THE BANNS
1. Bannes. They are addressed to the audience, but they were themselves something of a performance, since the speaker also gives instructions to the actors from time to time.
2. pagens. Of obscure origin, this word had two meanings:
1. A scene or episode in the cycles, equivalent to modern ‘play’ or ‘scene’. This seems to be the sense in the Banns of Ludus Coventriae, where each play is called a pageant. Many stage directions in that cycle demanded fixed performance, which rules out the second meaning as follows.
2. The movable cart which was pulled from station to station round the streets of Chester, York, and Norwich, and many other places. David Rogers’ Breviary (Harl. MS 1944) mentions six wheels for the Chester cart. At York in 1500 and at Norwich in 1565 the carts had four wheels.
In 1534 the Norwich Grocers set aside Id for ‘sope to grese the wheles’. A stage direction in their second play (1565 text) gives evidence of two levels –
Then Man and Woman departyth to the nether parte of the pageant.
The carts became the centre of dramatic action, but it is clear that on many occasions the actors would spread out over a wider area.
3. a while abyde. Abyde a while, MS.
4. Mappa Mundi. ‘the map of the world’: this expression was used for a chart representing the world, but here it indicates the world itself in contrast to Paradise.
5. cariage. This supports the evidence that these Banns were written for a performance on wheels. The Norwich records refer to a ‘cart’.
6. wyll. No rhyme for this: formerly the Painters had been associated with the Barbers, but see below, n. 8.
7. Colyn. Cologne. The corresponding play at Coventry, Newcastle, Norwich and Reading was also called ‘The Kings of Cologne’. The relics of the Three Kings were taken to Cologne Cathedral in 1164.
8. Presentation. i.e. The Offering of the Kings. Salter supposes that the original of the Kings-Herod-Innocents play was performed by the Merchants, Vintners and Goldsmiths. After they re-grouped, the Merchants retained the Presentation. Skyle (l. 64) might be the lost rhyme for wyll (l. 52).
9. Taffyta sersnett of poppyngee grene. ‘Shining silk, bright green in colour like a parrot.’ A noteworthy indication of the cheerful and costly appearance of the carts.
10. Line missing in MS.
11. Maunday. Christ washing the feet of his Disciples at the Last Supper: John 13 34 (from Mandatum novum do vobis).
12. Skynners. Earlier the Resurrection was performed by the Tanners and Shoemakers as well as the Skinners. The Emmaus play was included about 1467, and this may account for the dislocation in rhyme between stanzas 16 and 17. Possibly read see you shall (l. 120) to rime with befall (l. 116).
13. doe thair slayth. ‘exercise their cunning.’
14. Wyffys. Though in York and Ludus Coventriae the Assumption Play survives, it has been lost from Chester. The inclusion of a play not performed by the members of a guild is unique. Note that although might (l. 132) rimes with ll. 124 and 128, stanza 19 is defective.
15. Antycryst. The Chester Antichrist is the only survival of its type in the cycles. It tells how Antichrist, an impostor in the power of the devils, misleads the kings of the earth by a false resurrection. The text is particularly interesting as it survives in a separate manuscript written out in 1475: the copy is folded and bears signs of use which may indicate that it was an actor’s script.
16. day of Corpus Christi. The Feast of Corpus Christi, celebrated on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday, was established by Pope Clement V at the Council of Vienne in 1311. It was quickly adopted in Western Europe, and reached England by 1318. The Beverley and York plays were performed at this time at least from 1377 and 1378, and subsequently cycles or groups of Corpus Christi plays are recorded at Coventry, Newcastle upon Tyne, Ipswich, Dublin, and Hereford. Whilst the Chester plays were performed at Whitsun, these lines indicate that the clergy continued a separate play at Corpus Christi. Such a play would not accord with post-Reformation sentiment, and the erasure here is probably a step in the process by which attempts were repeatedly made to preserve the plays by compromising with Protestant criticism.
17. Sur Iohn Aneway. Probably refers to Sir John Arnway who died in 1278. Though he was a famous citizen, it is likely that the attribution to him is spurious, there being no evidence that the plays existed during his lifetime.
18. erazed. This cut was no doubt made out of Protestant sentiment against the Virgin.
1. THE FALL OF LUCIFER
1. For the most part the text here and for all the Chester plays is that of MS Harley 2124, but in the case of lines 1–12 I have based my text on the reconstruction in the Early English Text Society edition. As will be seen from the following lines, which correspond to the lines in question, the MS Harley 2124 version shows considerable dislocation.
DEUS PATER: Ego sum Alpha et Omega, primus et Nobilissimus,
It is my will yt sholde be soe:
Yt was, it is, yt shall be thus;
I am God, greate and glorious,
Without beginninge.
The holy food of parentes
Is sett in my licentia;
I am the tryall of the Trinitie,
That never shall be twynninge.
Peareles Patron Imperial,
And Patris Sapientia,
My beames be all beatytude,
All blisse is in my buyldinge,
All myrthe is in my mansuetude,
Cum Dei Potentia;
Bothe visible and eke invisible,
All is in my weldinge;
As God so greate and glorious all lyeth in my…
2. Ego… nobilissimus. ‘I am the Alpha and Omega, the first and the most famous.’ One MS of the Chester plays and the York MS read novissimus – ‘the last’, cf. Revelations 21 6. Both Ludus Coventriae and Towneley begin ‘Ego sum Alpha et Ο’.
3. The holy… essentia. MSS have essencion, but, as Diemling suggests, the rime requires essentia. The sense seems to be ‘The holy food of parenthood is to be found in my spiritual being’, a reference to God as the father of mankind.
4. tryall. usually an adjective, ‘threefold’: here ‘threefold form’.
5. patris sapientia. ‘wisdom of the father.’
6. cum dei potentia. ‘with the power of God.’
7. in mea licentia. ‘in my control.’ The use of impressive words, Latin and vernacular, is no doubt dictated by the need to give solemnity and theological weight to the character of God.
8. Sett… sothenes. The ‘substance’ of God was thought to be his divine essence: the phrase means ‘established in divine reality’.
9. Dissolved… experyence. Probably ‘United by my divine knowledge under one crown’, but the passage may be corrupt.
10. Neene orders of angells. The theological tradition of the nine orders, or choirs, of angels goes back at least to the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius (fifth century). Some of the orders are mentioned in the Old Testament, but the hierarchy is Christian, being arranged (highest first) – Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, Dominations, Virtues, Powers, Principalities, Archangels, Angels.
11. For… lawdation. ‘For all the pleasure found under this rule is added praise to me.’
12. Lucifer does not appear in the Bible, but cf. Isaiah 14 12, and Revelations 12 7–9. In neither case is the name used; indeed in the last case the dragon is called Satan. Lightborne is a medieval invention; possibly it was another name for Lucifer, but the Chester dramatist treats them as two characters. Lightborne does not appear in Le Mistère du Viel Testament (where the chief Devils are Lucifer and Satan), nor in the other English cycles.
13. lookes… attendinge. ‘be sure to attend upon me in lowly fashion.’
14. cast… comprehendinge. ‘never try to understand.’ God warns them not to presume to seek knowledge of His achievements.
15. Tunc cantabunt. ‘Then they shall sing.’
16. I have… stature. ‘I have commanded you that you do nothing but what is written in this statute.’
17. God’s face was a gilded mask.
18. Tunc… Deus. ‘Then they shall sing, and God shall go away.’
19. Wherfore… chayre. i.e. ‘Do not sit in that throne.’
20. wall of lewtye. Wall probably means ‘well, spring’: this makes lewtye a suspect reading (two MSS have bewtye). The context implies that pride is the source of disloyalty.
21. Et sedet. ‘And he sits down.’
22. Tunc… tremescunt. ‘Then they shake and tremble.’
23. Tunc… Lightburne. ‘Then Lucifer and Lightborne shall fall.’
24. In contrast to God’s face, Lucifer’s now shows signs of decay, perhaps by the mask cracking. In Le Mistère du Viel Testament Lucifer, before his treachery, has a great sun shining behind him.
25. Ruffian. A name for a devil.
26. The dramatist attributes the fall to pride – a traditional view, and one that fits well with the fall of Adam.
27. to my pay. ‘to my pleasure.’
28. This is the first act of the Creation. The subject matter thus overlaps with the beginning of the second pageant (stanza 2).
29. for more or myn. ‘neither more nor less.’
30. Finis primae paginae. ‘End of the first pageant’.
2. THE CREATION, AND ADAM AND EVE
1. In the first sequence (ll. 1–104) God describes the Creation (Genesis 1 1 to 2 4).
2. Tunc… ipsum. ‘Then he shall go from his former place to the place where he created Adam, and he shall make a sign as though he were making him.’ This stage direction is partly a narrative – ‘where Adam was created’. There are Latin notes to the text which relate it to Scripture. The Creation story as told in the Bible had an overlap: Adam is created in Genesis 1 27, and the incident is repeated with elaboration in Genesis 2. The structure of the play reflects this: the action really starts at l. 105.
3. To… might. ‘He shall have authority…’
4. Et… eius. ‘And he breathed the spirit of life into his face.’
5. Tunc… lignum. ‘Then the Creator shall lead him to the tree in Paradise.’
6. Death… me. ‘You will deserve death, believe me.’
7. Tunc… costam. ‘Then the Creator, taking Adam’s hand, shall make him lie down, and He shall take a rib from him.’ Genesis 2 21–2.
8. Helpe… wee. ‘We shall now make a helpmate for him.’
9. Dormit. ‘He sleeps.’
10. Adam surgit. ‘Adam gets up.’
11. Tunc… dicat. ‘Then Adam and Eve shall stand naked and they will not be ashamed, and the Serpent shall come to Paradise in the appearance of the Devil, and walking about he shall say.’ This stage direction appears to be confused. The intention was that the Devil should appear first in his own shape and as he prepared for the temptation assume the form of the Serpent, who was already in Paradise, at l.206.
12. i.e. Lucifer: perhaps a clue that he still retained some of his former angelic appearance.
13. He swears by Beelzebub, a conventional sign of his depravity.
14. Nay… laye. ‘not by my way of doing things.’
15. That… shooe. ‘Woman will do what she is forbidden to do for any trivial excuse.’ He reminds the audience of the traditional frailty of women (cf. l. 199). This pre-figures the cursedness of Noah’s wife.
16. The creature with the wings of a bird, feet of a serpent and a girl’s face is not Scriptural; it derives probably from classical sources. It represents the adder before God’s curse.
17. The Devil’s intention is thus to repeat his own damnation in the fall of man.
18. as… pane. ‘as I may endure my suffering.’
19. This marginal quotation refers to ll. 193–5 above.
20. Eate… amisse. ‘We do wrong if we eat from it.’
21. Tunc… dicat. ‘Then Adam eats and at once they are naked, and weeping he shall say.’
22. ‘Eve’ means ‘life’. The implication of Adam’s remark is that she was the mother of all who live and sin (cf. Genesis 3 20).
23. For… we. ‘For certainly when God comes to us we shall be sent out of this place.’
24. Tunc… voce. ‘Then Adam and Eve shall cover their genitals with leaves and hide beneath the tree, and God comes, calling with a loud voice.’
25. I did att… eate. ‘I acted in accordance with her request: I did eat of it.’
26. If the adder is seen as above (n.16), the curse that he must now creep on his belly is more intelligible.
27. Tunc… faciens. ‘Then the serpent shall go away hissing.’
28. And… to-daye. ‘And because of what you have done today.’
29. Of… wayved. ‘I have now lost happiness.’
30. Gluttony was generally given as the cause of Eve’s deceit.
31. deadlie. i.e. mortal, subject to death.
32. Tunc… pelliciis. ‘Then God shall clothe Adam and Eve with garments of hide.’
33. Tunc… Paradiso. ‘Then God shall send them from Paradise.’
34. To… wyn. ‘To guard the place of happiness and plenty.’
3. THE KILLING OF ABEL
1. He… bore. ‘He must blow my black hollow arse.’ The first of a series of obscenities (cf. ll. 59, 63–4, 88, 238, 287) which are grotesque and comic, and indicate corruption.
2. Bot… ten. ‘But let your lips cover your teeth,’ i.e. be mum.
3. Greynhorne… Gryme. Names of horses; seven more appear below.
4. Pikeharnes. The name indicates theft (stealer of armour).
5. He has been preventing them from eating.
6. Even… hay. probably an obscenity.
7. And… brend. ‘And then our produce should be burned in his honour.’
8. Yis… lone. ‘Yes, all the benefits of God’s grace which you have in plenty are simply his gifts.’
9. To… gif. ‘To share or give my goods.’
10. And… me. ‘And may it be against God’s will that you showed thanks or courtesy to me.’
11. Cain appears to be examining the sheaves one by one, and he finds that he can part with only two (ll. 219, 253), whilst his own pile mounts up.
12. Deyll… thrife. ‘I must share out in this unequal way or I shall never survive.’
13. He hides his eyes and finds that he still divides to his own advantage.
14. For… take. ‘For if you take notice of my tithe.’
15. Thar… chyde. ‘You need neither to quarrel nor grumble.’
16. craw to pull. ‘To have a crow to pluck’ is proverbial for having a quarrel to settle.
17. By tradition this was the jaw-bone of an ass (perhaps from the story of Samson).
18. and… rede. ‘and cannot think what to do.’
19. Yei… gone. ‘Yes, hand out your punishments, but I don’t want any – enjoy them for yourself when I have gone.’
20. Gudeboure… hede. ‘Goodybower, by the quarry,’ an identifiable place in Wakefield.
21. Harstow… pot. ‘Do you hear, boy? There is work to be done.’
22. Oyes, oyes, oy. ‘Oyez’ – ‘listen’, the traditional crier’s call.
23. Browes… boy. ‘ Broth, broth, for the boy,’ a mocking echo of the previous line. Garcio continues to mock Cain’s proclamation line by line.
24. ill… out. from weaving – ‘badly spun thread always breaks.’
25. There were two levels – God had appeared from above – and Garcio probably climbed up the pageant cart at this point to escape Cain.
26. Cain’s blasphemies increase – he swears by Christ.
27. He accepts his condemnation here in spite of his earlier attempt to proclaim his own pardon.
28. Explicit… Noe. ‘The Killing of Abel is finished. Noah follows.’
4. NOAH (TOWNELEY)
1. Noah’s first words are obviously meant to recall the Creation and the Fall. His speech is not essential to the plot, but it presents a number of themes, especially the corruption of mankind.
2. Yit… expres. ‘Yet their unnaturalness was seven times more than I can properly describe.’
3. Bot… dyssever. ‘But they shall burn in torment for ever, and never get away.’
4. in paynes… knowe. ‘to endure the cruellest torments.’
5. Bot… trawe. ‘Unless he declare his mercy on those that will believe in him.’
6. Oyle… hight. ‘He promised us the oil of his mercy.’ Cf. p. 456, l.9.
7. Most… night. ‘For the majority of day and night.’
8. that bargan… done. ‘Those who have done evil will curse their bargain.’
9. In erth… unsoght. ‘I see nothing on earth but sin that has not been paid for.’
10. Hym… go. ‘I will quickly go to bring him great advantage.’
11. ichon other fo. ‘each man an enemy to the rest.’
12. The water… spar. ‘to keep out the water.’
13. chese, Sisam et alii: chefe, MS. ‘in three tiers’ – cf. Genesis 6 16.
14. The conflict between Noah and his wife is anticipated here: it was a well-known topic in medieval times, cf. Chaucer, Miller’s Tale, l. 352ff.
15. Tunc… uxorem. ‘Then he shall go to his wife.’ This implies two separate locations.
16. To dede… want. ‘As far as you are concerned we may live, or die from penury.’
17. i.e. ‘black and blue’ from being beaten.
18. i.e. the bonds of child-birth.
19. With… sory. ‘With sad expression.’
20. for… do. ‘for I have affairs to see to.’
21. as… ro. ‘as I may hope to have peace.’
22. I may… ken. ‘I may sit down and be taken for a fool.’
23. In nomine… sancti. ‘In the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.’
24. He begins to build the Ark in full view of the audience. Probably some of the parts would be carried on in large sections.
25. Thoro… myn. ‘through large and small.’
26. Ther… dame. ‘There is something more to be done, my lady.’
27. ich a deyll. ‘every bit.’
28. Therfor… bayll. ‘Therefore with all our strength let us thank that noble one who heals our misery.’
29. I wote… tayll. ‘I do not know whither – I am bewildered and confused for fear of your story.’
30. Her changes of mood are so violent as to be unrealistic. The dramatist is probably following a number of interpretations which cannot be reconciled with strict psychological realism. Thus she must protest here, but be afraid at ll. 312–14.
31. hertely full hoylle. ‘sound in heart.’
32. shuld… doyll. ‘I should give a mass penny.’ i.e. she would like to have to pay for the mass at Noah’s funeral, and eat widow’s food.
33. wedmen emong. ‘among those who are wed.’
34. Cf. l. 345, Perhaps her entry into the Ark is the beginning of peace. Hereafter they work the ship together, and she gives Noah good advice.
35. This… tyne. ‘I should describe this labour had I time to waste.’
36. for Armenia, where Mt Ararat is situated.
5. NOAH (CHESTER)
1. Et primo… sua. ‘And first, situated in some high place or in the clouds if possible, God shall speak to Noah who is outside the Ark with the whole of his family.’
2. My ghost… blynne. ‘My spirit shall only remain in mankind, who is my foe because of his fleshly desires, until six-score years are gone, to see whether men will cease their sins.’ cf. ll. 149–50.
3. Cf. Genesis 6 15: but there, and in Towneley l. 125, the height is thirty cubits.
4. the mete… about. ‘take the measurements yourself; make the dimensions as I have indicated.’
5. And… spill. ‘And refrainest from destroying me and my family.’
6. Tunc… instrumentis. ‘Then they make signs as if they were working with various tools.’ The building of the Ark was enacted, or perhaps mimed (cf. l. 85).
7. topcastle. Platform at the mast-head – the Ark is a medieval sailing vessel.
8. Tunc… instrumentis. ‘Then Noah with all his family again make signs of working with various tools.’
9. For… master. ‘For they (the audience) all think you are the boss.’
10. Cf. Genesis 71–3; but elsewhere in Genesis it appears that only two of each species were taken.
11. Hee… bringe. ‘Male and female, mate to mate, be sure to bring in quickly.’
12. And that I have. ‘And all that which I have…’
13. Tunc… Filius. ‘Then Noah shall go into the Ark, and his family shall give to him and call out all the animals painted on cards; and after each has spoken his part he shall enter the Ark, with the exception of Noah’s wife; and the animals as painted must coincide with the words, the First Son beginning thus.’
This suggests cards with pictures held up as each actor recites the names of the animals.
14. Here… crowse. ‘Here cats are enjoying themselves.’
15. on Gods half, ‘for God’s sake.’
16. But… wife. ‘Either you will let them into your Ark, or else you can row forth, Noah, wherever you like and find a new wife.’
17. full… fast. ‘flooding very fast.’
18. pottell of malmesy. ‘quart bottle of malmsey wine.’
19. ll. 233–6 are missing in MS Harley 2124.
20. For… boughte. ‘For the love of Christ who redeemed you.’
21. Tunc ibit. ‘Then she shall go.’ She is carried in by her sons.
22. Et dat alapam vita (for victa?). ‘And having been overcome, she strikes him a blow on the ear.’
23. Tunc… respiciens. ‘Then Noah shall shut the window of the Ark, and for a short time under the roof they shall sing the psalm “Save me, O God”; then he shall open the window and look about.’
24. Tunc.… dicat. ‘Then he shall send forth the raven, and taking the dove in his hands he shall say.’
25. Tunc… Noe. ‘Then he shall send forth the dove, and there will be in the ship another dove bearing an olive branch in its beak. This Noah will send by a rope attached to the mast into his hands, and afterwards Noah shall say.’
26. Therfore… wise. ‘Therefore let them all come out.’
27. Tunc… mactabit. ‘Then coming out of the Ark with his whole family he shall receive his animals and birds, and he shall offer them, and make sacrifice.’
28. For of youth… syne. ‘For man, from his youth, has always been inclined to sin.’
29. To eate… knowe. ‘Do not hesitate to eat of those which you know to be clean.’
30. in feare. ‘together.’
31. That shedes bloode… be. ‘He or she who sheds blood anywhere amongst mankind – who sheds blood, his blood shall be shed.’
32. Cf. Genesis 9 13–14. The appearance of the rainbow at times of storm means that God has remembered his promise that there will never be another Flood: cf. York, Play IX, stanza 21, and De Noé, ll. 6292–5, in Le Mistère du Viel Testament. The texts give no hint of how the rainbow was portrayed; but for Benjamin Britten’s musical version, Noye’s Fludde, a large fan with the extremities appropriately painted is customarily used today.
6. ABRAHAM AND ISAAC (CHESTER)
1. Gobet-on-the-Grene. Perhaps a hint of a folk-play Presenter.
2. Lothe. Lot, Genesis 14 16.
3. Melchisadech, Genesis 14 18–20. He was a king and a priest.
4. Tunc… Melchisadech. ‘Then the knight comes to Melchisadech.’
5. Melchisedech… Caelum. ‘Melchisadech raising his hands towards heaven.’
6. A figure of the Communion, and the justification for including the incident in the cycle. It does not appear in the other English mystery plays.
7. without danger, ‘without limit.’
8. Tunc… patinam. ‘Then Melchisadech shall ride to Abraham, giving (him) a chalice with wine, and bread on a paten.’
9. Tunc… sibi. ‘Then he shall give (him) a horse laden (with spoils)’.
10. Tunc… Decimae. ‘Then Abraham shall accept the bread and wine, and Melchisadech the laden horse and the tithe of Lot.’
11. Tunc… Melchisadech. ‘Then Lot shall offer the cup with wine and bread, and Melchisadech shall accept them.’
12. maundye. From John 13 24, ‘Mandatum novum…’, the command to wash the feet of the poor.
13. The conception of Abraham as a representation of God the Father is continued in the play. His name means ‘Father of a Multitude’.
14. This appears to be Ishmael, Abraham’s son by the slave-girl, Hagar, Genesis 16 15, 16.
15. Genesis 17 9–14.
16. The correspondence with the Brome version begins here, and continues to l. 420.
17. Tunc… ibunt. ‘Then Isaac shall take the wood upon his back, and together they shall go to the mountain.’
18. Isaac, ironically, sees his fate, but Abraham is not yet ready to face the truth. This dramatic device is not present in the Brome.
19. Tunc… ligabit. ‘Then he shall gather him up and bind him.’
20. Upon… you. ‘In truth, father, I will not hinder you in the purpose on which you have determined.’
21. For… blood. ‘for fear of shedding blood.’
22. Harte… me. ‘O heart, even if you break in three, you shall never over-rule me’ – he will not give way to his love.
23. Tunc… Angelus. ‘Then he shall take his sword, making a sign as though to kill him, and the Angel coming shall seize the point of his sword, and then the Angel shall say.’ The correspondence with the Brome version ends here.
24. lambe. It is a ram in the next stage direction and in Genesis 22 13. The lamb anticipates Christ.
25. Tunc… arietem. ‘Then Abraham shall sacrifice the ram.’
26. Of… feare. ‘You and your descendants with you shall have power over your enemies.’
27. this significacion… good. ‘The meaning of this deed of devotion – if you wish, you may learn it – will bring you to much good.’
28. The Expositor is used to indicate the parallels and implications of the plays; here the importance is that Abraham, like God, is ready to sacrifice his son. It is thought that for these processional performances the Expositor may have been on horseback – though it is clear that on the day of performance many of the plays would need their own Expositor riding with them.
7. ABRAHAM AND ISAAC (BROME)
1. I… all. ‘I thank thee greatly evermore for this.’
2. Genesis 21 2.
3. glad, MS: prest, Manly. The latter would fit the rime-scheme, but here and elsewhere I have tended to follow the manuscript rather than editorial conjecture, however plausible. It will be evident from a close study of this text that there are many places where the manuscript reveals uncertainty on the part of the scribe.
4. Abraham is meant to exemplify the virtue of obedience to God’s will.
5. Vysyon. ?’the land of Moriah’; Genesis 22 2.
6. I had… I have. ‘I would rather, if God had wished it, have lost all the goods I own.’
7. The correspondence with the Chester version begins here.
8. all… packe. ‘I will carry all this in a bundle.’
9. ll. 141–2 are reversed in MS.
10. thy… synke. ‘Let your grace descend (upon us).’
11. At this point Abraham must tell the truth, however reluctantly. It is notable that in Chester his unwillingness is made more of.
12. but… kyll. ‘unless I kill thee.’
13. I… styll. ‘I will never complain, loudly or continuously.’
14. owt of yowre mynd. This is very close to Chester, l. 319.
15. Let… I. ‘Consider it as lightly as I do.’
16. Thy meke… songe. cf. Chester, ll. 349–50.
17. Excepe… wyll. ‘ Unless (I follow) God’s will alone.’
18. Do on… hardly. ‘Go on boldly, and do with me as you will.’
19. my hart… therageyn. ‘my heart rebels against this.’
20. The Chester version diverges here.
21. an C sythe. ‘a hundred times.’
22. ram. Chester has lamb at l. 434.
23. in hy, Manly: of hevyn MS.
24. But… trowe. ‘But, father, if I bend down low, you will not kill me with your sword, I trust?’ It appears that the dramatist could not leave the idea of death.
25. the by. ‘with you.’
26. yowrys botherys sede. ‘the seed of you both.’
27. gret. Manly adds won, ‘quantity’.
28. have, Manly: hath, MS.
29. Thys… a-voee. Davis places this line after l. 432.
30. I pray… to. ‘I pray God to give grace evermore to us and to all those who are close to us.’
31. After story MS adds hath schowyd.
32. yowre chyld to slayn, Holthausen: to smygth of yowr chyldes hed, MS.
33. Whan… kynd. ‘When their children die and go from them as nature wishes.’
8. MOSES
1. as… asse. ‘as elders will agree.’
2. Now… layse. ‘now are they likely to destroy our laws.’
3. And… fee. ‘and herdsmen who keep their flocks.’
4. qwantile, MS: qwantyce, Towneley.
5. Exodus 1 16.
6. That… fynde. ‘that we find no weakness.’
7. Perhaps a reference to the finding of Moses in the bullrushes.
8. Jetro. Jethro, Exodus 3 1.
9. So… bide. ‘So as to await a better destiny.’
10. If… wrayste. ‘If they, wrongfully, take anything from you.’
11. Exodus 4 2–7.
12. ego sum qui sum. ‘I am that I am’, Exodus 3 14.
13. meke, MS: meve, Smith, ‘speak’.
14. we… myne. ‘we may mourn and remember.’ we may mowrn, both more and myn, Towneley.
15. Beeths… blyne. ‘Cease your mourning.’
16. R. Woolf points out similarities between the dialogue of Moses and Pharaoh and that of Christ and Satan in the Harrowing of Hell (The English Mystery Plays, pp. 153–4).
17. Wenes… laye? ‘Do you think you can destroy our law with tricks?’
18. Hopp ilia hayle. Exclamation of surprise: perhaps ‘an ill chance occurs’.
19. tadys. Glossed as ‘toads’ by Smith, but ‘taddies’ is still used for ‘tadpoles’ in Yorkshire. There are no toads in Exodus 8.
20. myses. ‘maggots’; Exodus 8 16.
21. And… done. ‘and we fear all this is done…’
22. loppis. ‘flies’; Exodus 8 21: ‘fleas’, Smith.
23. They… last. ‘They appear to be able to survive.’
24. poudre, ‘powdre’: ‘soot’; Exodus 9 8.
25. this… lese. ‘I am not lying.’
26. wormes. ‘locusts’; Exodus 10 12.
27. lande of lykyng. ‘the Promised Land.’
28. Ther… thrall. ‘There must we halt until we are enslaved once more.’
29. Horse… tyte. ‘Harness the horses quickly.’
30. It seems likely that this difficult action was accomplished by the use of a large sheet or cloth. The Coventry accounts mention a purchase of cloth for the Red Sea. The Flood in the Noah plays might have been represented in the same way.
9. BALAAM, BALAK AND THE PROPHETS
1. This begins the Ten Commandments, Exodus 20 1–17.
2. Tunc… Moysen. ‘Then the Chief of the Synagogue shall take his position on the stage and shall speak to God and to Moses as if on behalf of the people.’
3. Tunc… populum. ‘Then Moses standing on the mountain shall speak to the people.’ Note that an upper level or high place is called for.
4. To prove… synne. ‘To show that he is with you, God has done this to make you so afraid as always to avoid sin in deed and thought.’
5. The rays of light were represented as horns, but the appearance was also taken to be threatening (cf. l. 48).
6. Wherfore… sene. ‘And so we take the most valuable parts from it, as you shall see.’ Perhaps the reference to brevity is a hint that the play has been shortened.
7. Tunc… equitando. ‘Then Moses shall come down from the mountain, and King Balak shall ride from another part of the mountain saying.’
8. These stanzas, (a) to (e), are not in MS Harley 2124.
9. mediaters. ?the Jews.
10. Who… good. ‘Whoever tries to fight with them gets little good by it.’
11. Seon and Ogg. Sihon and Og, Numbers 21 23–4, 33–5.
12. For sicker… be. ‘For certainly we may not be revenged on them in any way.’
13. Tunc… Balaam. ‘Then (the Knight) shall go to Balaam.’
14. in… loco. ‘From above.’
15. Tunc equitabunt… Balaam. ‘Then they shall ride towards the king, and as he goes Balaam shall say.’
16. Now… maye. ‘Now by the law in which I believe, since I have permission to go, they shall all be cursed if I can gain anything by it.’
17. Tunc Angelus… asina. ‘Then the Angel, with a drawn sword in his hand, shall meet Balaam, and the ass shall halt.’
18. Or… crowne. ‘ Or as I can use my head.’
19. Tunc percutiet… asina. ‘Then he shall beat the ass, and someone from inside the ass shall speak.’ The device of hiding someone – probably a small boy – was used in the liturgical drama.
20. Tunc… dicat. ‘Then Balaam, seeing the Angel carrying the drawn sword, shall say in worship’
21. Tunc… obviam. ‘Then Balaam and the Knight shall go on their way, and Balak comes to meet them.’
22. Nought… kin. ‘As I hope for bliss, I can say nothing but what God allows if I am to save all my property and kindred.’
23. To… to-day. ‘If you curse the men – and cursed they should be – whom you shall see today.’
24. Tunc… sequitur. ‘ Then leading Balaam with him on to the mountain and looking to the south side, he shall say as follows.’
25. (f) is not in MS Harley 2124.
26. Tunc… dicat. ‘Then Balaam facing the south shall say.’
27. Eyles the, poplart? ‘What is the matter with you, hypocrite?’
28. Tunc… partem. ‘Then he shall lead him to the north side.’
29. Is… mawmentry. ‘There are no idols worshipped.’
30. lyon. Numbers 23 24.
31. Ad… partem. ‘To the west.’
32. That… is.’Whoever curses them is accursed.’
33. Tunc… prophetando. ‘Then Balaam, looking up to heaven, makes a prophecy.’
34. As… deale. ‘ruling and holding power as king.’
35. Esayas. Isaiah 7 14, 15. The prophets appear in a procession, giving their prophecies: this sequence is the oldest part of the play in type, originally in the liturgical drama. Each of the prophetic speeches is headed by the Latin text from the Bible.
36. Cleane… wayle. ‘Pure without any evil deeds, who shall win blessing for mankind.’
37. Ezechiell. Ezekiel 44 2, 3.
38. Iheremia. Jeremiah 14 17.
39. Ionas. Jonah 2 2–10.
40. in… any. ‘in great distress.’
41. David. Psalm 18 7–16.
42. May… apeare. ‘No man may imagine them, nor judge what is prepared for man; but all must then be revealed.’
43. Ioell. Joel 2 28–9.
44. On… mynd. ‘Have him profoundly in our thoughts.’
45. Micheas. Micah 5 2.
46. The Expositor, mentioning the Incarnation, Passion, and Resurrection, acts as a bridge between the Old Testament and the New.
47. heavenlye. ?’region of heaven.’
48. Thus… before. ‘Thus is prophesied here that belief – which we hold – in the deeds of God who in freeing man had pity on him.’
49. The prophecies being over, Balak – in a somewhat awkward manner – brings his story to an end. Possibly the prophets’ procession is an interpolation.
50. A hint that the prophets’ procession has been curtailed to fit it into this play.
10. THE PARLIAMENT OF HEAVEN, THE SALUTATION AND CONCEPTION
1. Ysaie. Isaiah 30 18.
2. captyvyte. This refers to the souls captive in Hell – who are released at the Harrowing – and also to the bondage of Israel.
3. Jeremye. Lamentations 2 18, 3 48–9.
4. Of Locyfere… place. ‘To be a substitute for Lucifer.’
5. Propter… exurgam. ‘On account of the misery of the needy and of the groaning of the poor now shall I arise.’
6. The debate between the four daughters of God, Truth, Mercy, Justice, and Peace, appears widely in Christian literature, and derives from Psalm 85 10–11. It was used in the drama a number of times (Respublica, Castle of Perseverance; and see The Macro Plays, ed. M. Eccles, p. 200, note to l. 312). Since it does not appear in the other English cycles, its appearance here may be a reflection of the more didactic strain in Ludus Coventriae, and perhaps an indication of the influence of morality plays.
7. Veritas… ipso. ‘My truth and my mercy are with me.’
8. Thi love… kepe. ‘Let him no longer control man whom you love.’
9. As wyse… be. ‘He wanted to be as wise as God.’
10. a seyth. Obscure. The general sense is ‘Therefore let this be our conclusion: let him who sinned grievously remain in sorrow; he may never act by reason (?) who might save him from there.’
11. Endles… restore. ‘God, who is everlasting, can put right sin which has lasted for ever.’
12. tweyn dethis. i.e. the deaths of Adam and Christ. This doctrine operating in later drama is sometimes known as ‘the fortunate Fall’: the deaths were held to be fortunate for man, not tragic.
13. Qwere… se. ‘Look and see how such (a death) were his.’
14. Misericordia… sunt. ‘Mercy and Truth have met, Justice and Peace have kissed.’ Psalm 85 10–11.
15. Et hic… omnes. ‘And here they shall kiss one another.’
16. Sey here. ‘Tell her.’
17. Ave Maria… tecum. ‘Hail, Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee.’
18. His name… be. ‘His name shall be called Jesus by you.’
19. ll. 262–285: R. Woolf, The English Mystery Plays, pp. 167–8, suggests a possible source for these lines in St Bernard’s homilies.
20. persevere. Probably an error for ‘preserver’.
21. be mene passage, ‘during my pregnancy.’
22. Thorwe… renew. ‘Through your body is born the babe who will renew our joy.’
23. Angeli… serena. ‘With the Angel singing this sequence: Hail, Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee, serene Virgin.’ In MS there is a cancelled stage direction, ‘and than Mary seyth’. This suggests that there has been an alteration in the order of the plays.
11. JOSEPH
1. his wyl were wrought. ‘As he wishes.’
2. This is a reference to the glory which now shines in her face, but Joseph fails to appreciate its significance.
3. Hens… went. ‘Since I went away.’
4. Joseph here begins the comedy of the deceived husband: it is noticeable that he addresses other husbands also deceived.
5. Probably an obscene reference to the impotence of old age.
6. Mary’s friend or attendant: the Proclamation (l.160), describing the Annunciation, spoke of ‘iij maydenys that with here dwelle.’
7. The proverb is from bird-catching – all those who beat the boughs do not necessarily catch a bird. The proverb fits the folk-humour of Joseph’s predicament.
8. The punishment for adultery was stoning (cf. John 8 5).
9. But if… qwy. ‘Unless I knew a very good reason for it.’
10. abyde respyt. ‘endure spite.’
11. To wyte… synne. ‘to lay the blame for any sin upon you.’
1. blomyght. ‘blooms.’ The Cherry Tree miracle is apocryphal, though widely known; cf. W. Hone, Ancient Mysteries Described, 1823, pp. 90–93.
2. i.e. ‘let your lover get them.’ Dramatic probability makes it likely that he knows that the ‘lover’ is God, but the passage is really a relic from the comedy about his doubts.
3. hous of haras. A stable for breeding horses.
4. Hic… unigenitum. ‘Here, while Joseph is away, Mary gives birth to her only-begotten Son.’
5. Zelomy. Zelumi. The midwives are named in the Pseudo-Matthew Gospel, ch. 13. They appeared early in the liturgical drama, being priests dressed up (Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, II, pp. 41–2). They were used to point out the reality of the birth, and to vouch for Mary’s virginity (see Grace Frank, The Mediaeval French Drama, pp. 32–3).
6. Hic… dicat. ‘Here, with a smile, Mary shall say.’
7. Joseph’s mistake is an echo of his much bigger misunderstanding about paternity.
8. Hic… dicens. ‘ Here Zelumi touches the blessed Virgin saying.’
9. As other… arayd. ‘Not foul in appearance as others are.’
10. Like the incredulity of Thomas, Salome’s disbelief can only be dispelled by physically touching Mary.
11. Hic… dicit. ‘Here Salome touches Mary, and when her hand dries up, she shrieks, and as though in tears she says.’
12. Hic… dicens. ‘Here Salome touches the garment of Christ saying.’
13. FIRST SHEPHERDS’ PLAY
1. what thay ar weyll. ‘How happy are they.’
2. Now in hart… blast. ‘Now cheerful, now in good health; now in rain, now in gale.’
3. Hors-man… weyn. Cawley identifies this as ‘Jack Plenty’, a figure of prosperity. ‘Jack Plenty, who normally rides a horse, must then walk, I think.’
4. Bot… forsake. ‘Unless some good occurs, the land is ruined.’
5. i.e. to risk everything at dice.
6. The playwright’s account of the wretched state of the First Shepherd is circumstantial and specific in that he has lost all his sheep through the plague (‘rott’), and is ready to risk anything. Thematically the distress is important as a prologue to the Nativity: the Second Shepherd’s prayer to Christ (ll. 50–54), although strictly an anachronism, reinforces this.
7. The wasters described in stanzas 7 and 8 live off the poor, and depress their living standards by force. They boast (‘crak’, l. 59) and adopt superior manners like those of their masters (ll. 70–71).
8. At this point the Second Shepherd notices the First. It is clear from the following dialogue that the First Shepherd is called Gyb (Gilbert), the Second John Horne, and the Third Slawpase (Slowpace).
9. I am… wars. ‘I am always the same, I don’t know what causes it: there is no one in this kingdom but a shepherd is, in comparison, worse off.’ The Second Shepherd recognizes the First by the state of his clothes.
10. The First Shepherd imagines he has a flock of sheep: the Second tries to stop him from driving them into his pasture. The disagreement – about non-existent sheep – gets out of hand and they come to blows.
11. Longys thou oght whedir? ‘Do you wish to go to some place or other?’
12. a letter of youre grace, ‘give a little good will.’
13. bett, MS (? beat, place): flett, Cawley.
14. It is… go. ‘It is difficult to tell an egg to move before it is hatched.’
15. Tytter… pray. ‘May you sooner be without sauce than sorrow.’ A comment upon their incompetence.
16. Mowll. Moll. This is a folk-tale. By day-dreaming about many sheep she does not have, Moll loses her pitcher, and is worse off.
17. He asks them to throw the sack upon his back while he holds the neck. He then calls them to stand by him and tips the meal from the sack on the ground between them. This demonstrates their stupidity in arguing over the non-existent sheep because the meal cannot be picked up again (ll. 174–5).
18. The folk-tale in note 17 was known as the Fools of Gotham: but Jack Garcio, the servant, has to point out that the Third Shepherd is as foolish as the rest because he has lost his meal – he cannot pick it up any more than the other two can.
19. It appears that they do have some sheep, but Jack Garcio is watching over them.
20. No doubt Jack Garcio is very small in stature – a lad.
21. They are still disposed to quarrel, perhaps to emphasize that the coming of Christ was to bring peace on earth.
22. cryb. i.e. ‘feast’.
23. They produce a vast meal from various pockets and parcels. It is thought that this is a reflection of Christmas feasting. It is notable that many of the items are scraps which might be plentiful at Christmas when the winter slaughtering of stock took place.
24. Hely. Cawley suggests that this is Healey, a village near Wakefield.
25. The quarrelling is continuing.
26. Be my dam saull, Alyce. ‘By the soul of my mother, Alice.’
27. Then… kest. ‘Then I think we should settle who shall put this food into a pannier.’ They intend to give the remnants to the poor.
28. Ye… frerys. An irreverent allusion to the supposed gluttony of mendicant friars.
29. He makes the sign of the Cross and recites a scrap of Latin which is distantly related to the Latin for ‘Jesus of Nazareth, crucified, Mark, Andrew’.
30. with… emang. ‘with small notes in it’, i.e. decorative musical phrases.
31. That betokyns… owte. ‘The star which stands up there in the sky signifies this.’
32. Exiet virga De radice Iesse. cf. Isaiah 11 1, ‘A shoot shall grow from the stock of Jesse.’ Virga is mistranslated as ‘vyrgyn’ (virgo) in l. 342. In spite of this, the Shepherds show considerable learning in the following sequence, possibly an identification of shepherds and priests.
33. Sybyll. This is the Erythraean Sibyl. Chambers (The Mediaeval Stage, II, pp. 52–3) describes an eleventh-century Prophets’ Play from Limoges which contains most of the authorities cited in this passage. The probability is that our author derived his list from some similar source in liturgical drama.
34. Nebuchadnezzar threw Shadrach, Meshack, and Abednego into the furnace, and he saw four men walk about in the fire, the fourth looking like a god, Daniel 3 19–25.
35. Jeremiah 23 5; Exodus 3 2–4.
36. So soyne. ‘very soon.’
37. Habakkuk and Elijah were prophets; Elizabeth and Zechariah were the parents of John the Baptist who prophesied Christ (Luke 1).
38. I am nova… regna. From Virgil’s Eclogue IV, ll.6–7, but the Latin is slightly distorted and the lines are reversed. ‘Now a Virgin returns, and the kingdoms of Saturn are renewed; now a new race is sent down from the height of Heaven.’ These lines were widely taken as a pagan prophecy of the Nativity. The First Shepherd gives his translation in stanza 45: clearly the reign of Saturn would be an age of plenty.
39. Caton. Disticha Catonis – the Poems of Cato – used as a school book for centuries.
40. foure… long. ‘Twenty-four short notes to a long note.’
41. This… lose. ‘Don’t forget this song.’ V. Kolve, The Play Called Corpus Christi, pp. 171–2, suggests that they must make an effort to remember the important words so that they can spread the news.
42. The Shepherds do not make gifts in the Gospel: this is perhaps an imitation of the Kings. The gifts here, as in other Shepherds’ plays, are touchingly simple.
43. as he… seven. ‘as He made everything in the space of seven days.’
14. SECOND SHEPHERDS’ PLAY
1. shepardes, MS: husbandys suggested by Manly.
2. The theme of the oppression of the Shepherds by extortion is found in the First Shepherds’ Play. The oppressors seem to be the servants of the gentry who ape their masters (cf. ll. 28–36) and were maintained by them.
3. what mastry he mays. ‘whatever abuse of power he employs.’
4. wane… ploghe. cf. First Shepherds’ Play, ll. 62–3.
5. Violence is also mentioned, ibid, ll. 56–61.
6. wyndys, Cawley: weders, MS.
7. Copyle is the name of the hen.
8. Had I wyst. ‘If only I had known.’
9. The subject of marriage plays an important part here. The attitudes to women are similar to those in Noah, that women talk too much, and are a curse – widespread subjects of medieval comedy.
As an extension of this the fertility of Mak’s wife is a contrast to the Nativity.
10. I wald… hir. ‘I wish I had run until I had lost her.’
11. God… raw. ‘Let God see to the audience!’ – i.e. ‘Attend to me.’
12. The Third Shepherd.
13. Noe… stormes. The bad weather is a sign that a divine intervention is imminent.
14. He does not recognize the other two at first.
15. all-wyghtys. ? monsters (Cawley).
16. Abyde… it. ‘Wait until later on – we have already eaten.’
17. to… wowyng. ‘to accompany a wooer’ – not trustworthy because selfish.
18. Tunc… vestitus. ‘Then Mak comes in wearing a cloak over his garment.’
19. Et… ipso. ‘And he takes the cloak from him.’
20. sothren tothe. ‘southern dialect’ – Mak uses some southern forms in his speeches at ll. 201–7 and 211–13 (e.g. ich, sich).
21. pepe. ‘look around’ – it is obvious, the Second Shepherd suggests, that if he is wandering around at night Mak must be up to no good.
22. Seldom… gate. ‘The devil doesn’t often lie dead by the wayside.’ Proverbial. He means that the Devil is never innocent, and neither is Mak.
23. sho. she MS.
24. Then… rowne. ‘If I do, I could immediately prevent you whispering together.’
25. Manus… Pilato. Corruption of ‘Into thy hands I commend my spirit’, but addressed to Pilate.
26. Tunc… dicit. ‘Then when the Shepherds are asleep, he gets up and says.’
27. He draws a circle round them, and casts a spell on them to keep them asleep.
28. Though he has never been a shepherd, he will now learn to be one and drive off the sheep.
29. Eft-whyte… may. ‘I will pay it back when I can.’
30. I hope… hight. ‘I fear I cannot gain a penny by getting up (from spinning), curse them!’
31. Proverbial.
32. Then… pak. ‘Then might I have a bad time, they being so many.’
33. Bot… blast. ‘If I don’t get back to my place before they rise, the wind will blow cold.’
34. Resurrex… dominus. The first is a corruption of ‘He rose again from the dead’, but the second is inexplicable.
35. My… skyn. ‘My heart is out of my body.’
36. Wearing a wolf skin would suggest deception and thieving.
37. Manly attributes ll. 370–71 to Third Shepherd, and ll. 372–4 to Second.
38. Indicates that his costume has large sleeves useful for hiding stolen articles.
39. Then… Gyle. ‘Then here we are like the devil, Sir Cunning, with his companions.’ The sense is doubtful, but Manly’s emendation se for be is not justified.
40. I hope… lak. ‘I expect they won’t be pleased when they find the sheep missing.’
41. Coll. The First Shepherd (cf. l. 449).
42. i.e. lie down by the wall and cry out for help from Mary and John.
43. Horbury, south of Wakefield.
44. Apparently Mak is singing (?a lullaby), somewhat out of tune.
45. qwytt is my hyre. ‘I have received my wages.’ He refers to his dream (ll. 386–8).
46. And… forthynkys. ‘and that troubles us.’
47. tymely. ‘early’; the line is proverbial.
48. She does intend to eat the ‘child’. But one may also take this as an indirect reference to the bread and wine of the Mass.
49. Gybon Waller and Iohn Horne may be the First and Second Shepherds in the First Shepherds’ Play. If the plays are alternatives one may conclude that their names may be those of real people.
50. lytyll day-starne. This phrase is used again of the Christ-Child (l. 727), an indication of the parallel between Mak’s baby and Mary’s.
51. Gyb. The Second Shepherd.
52. I trow… go. ‘I am sure Nature will creep even if it cannot walk.’ i.e. The evil will show itself somehow.
53. It was… wast. ‘It was a grave deceit. Yea, sirs, so it was.’
54. hornyd lad. ‘horned lad’, perhaps an allusion to the devil. Some critics see here a relic of pagan worship.
55. Manly suggests that these speakers’ names should be reversed.
56. Tossing in a canvas is perhaps a symbolic death.
57. of vii skore. ‘of seven score pounds’ (measurement of weight still used for farm animals).
58. Angelus… dicat. ‘The Angel sings “Gloria in the highest”, and afterwards shall say.’
59. let… dyn. ‘be quiet’ – an aside, perhaps addressed to the First Shepherd who is still singing.
60. Ecce… Concipiet. ‘Behold, a virgin shall conceive.’ Isaiah 7 14.
61. gyler of teyn. ‘evil deceiver’, i.e. the Devil.
62. As in the First Shepherds’ Play, the gifts are simple, but the following symbolism has been suggested –
cherries indicate blood and death (cf. The Cherry Tree Carol), parallel to myrrh;
the bird represents divinity (many visual representations show the Christ Child holding a dove), parallel to frankincense;
the tennis ball stands for kingship, parallel to gold.
(Joseph A. Longo, ‘Symmetry and Symbolism in the Secunda Pastorum’, Nottingham Mediaeval Studies, 13, 1969, pp. 65–85.)
63. That… seven. ‘Who made everything in seven days’ (cf. First Shepherds’ Play, l. 489).
15. INTRODUCTION TO THE THREE KINGS
1. Herod’s boast is notable for its divine pretensions, which are blasphemous, and perhaps for his ignorance – Jupiter and Jove being the same, and Venus being feminine.
2. Herod had a mask at Chester (F. M. Salter, Mediaeval Drama in Chester, p. 79), and it is likely that it was so at York. God’s mask was gold, and the boast here that the red is superior is blasphemous. See also his self-display in the Coventry Shearmen and Tailors’ Play, ll. 507–10.
3. At this point the manuscript continues with the same text as the following play, starting at l. 73 and continuing to l. 216.
16. THE ADORATION
1. By tradition the Kings were descendants of others who had long awaited Christ.
2. ll. 73–216 are also given in the previous play.
3. Lorde… wyte. ‘My lord, no one should blame messengers.’ The punishing of messengers who bring bad news is a very old stage tradition, being found in Greek tragedy and in Shakespeare.
4. A sterne… by-forne. ‘A star stood before us.’
5. Be… knave? ‘How should you know by any celestial event who is a king and who is a commoner?’
6. And… pay. ‘And if your business be to my advantage.’
7. Sir… newes. ‘Sir, there is no need to wonder at this affair which is now coming about in this way.’
8. Balaham. Balaam’s prophecy, Numbers 24 17. There is no Prophets’ Play in the York cycle, but the prophecies are proclaimed by a Doctor at the beginning of the Annunciation (York 12).
9. Osee. ‘He may flower like the lily,’ Hosea 14 5.
10. The rest of the play does not appear in the Masons’ play.
11. In one liturgical version of the Kings they are met by midwives who admit them to the stable. Possibly this Maid here is a relic of them; see Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, II, p. 46, and R. Woolf, op. cit., p. 195.
12. The text makes it clear that gold stands for kingship, frankincense for judging, and myrrh for death.
17. THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT
1. dos to dy. ‘puts to death.’
2. Joseph’s complaints make him a partially comic figure.
18. THE PURIFICATION, AND CHRIST WITH THE DOCTORS
1. But heaven-blisse… we. ‘But as for heaven’s bliss after life – until God’s son come, to say truth, to ransom his people, we shall never reach bliss.’
2. Esay. Isaiah 7 14.
3. Tunc… filium. ‘Then looking at his book, he shall read the prophecy, “Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bring forth a son.” ’
4. Tunc… vidua. ‘Then he shall rub the book as if to remove this word ‘Virgin’; and afterwards he shall place the book on the altar, and an Angel shall come, and having taken the book, shall give the appearance of writing; and when he has closed the book, he shall go away, and Anna, the widow, shall say.’
For Anna the widow, see Luke 2 36–8.
Lines 41–211 are missing in H 2124.
5. A line missing.
6. Tunc… dicat. ‘Then he shall take the book, and, astonished, he shall say.’
7. Tunc iterum… dicat. ‘He does again as before, and he shall say.’
8. Tunc… antea. ‘Then he puts the book on the altar, and the Angel shall do as before.’
9. For… man. ‘For God will take on natural life as a man.’
10. Nowe… bliss. ‘Now I do believe that a maiden, on this occasion, shall bear a child of bliss.’
11. Tunc… Maria. ‘Then Simeon shall sit down looking for consolation from another place far from the temple, and Mary shall say.’
12. Cf. ll. 133–4; there are two doves in the Coventry Weavers’ Pageant and in Luke 2 24.
13. Tunc… ulnas. ‘Then Simeon shall receive the boy in his arms.’
14. Tunc… pace. ‘Then he shall sing “Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace”.’ Luke 2 29.
15. For… pittie. ‘For there you have set up your power, to protect people on whom you have pity.’
16. For sword… woo. ‘For the sword of sorrow shall pierce your heart – and so people will know many of the secret thoughts of those who will oppose you and seek to harm you.’ Cf. Luke 2 35.
17. A new scene opens here although there is no break or stage direction in the manuscript. In the remaining part of the play Christ is twelve years old.
18. Greatly… day. ‘Happy, for many a day.’ Obscure, but York 20, ll. 1–8, shows that Mary and Joseph were very pleased with Jesus while they were in Jerusalem.
19. In all… hye. ‘I therefore think that we should go homeward with all our strength for fear of wicked company which may meet us on the way.’
20. He wenes… knowes. ‘He thinks he knows more than he really understands.’ York 20, l. 90: ‘He wenes he kens more than we knawes.’ For a full account of the text see W. W. Greg, ‘Bibliographical and Textual Problems of the English Miracle Cycles’, The Library 5, 1914, pp. 280–319, and Chester Play Studies (Malone Society), 1935, pp. 101–20.
21. That… be. ‘Which God commanded should be observed on earth.’
22. all… teene. ‘lose all my labour.’ The phrase appears in York 20 (ll. 229–32); the Chester dramatist clumsily re-arranged the lines of the stanza.
23. This line may possibly be a reference to Christ’s recital of the Ten Commandments, though it appears that the dramatist forgot to adapt this final speech to the inserted Doctors’ play in which the Angel has no part.
19. THE DEATH OF HEROD
1. Tunc… dicens. ‘Then looking behind him, the Steward rushes up to Herod saying.’
2. so moty the. ‘as I hope to thrive.’
3. Thei… unkende. ‘They shall have bloody faces because of one whom I call unnatural’, i.e. Christ.
4. selcouthys. ‘wonders’: schel chownys, MS, which is incomprehensible.
5. Doth… ray. ‘Make your horses run, with stabbing spears (in your hands), till in that red dance ribs are torn.’
6. Lete… may. ‘Let no child remain with his back unbeaten until a beggar in the stall of beasts shall bleed – Mahound will do the best.’
7. ryd be-lyff. ‘ride quickly.’
8. Tunc… femina. ‘Then the Soldiers shall go to kill the boys, and the First Woman shall say.’
9. He has one of the victims impaled on his spear.
10. Herod’s pride invites disaster (cf. ll. 164–7).
11. Goddys masangere. A regular conception of death, found in Every-man: Herod’s pride, humbled by death, is also reminiscent of The Pride of Life, c. 1350.
12. Hic… eos. ‘ Here, while the trumpets blow, Death shall kill Herod and the two Soldiers suddenly, and the Devil shall receive them.’
13. feynt felachep. ‘poor company.’
14. He probably wore a costume which represented a skeleton with worms painted on it.
20. THE SHEARMEN AND TAILORS’ PLAY
1. The Sofferent… seycrette. ‘The Sovereign that sees every secret.’
2. uncion. Daniel 9 24–7.
3. Ecce virgo consepeet. ‘Behold, a virgin shall conceive.’ Isaiah 7 14. (The Latin in this play has been subject to scribal distortion.) The Coventry Plays appear to have had no separate Prophets’ play, the prophecies being incorporated as link passages in the two extant plays.
4. In secula seculorum. ‘For ever and ever.’
5. He… forlorne. ‘He shall save what was lost.’
6. Joseph assumes Mary’s infidelity, and sees himself as a fool. There is little Scriptural justification for this except Matthew 1 18, 19, but the idea is much developed in medieval times, especially in Ludus Coventriae.
7. and that acold. ‘and that a cold one!’ i.e. sad.
8. truse. Obscure. Perhaps truste: ‘Now may I stand like a trusting fool’.
9. scho. ‘show’ – for the census.
10. The were tyme. ‘The very time.’
11. schortist dey. This does not appear to be Scriptural.
12. Et in tarra pax omynibus. ‘And in earth peace to all men.’
13. Ase I owt rodde. Song I, p. 379.
14. of pore reypaste. ?‘humble in state.’
15. Song III, p. 380.
16. The Prophets cannot be identified in detail, though their function is to link the episodes of the play by recalling anticipations of the Nativity in the Old Testament. The method used is characteristic of the episodic style of the Coventry Plays.
17. And lyve… brothur. ‘And live equally with man as a brother.’
18. Aronis rod. Aaron’s rod, Numbers 17 6–11.
19. pallays Sharp 1817: pyle, Sharp 1825.
20. This stanza is in mock French, chosen to give an outlandish and superior quality to Herod’s reputation. French was still closely associated with the Court in the fifteenth century. Some of the reconstruction is conjectural; see Manly, Specimens, pp. 136–7.
Peace, lords, barons of great renown; peace, lords, knights of noble power; peace, gentlemen, companions small and great – I command you to preserve complete silence! Peace while your noble king is here present! Let no one lack due deference, nor be bold to applaud; but keep all patience – but keep for your lord reverence in your heart; for he is your all-powerful king. In his name, silence all! I command you; and (here is) King Herod the Great… may the devil take you!
21. Qui statis… ‘Who stands…’ His Latin does not last very long.
22. He blasphemously claims divine creative powers.
23. Magog and Madroke. Magog Genesis 10 2, Ezekiel 38. Madroke has not been identified.
24. In-to… tyde. ‘To what place do you wish to go at this time?’
25. be-semyng all afar. ‘seeming to come from afar.’
26. Skant twellve deyis old fulle. ‘Only twelve days old.’ The Epiphany which celebrates the Coming of the Kings traditionally takes place on the twelfth day after Christmas Day.
27. For there… crafte weylde. ‘There you must be careful and use cunning.’
28. And cum… wey. ‘And return home the same way, visiting me.’
29. Tawrus… Arraby… Aginare. Tarshish… Arabia…?Egriseula (Craig).
30. Herod’s rage is proverbial (cf. Hamlet III ii 14). Much interest has been aroused by the stage direction, which indicates that he puts on a special performance, taking him from the pageant cart to the street.
31. Unusually the Angel speaks to both.
32. to sum cun off, Kittredge (‘to some kind of’): sum tocun off, Sharp.
33. Song II, p. 379.
34. A stroke… here. ‘You shall have a blow from me here.’
35. Fynes… scharmen. ‘End of the Play of Shearmen and Tailors.’
21. JOHN THE BAPTIST
1. John 1 8.
2. but… aperte. ‘but soon I appeared quite openly.’
3. For… be. ‘For God will not stay with those in whom sin is rife.’
4. The rest of the stanza is missing.
5. more or myne. ‘more or less.’
6. But… twa. ‘But I will show you two reasons.’
7. i.e. heaven.
8. Fyrst… leche. ‘First I shall receive (baptism), then I shall preach like a true physician: for mankind must act righteously.’
9. Tunc… spiritus. ‘Then two Angels shall sing “Come, creating Spirit”.’
10. The dragons… I. ‘I have destroyed every part of the dragon’s (Satan’s) power through my baptism.’
11. And lere… thrall. ‘And teach that lore to every man who was formerly in bondage.’
22. THE TEMPTATION OF CHRIST, AND THE WOMAN TAKEN IN ADULTERY
1. Doseberd. ?‘Dosey-beard’ – muddlehead.
2. Satan describes the perfection of Christ.
3. i.e. he seems to be mortal.
4. For… amisse. ‘For I am sure that he is more than human or else he would have committed some sin or other…’
5. Because Christ is hungry, Satan thinks he cannot be a God.
6. Christ refers to the common belief that Adam sinned through gluttony.
7. Adam… can. ‘I brought Adam, whom God himself made, into torment by my deception; but as for this man whom I have looked for, being born of woman – because he has no personal needs, I have no chance of harming him by any advice I give – my cunning is of no use.’
8. Tunc… templi. ‘Then he shall place Jesus on a pinnacle of the temple.’
9. Descendet de pinnaclo. ‘He shall come down from the pinnacle.’
10. Tunc… Diabolus. ‘Then Satan shall lead Jesus to the top of a mountain, and the Devil says.’
11. Satan realizes that he has lost the battle and makes his will.
12. St Gregory’s sermon appears in the Stanzaic Life of Christ which the Chester dramatists used frequently. Christ has overcome the temptations by which Adam fell: Gluttony, Vainglory, Ambitious Pride (or Covetousness).
13. Tunc… Primus. ‘Then two Jews shall come with the woman taken in adultery in order to tempt Jesus: so the First shall say.’
14. The temptation is to try whether Christ follows the law and condemns her, or follows his own teaching and pardons her. Either way, the Jews expect that he will do wrong: see the Expositor, ll. 281–8.
15. Tunc… Iesum. ‘Then they shall come to Jesus.’
16. Tunc… terram. ‘Then Jesus writes on the ground.’
17. Tunc… scripsionem. ‘Then they read his writing’ – and see their own guilt.
18. Et fugiett… dicat. ‘And he shall run off, and afterwards the First Pharisee shall say.’
19. Alas… Fraunce. ‘Alas! I wish I were the other side of France!’
20. Et fugiet… Mulierem. ‘And he shall run off, and Jesus shall say to the Woman.’
21. Yet… knew. ‘None of them knew anything about the sins of others, but saw only his own.’ In the Gospel the Jews do not read what was written (though the writing clearly has some importance and relevance), but the Expositor presses the point that each man miraculously saw only his own guilt.
1. untill Iude. ‘into Judaea.’
2. ll. 3 and 4 are transposed in MS but corrected by means of letters a and b in the margin.
3. The Disciples feared he would again be stoned, John 11 7, 8.
4. John 11 13.
5. rysyng. resurrection: John 11 25. This is the main theme of the first part of the play. Its connection with Christ’s own Resurrection was no doubt the main reason for the choice of the Lazarus episode.
6. Et… dicens. ‘And Jesus wept saying.’
7. In popular legend Lazarus related many horrifying details of what he had seen in hell.
8. eke his dayse. ‘lengthen his days.’
9. The rest of the play is taken up by the warning about the grave and the inevitability of death. The effect is more lyrical than homiletic.
10. That all ranks of society would become food for worms was the theme of the Dance of Death.
11. The royfe… towche. ‘Your bare nose shall touch the roof of your hall (i.e. your coffin).’
12. Toads were thought to be evil and poisonous in popular lore.
13. For you… goode. ‘The person who has the largest part of your possessions weeps for you least when you are dead.’
14. The idea that possessions, family, and friends are no use in death is the main theme of the play Everyman.
15. Agane… gate. ‘Against the time when you will follow another way.’
The Passion Play I
24. THE COUNCIL OF THE JEWS
1. The Demon’s speech is typical of the mystery plays in that it recounts the events of the Christian story, particularly the temptation of Christ: but the technique of soliloquy by a villain was much developed in the morality plays, especially the self-revelation and the description of devices used to catch victims.
2. Revelations 12 7–9, but the story was much elaborated in the plays dealing with the Fall of Lucifer.
3. where… ensuryd. ‘ where I set about tempting he at once attacks me – he has also confirmed Magdalene’s full forgiveness.’
4. Quia… redempcio. ‘ Because in Hell there is no redemption.’ Derives from Job 7 9; see The Macro Plays, ed. M. Eccles, p. 200, note to ll. 3096–7.
5. And I wyl… alyauns. ‘ And I will give in return the power of love’s bond.’ The whole stanza is hypocritical, but it is a valuable reflection of the importance of love in the play.
6. the dyvercyte… varyauns. ‘ the variety of clothes I am wearing as a disguise.’ He is stagily dressed in the new fashions – a device common to devils in morality plays – e.g. Newguise in Mankind, Lucifer in Wisdom.
7. cordewan Leather from goat-skins, made at Cordova, Spain.
8. With two doseyn… feyn. ‘ With two dozen cords of kid leather, tagged with fine silver.’ The points held up the hose.
9. holond. Linen from Holland.
10. stomachere of clere reynes. ‘ waistcoat’ of cloth from Rennes.
11. And… nowth. ‘ and value as nothing those who condemn pride.’
12. Cadace wolle. ‘ Cotton wool.’
13. And there… debat. ‘ and where sin is condemned, make sure to protest.’
14. And gadere… entent. ‘ And collect a following after your own heart.’
15. Both sevyle… nowth. ‘ care nothing for civil and canon (church) law.’
16. ermyn calabere or satan. ‘ ermine fur or satin.’
17. Another device from the morality plays, in which the names of vices are turned into virtues (cf. Skelton’s Magnyfycence).
18. Seyse… chef. ‘ At assizes or sessions let Perjury reign.’
19. Matthew 3 11; Luke 3 16; John 1 27.
20. The preaching of John in the Bible is more symbolic and prophetic than the words given him here. The style here is closer to the pulpit and the morality plays with the elaboration of the simple figure of the narrow path.
21. Annas appears on his own stage, evidence that the play was being performed with a number of fixed locations in the acting area. Clearly there was a means by which the actor could conceal himself until his cue, perhaps a curtain.
22. Sarazyn. The exotic eastern clothing is used to suggest evil.
23. pellys. fur.
24. To severe… termynable. ‘ It lies in my power to separate right from wrong.’
25. We must… reprevable. ‘ We must seek a means of bringing blame to him.’
26. i.e. Rewfyn and Leon.
27. We should note that this summoning of the Gouncil is very long-winded. Perhaps the speeches had to be long to allow for due ceremony in the Messenger’s errand.
28. sythe present. ‘ says in this place.’
29. The scene apparently ends here. There follows a cancelled stage direction and eight lines of speech by Peter which end the sheet (fol. 142 verso). The new scene shows Jesus speaking to the Apostles.
30. Presumably Philip.
31. Burgeys. ‘ Citizen.’
32. blynde. The incident below (ll. 470–77) bears this out. He also applies blindness, deafness, lameness and dumbness in a spiritual sense.
33. On to the cety-ward. ‘ towards the city.’
34. prophetys prophese. Matthew 21 4, 5.
35. These lines on the theme of mercy are repeated from ll. 343–6 above.
36. perfyth of corde, ‘ perfect accord.’
25. THE LAST SUPPER
1. wepyng. Luke 19 41–4.
2. Maunde. Holy Thursday. The writer has moved rapidly from Palm Sunday.
3. paschall lomb. The lamb is slain and eaten at the Passover. Christ becomes the lamb – Agnus Dei. See ll. 381–448.
4. Attention suddenly switches to the Conspiracy. Christ and the Disciples presumably continue their meal whilst the Jews talk.
5. But do… fast. ‘ But cause Jesus to be arrested.’
6. constreyn, Block: conseyve, MS.
7. Be… instawns, ‘ by what means you can arrest him, for he has many followers at command.’
8. A cancelled stage direction indicates that an entry for Judas stood here. The following speech by Mary Magdalene begins a new quire containing the scene with Jesus up to the soliloquy by Judas (l. 269).
9. I xal… to. ‘I shall be destroyed because of the great sins I have committed, unless my Lord God spares me somewhat and receives me to his great mercy.’
10. To fede… ken. ‘ to feed our poor kindred.’
11. Pore men xul abyde. ‘ The poor will always be.’
12. In… be-gynne. ‘ He who shall begin this treason eats from my dish.’
13. of grett age. ‘ at the age of discretion.’ Judas is held to be responsible for his actions.
14. Judas leaves the Disciples and speaks two stanzas on his way to the Jews. Ε. Prosser, Drama and Religion in the English Mystery Plays, pp. 131–6, suggests that the writer has Judas leave at this point as a result of his scorn for Mary Magdalene’s love and faith. This variation from the Scriptural version gives Judas an additional motive for betrayal besides the mercenary one.
15. and we a-corde. ‘ if we agree.’
16. Irony: cf. the love of Magdalene which Judas rejected, and his kiss.
17. Smyth up. lit. ‘smite up’ – clap hands on a bargain.
18. The conspirators descend from their chamber and prepare themselves to make the arrest. The attention is switched back to the Last Supper as the curtain is opened. Judas has resumed his place.
19. mystery. In M.E. ‘A religious truth known only by divine revelation’ (N.E.D.). This meaning is probably the one preserved in ‘Mystery Plays’ (not that derived from mysterium – ‘craft’).
20. oble. i. e. the Host.
21. to your apparens. ‘ as it appears to you.’
22. Besides the general theological relationships between love and the bread, there is a dramatic point here in regard to the want of love shown to Jesus.
23. Of this lombe… levyth. ‘ If anything of this lamb be left uneaten.’
24. Christ’s words, recalling l. 259, point the treachery of Judas, who has condemned himself by eating. Shortly afterwards he leaves the gathering to the praises of the Demon (l. 465ff.).
25. Is it owth I, Lord? ‘ Is it I, in any way, Lord?’
26. Foreshadows the Harrowing of Hell.
27. Petyr… knowe –. ‘yn’ is doubtful in MS. Perhaps the sense is ‘Peter – (you rush) in further than you realize –’.
28. There is no real break in the action here. Christ’s speech is broken by the stage direction, and the number of the play in the margin (28) is arbitrarily placed.
26. THE BETRAYAL
1. Christ comes from the upper room and sets out for Bethany, the first part of the scene taking place on the way.
2. The vyl… fulfylle. ‘ to carry out your will.’
3. Luke 22 44, but elaborated to anticipate the water and blood of the Crucifixion: see also l. 52.
4. Fulleche… spede. ‘ to urge my request to the fullest degree.’
5. Significantly the Angel offers Christ his own body and blood.
6. It is nowth… case. ‘ It is no use to plead against the cause.’
7. The waiting groups of soldiers and priests at last come forward to make the arrest. It is clearly meant to be a spectacular moment, particularly the appearance of the ten persons in armour.
8. Is howth… me? ‘ Is your coming here in any way for me?’
9. Prosser, op. cit., cogently suggests that Mary Magdalene must have remained with Jesus throughout the Last Supper and the Agony.
27. THE BUFFETING
1. Do io… apase. ‘ Gee up! Trot on quickly.’
2. Be thou… hangyng. ‘ when two or three promises of hanging have been given to you.’
3. Gar… blonder. ‘ making the people forsake our laws and follow yours; this is why you are now in trouble.’
4. Fayn… countenance. ‘ He would like to sleep; if not, he looks sad.’
5. that has… walkyng. ‘ who has made us work hard in walking here.’ They resent having to drive Jesus, who will not walk as fast as they want.
6. Whi… onys? ‘ Why have you not yet asked how we have been getting on?’
7. They have guarded Christ overnight, and make it appear that they have had a hard time of it.
8. quetstone. ‘ whetstone’, a sign for lying (Cawley).
9. lyes, MS: wyles, England.
10. avowtre. John 8 3–11. There is no Towneley play.
11. Lazare. John 11 1–44. See Play 23 (Towneley 31).
12. I shall… talkyd. ‘I shall drive out what is rotten by the time we have all had a talk.’
13. I do fy the. ‘I scorn you.’
14. wols-hede… tone. ‘Let the calls for catching outlaws be given against you.’
15. Et… videtur. ‘ And anyone who says nothing is thus seen to consent.’
16. Where… name. Jokes about Christ’s alleged noble birth – ‘Where was your father dining when he met your mother? You, a man of position, without boots or spurs!’
17. Sir Sybre. Term of abuse. Cawley suggests that it is a reference to the offspring of an illegal marriage.
18. As… rent. ‘ As I hope to sing Mass, I think that whoever keeps the law gets more by graft than by his due income.’
19. King Copyn. Not explained. Caiaphas gives him this title for being a trickster.
20. Weme. An expression of impatience.
21. Annas and Caiaphas are distinguished carefully by the author. Annas is much more cunning and seeks a legal way of condemning Christ. Caiaphas is a bully and is anxious to ensure that Christ is beaten. The argument between them is very vigorous, both threatening and amusing. In the end, Annas apparently wins his point that Christ be handed over to Pilate, but he does agree to the buffeting (l. 318).
22. Et… possumus. ‘ And we want this thing which we are legally entitled to do.’ The saying supports his attempt to proceed legally.
23. For… dam. ‘ See how the boasting of the people (about your alleged kingship) will condemn you to be hanged.’
24. I, England: MS omits.
25. Sed… quemquam. ‘ But it is not lawful for us to put any man to death.’ John 18 31.
26. Therfor… by. ‘ Therefore he shall pay for it.’
27. war. ‘ worse.’ In the next sentence Caiaphas complains that he is out of his usual way – he wants to strike Christ, and wonders why he is so far off.
28. Oone feste. Obscure – ‘one feast’, perhaps an anticipation of the pleasure to come. Cawley suggests ‘a fair treat’.
29. play of Yoyll. ‘A new Yule game.’ Cawley identifies this as ‘Hot Cockles’, in which a blindfolded player has to guess which of the other players strikes him.
30. buffit. ?a stool (cf. l. 345).
31. Good… dew. Froward is now convinced that there is good reason for fetching the stool – as sure as he is alive (feels the dew).
32. Ther… gate. ‘ No one in this town, I believe, will be sad about his sorrow except the father that begot him.’
33. Yei… dyd. ‘ Yes, unless they are closed tight, we shall lose our labour.’ Christ must be properly blindfolded or he will guess.
34. One of the Torturers binds the cloth and Froward curses him.
35. thou… fowll. ‘ You hardly touched the skin – a poor effort.’
36. For Gospel references see Introductory Note.
37. crate. ?‘decrepit man’ (England). Cawley reads trate, ‘ hag’.
38. Then… dryfe. ‘ Then what I must do is to drive him from behind.’
28. THE DREAM OF PILATE’S WIFE
1. What… brewis. ‘ Any brawler who stirs me with his brawling.’
2. He presents his family tree: Caesar was his father, Pila, daughter of Atus, his mother.
3. Pounce. Pontius, cf. ll. 254, 408.
4. Percula. i.e. Procula.
5. But… the. Percula resents the Beadle’s criticism of their amorousness, but the passage is obscure; perhaps ‘unless you stop your arguing you will be sorry; for the slave is accursed, as you can see.’
6. But… weys. ‘ But with twists and tricks he sends me away.’
7. For scho… stande. ‘ For she may stagger in the street unless she walks firmly’ – obscure, perhaps because the following line is missing.
8. Pilate, to appease his wife on her being sent home, suggests a drink.
9. as… rough. ‘ as if she had no cares.’
10. newe… noght. ‘ you shall not be uncomfortable.’
11. yhe whe wele. ‘ you are a heavy weight’ – he is drunk.
12. lappe me. ‘ tuck me up.’
13. myron. ?’servant’.
14. And… sese. ‘ If he is slain our comfort will end.’ The Devil reasons that the death of Christ will bring salvation, and therefore he must induce Percula to persuade Pilate not to condemn him. This theme is treated more extensively in Continental plays. Here the Devil warns Percula that her property will be lost.
15. for… heven. ‘ by the passion of heaven.’
16. with… trapped, ‘ that he does not receive pain.’
17. Oure… undewly. ‘ Our followers at midnight met him with force, and have driven him to judgement for his evil deeds.’
18. he… awne. ‘ he thought this world was entirely his own.’ Annas does not perceive the irony of what he says.
19. Matthew 27 19.
20. fendes-craft. ‘ devil’s craft.’ Caiaphas attributes the dream to Christ’s witchcraft; Annas adds that devil’s craft accounts for the miracles.
21. The Beadle worships Christ. Later (ll. 337–47) he recalls Palm Sunday.
22. Sir… care. ‘ Have you said your piece? Yes, lord. Now go and sit down, with sorrow and care.’ Pilate’s sharp rebuke is as pithy as modern Yorkshire (‘Have done!’).
23. halow a hoy. ‘ give a shout.’
24. Oyas. ‘ Oyez’ – ‘listen’. The ancient call for silence used by ushers and criers. Pilate is determined to assert his authority with due ceremony. The word A-lowde is not clearly a stage direction in MS.
25. heldis… harre. ‘ acts out of order’ (lit. ‘moves off the hinge’).
26. One line missing.
27. The miracles, allegedly witchcraft, are cause for condemnation.
28. Yhe prelatis… lyse. ‘ You prelates who are known to be so worthy, you should be clever and wise, and refer to our law where it is relevant.’
29. Because Jesus was born in Galilee he must be tried by Herod. Luke 23 6–7.
1. mali actoris. ‘ of a doer of evil’; though mali auctor (‘author of evil’) or mali a(u)ctor is (‘that author of evil’) might make better sense.
2. This self-revelation is characteristic of Devils and Vices in the morality plays. This is one of the evil Pilates, unlike the corresponding Pilate in York.
3. Stanzas 5 to 27 are written in the nine-line stanza, and attributed to the Wakefield Master.
4. Thou betyd… all. ‘ It was bad luck for you to come among us all.’
5. Here Pilate shows some of the reluctance of a good Pilate – which is Scriptural. It may be that this turn in the characterization results from the revision.
6. Asked why he stands back so far, the First Torturer says it is to give himself room to strike.
7. rust. ‘ red’; perhaps he means to strike (rub) where the skin is already reddened to make the blood flow quickly.
8. Architreclyn. The Torturers begin to recount the miracles – a dramatic device which heightens Christ’s present submission. This is the wedding at Cana-in-Galilee (John 2 1–11): Architricinus (Lat.), ruler of the feast (vv. 8–9).
9. Matthew 14 24–7; Mark 6 48.
10. Matthew 8 26–7.
11. Matthew 8 1–4; Luke 5 12–13.
12. Matthew 8 5–10.
13. Luke 18 35–43; Mark 10 46–52.
14. Again the Torturer is condemned by his own words.
15. weshen. Pilate washes his hands; Matthew 27 24–6.
16. The play now turns to the journey to Calvary, which has little Scriptural basis, but derives from the Meditationes Vitae Christi. It introduces the theme of lamentation which plays an important part in the drama of the Passion. The three Marys are Mary the Virgin, Mary mother of James (Maria Jacobi), and Mary Magdalene.
17. For I am ferde… rafe. ‘ For I fear that if we frighten her she will run wild and rave.’
18. Et inclinabit… suam. ‘ And he shall bend the cross towards his mother.’ This incident appears to be of fifteenth-century origin.
19. The warning appears in Luke 23 27–30, though it is not there addressed to the Marys, but to the weeping women of Jerusalem.
20. for red… red. ‘ for any counsel that they can take.’
21. by that Lord… lowte. ‘ by the Lord whom I believe in and worship.’ This oath would refer to Christ if spoken in medieval times: used by the Torturer it is ironic.
22. Matthew 27 32.
23. noyn. The ninth hour (Lat. nona hora) of the day, reckoned from sunrise by the Roman method: i.e. Christ must be dead by about 3 p.m.
24. To beytt… oght ‘ To beat me unless I did any wrong.’
30. THE CRUCIFIXION
1. The cross, with the holes already bored, is laid on the ground.
2. Christ’s willing submission here shows the sacrificial nature of the Crucifixion, cf. ll. 49–60.
3. The Soldiers take up their stations: the First holds the head, the Second pulls the right hand, the Third the left, and the Fourth the legs.
4. [IV] Mil. This and the following speech are given to the Second Soldier in the manuscript: see J. P. R. Wallis, ‘The Miracle Play of Crucifixio Christi in the York Cycle’, Modern Language Review 12 (1917), pp. 494–5.
5. for hym the boght. ‘ for the sake of him who redeemed thee.’ An anachronism since the Redemption has not yet occurred, but the expression contains cruel irony.
6. The right hand being pinned, the Third Soldier finds the left will not reach, and so he and the First Soldier stretch it to the hole.
7. All four now pull the legs with a rope to reach the hole.
8. The cross, with Christ fixed upon it, must now be carried up the hill.
9. Why tente… tyde? ‘ Why are you talking so much at this moment?’
10. The cross is dropped into the hole in the ground with a jolt.
11. The foot of the cross must be supported by wedges to keep it erect.
12. Qui destruis templum. From Matthew 27 40 – ‘You would pull the temple down, would you, and build it in three days?’
31. THE DEATH AND BURIAL
1. In this play, Pilate is presented as the reluctant judge of Christ. He is concerned to shift the blame for Christ’s death on to the Jews.
2. Quod scripci, scripci. ‘What I have written, I have written’, John 19 22. Note that the details of Christ are drawn from all four Gospels, suggesting that the direct source was not the New Testament, but probably the Gospel of Nicodemus.
3. Sister of the Virgin, wife of Clopas, John 19 25.
4. Latro a Sinistris… Dextris. ‘Thief on the left… right.’
5. Matthew 27 46; Mark 15 34. Both Gospels recount the mistake of bystanders who think Christ calls upon Elijah (1. 227).
6. me thristis sare. ‘I am very thirsty.’
7. in manus tuas. ‘into thy hands’, Luke 23 46.
8. Longeus. Also known as Longinus, this character is not Scriptural. In medieval lore, he was supposed to have received his sight (1. 302) when he pierced the body of Christ, and this was a sign of his salvation (also in Towneley, Chester, Ludus Coventriae and the Cornish cycle).
9. Longeus latus. In the non-dramatic versions of this episode (The Northern Passion, ll. 1869–74, St Bernard’s Lamentation on Christ’s Passion, l. 616, The Southern Passion, ll. 1635–6, Cursor Mundi, 11. 16835–40) it is clear that Longeus is brought forward to stand under the cross, unable to see where he is. He is then made to thrust the spear into Christ’s side. Possibly ‘latus’ is a stage direction indicating that he has been led forward.
10. in mynde gune I meffe. ‘I began to be moved in my mind’ (with sorrow).
11. John 19 38–42.
32. THE HARROWING OF HELL
1. The stage setting was probably a castle gate, with heavy doors.
2. Refers to the Redemption; cf. l. 12.
3. The symbolism of the story demands that the souls in Hell sit in darkness. Christ’s coming to release them is heralded by his light (cf. Isaiah 9 2). Since the play was performed in daylight, some means of representing light would be necessary, perhaps a representation of the sun.
4. At this point a later scribe has written Tunc cantent – ‘Then they shall sing’ – marking the shift of dramatic interest from outside the Gates of Hell to the interior. At l. 41 Adam perceives the light.
5. ‘The land of Zebulun, and the land of Naphtali,’ Isaiah 9 1.
6. Simeon, see Luke 2 25–35.
7. This light… dede. ‘Thou hast sent this light to those living on earth: what I foretold I see is now fulfilled in reality.’ Again emphasis upon light, l. 69.
8. For the Baptism see Matthew 3 13–17; Mark 1 9–11.
9. Was… manne. ‘Was made to sound to me like that of a man.’
10. Refers to the Transfiguration, in the presence of Moses and Elijah; Matthew 17 1–8; Mark 9 2–8.
11. The name of the First Devil. This character is given a somewhat larger and more unruly role in Towneley.
12. Lymbo. Limbo, the edge of hell, where those who died before Christ were kept. Its special feature was the absence of God.
13. Astrotte. ‘Ashtoreth, the loathsome goddess of the Sidonians…’ 2 Kings 23 13. Anaball has not been identified.
14. Bele-Berit. Written as though two persons in MS, but see Judges 8 33, ‘The Israelites again went wantonly to the worship of the Baalim, and made Baal-berith their god.’
15. To marre… mase. ‘To destroy them who make such rebellions.’
16. Attollite… eternales. Version of Psalm 24 7, ‘Lift up your heads, you gates, lift yourselves up, you everlasting doors.’
17. I lered… lees. ‘I taught when I was alive, without deceit…’
18. Here begins the symbolism of the military battle between Christ and Satan.
19. Lazar. Lazarus, John 11 1–44.
20. Satan’s part has some Scriptural basis, John 13 27.
21. And wotte… mente? ‘And know that he won Lazarus away, who was given to us to guard, do you believe that you can prevent him from using his powers – as he intends to do?’
22. David, Psalm 107 16, refers to the Lord: ‘He has shattered the doors of bronze; bars of iron He has snapped in two.’
23. gere. Satan calls for his armour.
24. But as… thyne. ‘But they have stayed here as in my prison for their good, not as your property.’
25. me menys. ‘as I remember.’
26. Thou motes… myre. ? ‘You argue his men into the mud.’ Towneley reads moyttys, ‘slip’.
27. Satan now enters a theological argument with Christ.
28. Salamon. Solomon, Proverbs 2 19 and 21.
29. Job 10 21.
30. movys emang. ‘goest about.’ Sisam suggests the Towneley menys, ‘thinks’.
31. These are suicides: Judas, Matthew 27 5; Ahithophel, 2 Samuel 17 23.
32. Dathan and Abiram were killed by divine intervention for challenging Moses, Numbers 16 27–32.
33. lawe. Refers to the Creed and items in it – the Coming, the Sacrament, the Death and Resurrection.
34. Nay… smytte. ‘No, my fine friend, you must be destroyed.’
35. Mighill. Michael does not appear in the Towneley version, and he is not mentioned in Burton’s list: his inclusion here is probably the result of a later revision.
36. Als… inferno. ‘ As I have said, so I still say, “Thou wilt not leave my soul in Hell, O Lord”.’ Cf. Psalm 16 10.
37. Ne suffre… repleye. Probably corrupt, differing from Towneley. The passage here may be read ‘nor ever allow (thy) souls to be separated from thee, nor permit those who may repent to share the sorrow of those who dwell in woe, always full of corruption.’
38. The Harrowing is carried out by the soul of Christ, while his body lies in the tomb.
39. no draught us drawe. ‘make no move against us’, as in chess or draughts.
40. lovyng. ‘praise.’
41. Laus tibi cum gloria. ‘Praise be to thee with glory.’
33. THE RESURRECTION
1. Whoso… bonys. ‘Whoever will not do so quickly, may his bones hang high!’
2. Tunc… equitans. ‘Then the Centurion shall come in like a cavalryman’, i.e. on horseback. From this point the Towneley text is dependent upon York 38.
3. Adonay. Hebrew name for God.
4. Of… moyne. ‘The sun and the moon ceased to shine.’
5. Bot fast ride. The Centurion is now on the way from Calvary to Pilate’s house.
6. Not for that… wold. ‘Not only why you did that deed, or why the sun went dark, but also how the veil in the church split asunder, I should like to know.’
7. ll. 140–45 not in York.
8. Who shuld… ther! ‘I wish to know where each should sit.’ ‘I will sit on this side.’ ‘And I shall try to avoid his feet.’ ‘We must curse there!’ As they prepare to guard the body they jest about the possibility of being kicked.
9. Tunc… Ihesus. ‘Then the Angels shall sing “Christ Rising”, and afterwards Jesus shall say.’ Christus resurgens is the Easter antiphon.
10. Thou synfull man that by me gase… An independent lyric; see R. Woolf, The English Mystery Plays, p. 275. The passage which leads up to this long monologue, and the speech itself (ll. 214–333) in York. This invention may have been arrived at because the liturgical drama offered very little material for the Resurrection itself.
11. And that… fle. ‘ And that you try hard to keep from sin.’
12. This stanza is clumsily crossed out in MS. ‘Becommys my fleshe’ would be taken as a reference to the doctrine of Transubstantiation not acceptable to Protestant feeling in the sixteenth century.
13. on. ‘of’, York.
14. whome have ye soght? This is the Quem quaeritis episode of the liturgical drama. It is perhaps the oldest episode in Christian drama, and many scholars see it as the germ around which the cyclic plays grew.
15. Alas… me? ‘ Alas, what shall now become of me?’
16. Wytt… slone. ‘If Sir Pilate gets to know of this matter, we shall certainly be slain.’
17. A thowsand… slone. ‘I shall claim a thousand men and more, each one well-armed, came and took his corpse from us, and almost killed us.’
18. walkyng. ‘wakyng’, York, which seems more appropriate.
19. The Soldiers’ account of the Resurrection is inconsistent with what the audience has seen happening. This may possibly be attributed to their duplicity, but it seems more likely that the discrepancy is due to difficulties arising from two different traditions in the liturgical drama. One makes them fall asleep (as they do in Ludus Coventriae), but the other shows them transfixed by the power of what they see. There is no doubt (from l. 461) that they do sleep, but the account here describes the miraculous trance. (See Woolf, op. cit., p. 407, n. 20.)
20. can for gan, ‘did’.
21. Matthew 28 11–15 substantiates the bribe, but the corruption of the Soldiers was well established in liturgical drama on the Continent (Woolf, op. cit., pp. 276–7).
22. The dependence upon York 38 ends here. York has a separate play for the Appearance to Mary Magdalene, No. 39.
34. CHRIST’S APPEARANCES TO THE DISCIPLES
1. Emawus. Emmaus, seven miles from Jerusalem (Luke 24 13).
2. Qwat… gon. ‘ Tell me what you are talking about between yourselves: you are utterly sad and heavy, your mirth has gone.’
3. prophetys. Luke 24 25.
4. Christ sets out to prove his point by the figure of Jonas, who represented or foreshadowed the resurrection.
5. Aaron. A second figure for the return of life.
6. Lazare. This clinches the argument, cf.
The grettest meracle that evyr Jhesus
In erthe wrouth be-forn his passyon
...............................
That pagent xal be of Lazarus. (Ludus Coventriae, Proclamation, ll. 295–9)
7. As in Luke 24 30, the breaking of the bread reveals Christ to the Disciples, and he leaves at once.
8. Hic… eorum. ‘Here Christ shall suddenly disappear from their eyes.’
9. so nere oure lappe. ‘so near to us physically.’
10. This is the point at which the two incidents are joined. In Towneley there is a decision to go back to Jerusalem, and l. 273 below suggests that they are no longer at Emmaus (cf. Luke 24 33).
11. The doubts expressed by Thomas recall the disbelief of Luke and Cleophas.
12. For… lorn. ‘For unless you have faith, your soul is lost.’
13. Quod… resurrexit. ‘Because he who was dead and buried has now arisen.’ This speech is a formal poem addressed to the audience, showing how the incredulity of Thomas has turned to faith.
14. The fende… resurrexit. Elliptic: ‘He (Christ) has frightened the fiend that always vexes our faith, (and may he) who was dead and buried and has now arisen bring you to heaven and save you all.’
35. THE ASCENSION
1. There should be eleven Disciples present, but only six have speaking parts – Peter, Andrew, John, James the Greater, Simon, Philip.
2. Pax… timere! ‘Peace be with you! It is I, do not be afraid!’
3. gone is not yore, ‘not long ago.’
4. Tunc… dicat. ‘Then Jesus shall eat with his Disciples, and afterwards (Philip) shall say.’
5. Wher… goe. ‘ Wherever they happen to go.’
6. tongs. ‘languages’, Acts 2 4–11.
7. Tunc… terra. ‘Then he shall lead the Disciples to Bethany, and when he has come to the place, Jesus, standing in the place where he shall ascend, shall say “All power in heaven and earth is given to me.” ’ This may be a reference to performing in two acting areas; the second area being that prepared for lifting the actor playing Christ during the Ascension.
8. Tunc… mecum. This passage, used in the liturgy of Holy Week, is derived from Isaiah 63 1–3, but here it is re-arranged as a sung dialogue.
Then Jesus shall ascend, and in ascending Jesus shall sing as follows
JESUS: I ascend to my Father and to your Father, my God and your God. Alleluia! Alleluia!
And when the song is over, Jesus shall stand in the middle as though above the clouds.
I ANGEL: Who is this who comes from Edom, coming from Bozrah in (red) stained garments?
II ANGEL: Who is this magnificent in his clothing, striding in the greatness of his strength?
JESUS: I who speak justice, and who am defender unto salvation.
III ANGEL: And your clothes are (red) as of those treading in the wine press.
JESUS: I have trodden the wine press alone, and no man from the nations was with me.
As with the passage at ll. 160 if. below, an English paraphrase follows.
9. Blody. Though the syntax of this line may be distorted, it is clear from l. 128 that Christ is blood-stained.
10. Tunc… eodem dicat. ‘Then Jesus standing for a short while in the same place shall say.’
11. Tunc… coelum.
Then he shall ascend, and as he does so the Angels sing the following song
We shall sing to rejoice in your excellence, O Lord, and we shall sing psalms of your virtues. Alleluia!
Then the Angels shall descend and sing ‘Ye men of Galilee, why do you look up to Heaven?’
12. Speaking, eatinge and drinking. These were the signs that Christ was not a ghost, but a risen body (cf. l. 42).
36. PENTECOST
1. Nobis… mortuorum. ‘The Lord commanded us to proclaim (him) to the people, and to bear witness that the judge of the living and the dead is near.’ Cf. Acts 10 42.
2. Us menis… thus. ‘We remember that this is what he said to us.’
3. Cum… omnia. ‘When the Advocate shall come, he will teach you all things.’ John 14 26.
4. And… mene. ‘And much more than we have in mind.’
5. Nisi ego abiero. ‘Unless I go from you.’ John 16 7.
6. Et dum assumptus fuero. ‘And when I have ascended.’
7. Angelus… spiritus. ‘An Angel shall then sing the hymn “Come, creating Spirit”.’ The name of the hymn is written in a later hand, but ll. 137–8 and the other cycles justify it here.
8. Als lange… flay. ‘As long as you follow his steps, the fiend shall not put you to flight.’
9. Veni… visita. ‘Come, creating Spirit, visit the minds of your people.’
10. Tristicia… gaudium. ‘Grief has filled your heart… But it shall be changed to joy.’ John 16 20.
11. Simultaneous staging here.
12. For to… lette. ‘No one alive shall prevent us saying what must be said.’
13. Et erit… carnem. ‘The Lord says, “And this will be in the last days: I shall pour out from my spirit on all flesh.” ’ Acts 2 17, from Joel 2 28. The accusation of drunkenness is also found in Acts 2 13.
14. There… tone. ‘These men have great power through the fortune they have received here.’
37. THE ASSUMPTION AND CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN
1. That… alione. ‘That she should remain by herself, alone.’
2. Cantando. ‘Singing’, during which Mary is carried up to Heaven.
3. Of newe… more. ‘Nevermore shalt thou know harm.’ Probably a reference to the sufferings of Mary at the Crucifixion.
4. modir myne. At this point the Rubricator assigns the recital of the five joys of Mary to five Angels, but the words ‘modir myne’ suggest that Christ should speak them. If this were so, Christ would have a very long speech, from l. 101 to l. 160, and it seems likely that in a performance Angels might very well have been used simply to provide variety.
5. confessouris. A Confessor endures suffering and torture for his faith, but does not undergo martyrdom.
38. JUDGEMENT DAY
1. And all-kynne… oght. ‘And everything that now exists.’
2. A verbal echo of York 4, ll. 57–9, the first of many instances in which earlier events of the cycle are recalled.
3. every ilke agaste. Perhaps every ilka gaste, ‘every single soul’.
4. fecche your flessh. Refers to the belief in the physical resurrection of the dead.
5. First Good Soul.
6. Ther aftir… noght. ‘Do not judge us, Lord, in accordance with these deeds.’
7. First Bad Soul.
8. To aske… nede. ‘It is no use for us to ask for mercy.’
9. Helpe… excusacioune. ‘No excuse can help us.’
10. That eres… mene. ‘Whatever ears have heard, or heart has thought since any time that we can remember…’
11. Deus. i.e. Jesus, who is to judge mankind.
12. The Apostles assisted at the Judgement by a Scriptural tradition.
13. Ther-fore… dight. Read That fore, ‘Because (thou) hast prepared and made ready such recompense for us who have been mortal.’
14. Hic… angelorum. ‘Here (he goes) to the seat of Judgement, with song from the Angels.’
15. We schall… wrange. ‘We must keep them always in sight, and warily wait, or else we shall do badly.’ He is preparing for the arrival of many souls of the damned.
16. Half a stanza is missing here. A marginal note indicates that another version was written.
17. Of… synge. ‘Every sinful person must sing of sorrow.’
18. This appears to be a reference to the Five Wounds of Christ, though usually they are one in each foot, one in each hand, and one in the side (or heart).
19. Manne… be. ‘It was necessary thus, man for you to be saved.’
20. The works of mercy are enumerated in Matthew 25 35–6. R. Woolf, op. cit., p. 414, n. 104, reads prison (from Towneley) for presse at l. 289.
21. Thame thurte… bone. ‘They had only to ask to receive their request.’
22. House… quaked. ‘Though I shivered, I had no house or shelter, help or aid from you.’
23. To me… kyd. ‘That unkindness was shown to me.’
24. Time has passed away. The cycle ends with a specific reference to the belief in eternity, cf. the opening speeches of Deus in Play 1.
25. Et… locum. ‘And thus crossing from the place to the place, he makes an end with the melody of angels.’ A reference to Christ’s final return to Heaven, presumably an upper stage.