his own time: The Ottoman officer of Egyptian origin with the heart of a lion was hailed as a hero by Egyptians’ in Al-Ahram Weekly On-line, Issue No 386, 16 - 22 July 1998. Available at: http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1998/386/chrncls.htm Anna Baldinetti, ‘Aziz Ali al-Misri: un ufficiale egiziano al fronte libico (1911-1913)’ in Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, Anno 47, No. 2 (Giugno 1992), pp. 268-275.
50 Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Milan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 261. See also: Mario Isnenghi, I luoghi della memoria: Simboli e miti dell’Italia unita (Roma; Laterza, 1996) 421.
51 Habib Wada’ah el-Hasnawi, ‘Effetti psico-sociali delle operazioni di deportazione dei libici nelle isole italiane sugli esiliati e i loro parenti in epoca coloniale (1911–1943)’ in Francesco Sulpizi and Salaheddin Hasan Sury, Primo convegno su Gli esiliati libici nel periodo coloniale: 28-29 ottobre 2000, Isole Tremiti (Roma; Istituto italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 2002) pp. 31-32, 67.
52 Romain Rainero, Paolo Valera e l’opposizione democratica all’impresa di Tripoli (Roma; L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1983) pp. 87-89.
53 Angelo Del Boca, Italiani, brava gente?: un mito duro a morire (Vicenza; Neri Pozza, 2005) p. 112.
54 Quoted in Salvatore Bono, Tripoli bel suol d’amore: Testimonianze sulla guerra italo-libica (Roma: Istituto italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente, 2005) p. 84.
55 Angelo Del Boca, Italiani, brava gente?: un mito duro a morire (Vicenza; Neri Pozza, 2005) p. 112.
56 Camera dei Deputati, Atti parlamentari, legislazione XXIV, sessione I, tornata del 18 dicembre 1913, pp. 555-557.
57 Aaron Thomas in the preface to Cesare Beccaria (Aaron Thomas (Ed.). Trans. By Aaron Thomas and Jeremy Parzen), On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings (Toronto; University of Toronto Press, 2008) p. xv.
58 William Schabas, The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 5.
59 Gherardo Pàntano, Nel Benadir: La Citta de Merca e la Regione Bimal (Livorno; Belforte, 1910).
60 Lee V Cassanelli, The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900 (Philadelphia, PA; University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982) p. 223.
61 Gherardo Pàntano, Ventitré anni di vita Africana (Firenze; Casa editrice militare italiana, 1932) p. 268.
62 Gherardo Pàntano, Rapporto del 29 Luglio 1915. ‘Memoria confidenziale del Ministry delle Colonie’ in Ministero delle Colonie (Ed.), Libia: La ribellione in Tripolitania nell’anno 1915 (Roma, Tipografia del Senato, 1916) p. 122. Quoted in part in: Romain Rainero, Paolo Valera e l’opposizione democratica all’impresa di Tripoli (Roma; L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1983) p. 116.
63 See Chapter 5 of Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007).
64 Gianni Rocca, Cadorna (Milano; Mondadori, 1985) p. 47.
65 Giorgio Rochat, L’esercito italiano da Vittorio Veneto a Mussolini (Bari; Laterza, 1967) p. 234. Luigi Cadorna, Altre pagine sulla grand guerra (Milano; Mondadori, 1925) pp. 13-14.
66 Luigi Cadorna, La guerra alla fronte italiana: fino all’arresto sulla linea della Piave e del Grappa. (24 Maggio 1915 - 9 Novembre 1917)Volume I (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1921) pp. 6, 7, 14-15, 20, 43, 44.
67 Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Milan; Mondadori, 1986) pp.261-271.
68 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 78-9. For a detailed account of the battle see:
Angelo Del Boca, La disfatta di Gasr Bu Hadi 1915: il colonnello Miani e il più grande disastro dell Italia colonial (Milano; Mondadori, 2004).
69 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 80.
70 Vincenzo Giovanni Di Meo in Istituto coloniale italiano, Atti del Convegno nazionale coloniale per il dopoguerra delle colonie: Roma 15-21 gennaio 1919, relazioni, comunicazioni e resoconti delle sedute (Roma; Unione, 1920) p. 286. Angelo Del Boca considers De Meo’s estimates to be the most accurate. Angelo Del Boca, Gli Italiani in Libia: Tripoli bel suol d’amore: 1860-1922, Vol. I (Milan; Mondadori, 1986) p. 298.
71 Antonio Salandra to Ferdinando Martini, letter of 3 July 1915. Ferdinando Martini and Gabriele de Rosa (Ed.), Diario 1914–1918 (Milano; Mondadori, 1966) p. 462.
72 Arturo Vacca Maggiolini, ‘La situazione in Tripolitania’ in Rivista Militare Italiana, January 1922, pp. 41–45.
73 Mario Morselli, Caporetto 1917: Victory or Defeat? (London; Frank Cass, 2001).
74 Ettore Miraglia, Tra le quinte della rivolta libica, an unpublished account quoted in Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) pp. 86-7.
75 Gherardo Pàntano, Ventitré anni di vita Africana (Firenze; Casa editrice militare italiana, 1932) p. 332.
76 J G Maxwell, General, Commanding the Force in Egypt. Despatch No. III. Army Headquarters, Cairo. 1 March, 1916. Quoted in: Everard Wyrall, The Die-Hards in the Great War: A History of the Duke of Cambridge’s own (Middlesex Regiment) Volume I, 1914 - 1916 (London; Harrison and Sons, 1926) p. 191. See also: http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyBritishLGDispatchesArmy1916-17.htm#29632c
77 See: Jafar Pasha Al-Askari and Mustafa Tariq Al-Askari (Trans.), A Soldier’s Story: From Ottoman rule to Independent Iraq: The Memoirs of Jafar Pasha Al-Askari (London; Arabian Publishing, 2003).
78 Malak Badrawi, Political Violence in Egypt, 1910-1924: Secret Societies, Plots and Assassinations (Richmond, UK; Curzon, 2000) p. 116.
79 R S Gwatkin-Williams, Prisoners of the Red Desert: Being a Full and True History of the Men of the ‘Tara’ (London; Thornton Butterworth, 1919) pp. 25, 26.
80 Russell McGuirk, The Sanusi’s Little War: The Amazing Story of a Forgotten Conflict in the Western Desert, 1915-1917 (London; Arabian Publishing, 2007).
81 Lieutenant-General Sir Archibald Wavell, The Palestine Campaigns (London; Constable, 1928) p. 38.
82 See particularly Chapter 2, ‘The Penetration of the Desert’, in John W Gordon, The Other Desert War: British Special Forces in North Africa, 1940-1943 (New York; Greenwood, 1987).
83 T E Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A Triumph (Garden City, NY; Doubleday, 1938) pp. 544, 545.
84 E Bartholomew, Early Armoured Cars (Oxford; Shire Publications, 1988) p. 18.
85 For the fate of the guards see R S Gwatkin-Williams, Prisoners of the Red Desert: Being a Full and True History of the Men of the ‘Tara’ (London; Thornton Butterworth, 1919) p. 295 in particular, and also for the entire episode generally. See also: S C Rolls, Steel Chariots in the Desert: The First World War Experiences of a Rolls Royce Armoured Car Driver with the Duke of Westminster in Libya and in Arabia with T.E. Lawrence (London; Jonathan Cape, 1937); William Davies, The Sea and the Sand: The Story of HMS Tara and the Western Desert Force (Caernarfon; Gwynedd Archives and Museums Service, 1988). For the official documentation pertaining to the Senussi Campaign see: http://www.naval-history.net/WW1NavyBritishLGDispatchesArmy1916-17.htm
86 Claudio G Segrè, Italo Balbo: A Fascist Life (Berkeley, CA; University of California Press, 1987) p. 322.
87 Giorgio Rochat, ‘La repressione della resistenza in Cirenaica’ in Enzo Santarelli, Giorgio Rochat, Romain H Rainero and Luigi Goglia, Omar al-Mukhtar e la riconquista fascista della Libia (Milano; Marzorati, 1981) pp. 82-83.
8 Angelo Del Boca, A un passo dalla forca: atrocita e infamie dell’occupazione italiana della Libia nelle memorie del patriota Mohamed Fekini (Milano; Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2007) p. 10.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
1 Brigadier Allan Mallinson, ‘At Ease with their Heritage’ in History Today, Volume 61, Issue 7, July 2011, p. 38.
2 Rudyard Kipling writing to Colonel H W Feilden on 29 January 1913 relating a tale told to him by ‘young Garnier’ about the Italian army in Tripoli. See: Thomas Pinney (Ed.) The Letters of Rudyard Kipling, Volume 4: 1911-19 (Iowa City, IA; University of Iowa Press, 1999) pp. 145-6.
3 Camillo Pavan, Caporetto: storia, testimonianze, itinerari (Treviso; Camillo Pavan, 1997) p. 74. See also: Dario Ascolano, Luigi Capello: Biografia militare e politica (Ravenna; Longo, 1999).
4 Luigi Capello, Per la Verita (Milano; Fratelli Treves, 1920) p. 7.
5 Quoted in John Whittam, The Politics of the Italian Army, 1861-1918 (London; Croom Helm, 1977) p. 193.
6 Paul M Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York; Random House, 1988) p. 205.
7 Edyth Hinkley, Mazzini: The Story of a Great Italian (New York; G P Putnam’s, 1924.) p. 123.
8 Allan R Becker, Problems in Desert Warfare (Quantico, VA; Marine Corps Combat Development Command, 1990) p. 4.
9 See: Ferdinando Pedriali, ‘Aerei italiani in Libia (1911-1912)’ in Storia Militare N° 170 - novembre 2007 pp. 31-40 and Carlo Rinaldi, ‘I dirigibili italiani nella campagna di Libia’ in Storia Militare N° 18 - marzo 1995 pp. 38-49.
10 Sebastiano Licheri, ‘Gli ordinamenti dell ‘aeronautica militare italiana dal 1884 al 1918’ in Ministero per i beni culturali e ambientali Ufficio centrale per i beni archivistici, Le fonti per la storia militare italiana in età contemporanea. Atti del III seminario, Roma, 16-17 dicembre 1988 (Roma; Ediprint Service, 1993) p. 480
11 ‘Marconi Plans New Inventions as Useful as Wireless’ in The New York Times, 24 March 1912.
12 C L Fortescue, Wireless Telegraphy (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1913) p. 117. Sebastian Mantei, Von der Sandbüchse zum Post-und Telegraphenland: Der Aufbau des Kommunikationsnetzwerks in Deutsch-Südwestafrika (Windhoek; Namibia Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, 2007).
13 Horst Drechsler (Trans. Bernd Zollner), Let us Die Fighting: The Struggle of the Herero and Nama against German Imperialism 1884-1915 (Berlin; Akademie, 1980) pp. 193, 186.
14 Emilio De Bono, Nell’esercito nostro prima della guerra (Milano; Mondadori, 1931) p. 391.
15 The expression was derived from an article by Gaetano Salvemini, ‘Perché non si deve andare a Tripoli’ in La Voce, Anno III, n 33, 17 agosto 1911, pp 631-632. Salvemini was an historian, journalist, and founder of the socialist journal L’unita. See: Luigi Scoppola Iacopini, ‘Capitolo Terzo. Le vicende della comunita italiana in Libia 1956-1974’ in Gianluigi Rossi (Ed.), Italia-Libia. Storia di un dialogo mai interrotto (Roma; Apes, 2012) p. 111.
16 J Gentilli, Italian Roots in Australian Soil: Italian Migration to Western Australia 1829-1946 (Marangaroo, Western Australia; Italo-Australian Welfare Centre, 1983) p. 58.
17 Enver Pascha, Um Tripolis (München; Hugo Bruckmann, 1918) p. 35.
18 Francis McCullagh, Italy’s War for a Desert (London; Herbert & Daniel, 1913) p. 91.
19 Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was famously from Corsica, which only became French territory in 1768 following purchase from the Republic of Genoa. His parents were members of the Genoese nobility; Napoleon was then very nearly Genoese. Genoa was incorporated into the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in June 1815 by the Final Act of the Treaty of Vienna.
20 Gaetano V Cavallaro, The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914-1917 (Bloomington, IN; Xlibris, 1999) Volume I, p. xxi.
21 Winston S Churchill, The Hinge of Fate (London; Cassell, 1951) p. 81.
22 H P Wilmot, The Great Crusade: A New Complete History of the Second World War (Dulles, VA; Potomac, 2008) p. 116. John Strachey, the British Secretary of State for War 1950-51, addressed the matter in a speech in Parliament in 1953: ‘[…] when I was at the War Office I remember asking Sir William Slim the then CIGS about the disasters suffered by the Italians against which he had fought during much of the War. He at once replied that the Italian troops were just as brave as the troops of any other country and that the failure was in their selection of officers. They had never succeeded in recruiting an effective officer corps. We can never expect an army to be any better than its officers. That is one of the absolute limiting factors in the efficiency of an armed Service.’
23 John Whittam, The Politics of the Italian Army, 1861-1918 (London; Croom Helm, 1977) p. 24.
24 Eric G Hansen, The Italian Military Enigma (Quantico, VA; Command and Staff College, Education Center, 1988) p. 46.
25 Quoted by W T Stead, in an untitled posthumously published piece dated 1 April 1912 in The Review of Reviews for June 1912.
26 Aldobrandino Malvezzi, L’Italia e L’Islam in Libia (Firenze; Fratelli Treves, 1913) p. 186.
27 Angelo Del Boca, Italiani, brava gente?: un mito duro a morire (Vicenza; Neri Pozza, 2005) p. 112.
28 Francesco Nitti, L’Europa senza pace (Firenze; Bemporad & Figlio, 1921) p. 87.