Index

Acceleration measurement, 398

Accelerometers:

calibration of, 413, 418422

differential transformer, 253269

effect

of environment, 410412

of damping ratio, 401

loading on test objects, 411

piezoelectric type, 403410

pressure-to-force type, 435

seismic type, 190, 398406

construction, 406

servo-accelerometer, 405

Accuracy, definition of, 77

of null-balance systems, 100, 107

of standards, 33

Aliasing (in sampling), 364

Amplifiers:

carrier, 255, 679

charge, 316, 318, 409

controlled-source model, 125127

effect of feedback, 155

instrument amplifier, 319

operational, 306324, 690693

preamplifier, 314315, 319, 344

transistor amplifier, 127134

Amplitude modulation, 246249, 255258

frequency spectra of, 259

in strain measurement, 257

in temperature measurement, 255

Analog data corrections, 200204

dynamic error, 198200

Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC), 345349, 369

Anemometer, hot-wire/film, 491495

Angular measurements, 250, 274

Auxiliary inputs, 67, 70, 260

Averaging, signal, 159

Ballast circuit, 35, 144, 282

Bandwidth, 685

Bernoulli’s equation, 477

Bimetallic thermometers, 511512

Binary-coded decimal (BCD), 325

Binary numbering system, 325326

Blackbody, 546, 554

Bode plots, 208212, 216218

Boolean algebra, 333334

Bourdon-tube pressure gage, 100, 430

Break frequency, 206

Bridge circuit(s), 134137, 535537

balancing of, 136, 282, 537

diode, 247

ideal voltage/current drives, 145

inductance, 269

loading of, 140141

mass-flow meter, 499

operational amplifier, 322

strain gage, 281, 289

in null systems, 135137

unbalance systems, 137, 141

Bridge constant, 139, 283

Calibration:

accelerometers, 413415, 418422

instruments, 9, 20, 7477

force transducers, 418422

pressure gage, 4851, 634636

Capacitive transducers: applications, 293298, 599601

basic principles, 290293

basic types, 46, 293295

with operational amplifiers, 318

Carrier (auxiliary) input, 6770

types of, 260

Carrier systems, 246, 255, 263

demonstration of, 677684

Characteristics, static, 4851

of resistance thermometers, 534

of thermistors, 539540

of thermocouples, 516

of transistors, 127128

Charge amplifiers, 316318, 409

Chopping, in pyrometers, 255, 554556

in strain gage amplifier, 257

Common mode, 102103, 371, 531

rejection ratio, 103, 310, 320

Comparative measurements, 105

Compensation, series, 219224, 675

feedback, 225, 494

Compression test, 640641

Computer-based instruments, 374

Constant current drive, 143, 145, 164, 282

Constant voltage drive, 143, 145, 282

Controlled-source transducers, 125

Correction, for dynamic data, See Dynamic data correction

Counters, 339, 344, 352353

Coupled systems, 659660

Cross-correlation function, 476

Cross-sensitivity, 6, 631, 641645

Current divider, 697

Current measurement, 116, 370

using operational amplifier, 323

D operator, 178, 729

Dall flow tube, 481482

Damping ratio, 190

from system parameters, 192194

measurement of, 192

D’Arsonval movement, 191, 205, 271

Data acquisition systems, 368375

Data logging, 371

Data transmission, 371, 531, 553554

Dead band (dead zone), 56

Dead weight tester, 48, 636

Decibel (dB), 207

Decoder, 340

Delay, transport, 184

Demodulation, phase sensitive, 249

DeMorgan theorem, 333

Demultiplexer, 341343

Density measurement, 434, 495

Dial gage, 389

Differential equations:

characteristic equation, 731

solutions of, 729

complementary function, 731732

general solution, 731

particular integral, 732734

particular solution, 734

Differential measurement, 102104

in noise reduction, 164

Differential transformer:

applications, 250254

basic principles, 246248

multiple transformer circuits, 253

signal demodulation, 249

Differentiator, RC network, 214215

operational transformer, 313

Digital storage oscilloscope, 359

Digital techniques, 326338

signal (positive logic), 326

truth table, 329, 332

Digital voltmeter, 573574

Digital-to-analog converter, 245247

Dimension measurement, 388394

Diode bridge rectifier, 247249, 683

Discrete Fourier transform (DFT), 362

Displacement measurements:

interferometry, 392394

mechanical methods, 389391

loading effect, 116117

Displacement transducers:

gage blocks, 388

types, capacitive, 293294, 601

inductive, 252, 270, 604

pneumatic, 170, 392

resistive, 392, 596

Doppler flowmeters:

laser velocimeter, 470471

ultrasonic flowmeter, 468470

Drag-force flowmeter, 487

Drift, in sensitivity, 47, 54

Dual slope ADC, 348

Dynamic compensation:

feedback compensation, 225

in hot-wire anemometer, 493

series compensation, 219220, 223

in thermocouple, 220222, 675

Dynamic data correction:

rise time, 204

time constant, 200202

using transfer function, 228

Dynamic loading, 20, 416

Dynamic range, 54

Dynamometer, absorption, 90, 422

eddy current, 267

platform, 287, 423

tool, 6, 11

transmission, 423

Eddy current devices, 266267, 270

Electric circuit elements, 705708

Electrolytic flowmeter, 464

Electromagnetic flowmeter, 471

Emissivity, 547

Emittance, 546547

Encoder/decoder, 340341

Energy model, See Transducer models

Energy, auxiliary, 70

in amplifiers, 125127

Engineering data, 8081

English-to-SI, tables, 32, 458

Environment and transducer, 47, 42

EPUT meter, 353

Error, measurement, 7778

dynamic, 198200

corrections of, 200204

maximum, 82

root-sum-square, 8285

systematic and random, 79

uncertainty analysis of, 8188

Experimentation, objectives of, 2325

Extensometer, 253

Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 361363

Feedback compensation, 225, 493

Feedback effect:

on input/output impedance, 155

on component nonlinearity, 151152

on system performance, 153155

Feedback system:

description, 147150

hot-wire anemometer, 493

operational amplifier, 310

recorder, 357

Filters, active, 321

characteristics of, 159

laboratory experiment, 684690

in noise reduction, 157

RC network, 214215

ringing of, 204

statistical, 159

First-order instruments:

examples, 185187

frequency response, 206, 209211

laboratory experiment, 666669

time constant evaluation, 651653

time response, 187190

demonstration, 651652

laboratory experiment, 653655

Flexures:

for force sensing, 251252, 444

for pressure sensing, 428432

for strain gage applications, 283, 629631

Flexures, cross-sensitivity of, 631, 641645

Flexure, energy model, 121

Flip-flops:

D type, 336

latch type, 335

J-K type, 337

Flow measurement methods:

direct, 460

indirect, 476

Flowmeter:

carrier systems, 460476

drag-force, 487

Hot-wire/hot-film, 491495

mass, 473, 495, 499

positive displacement, 461

square-root law, 477484

characteristics of, 481482

turbine, 488, 498499

variable area, 484487

vortex-shedding, 489491

Flowmeter calibration, 460

Flow-rate measurement, mass, 495

by density and volume, 496

direct mass flowmeters, 497499

thermal flowmeters, 473476

Fluid density measurements, 495497

Force measurement:

basic principles, 415

loading effect, 114116

mass cancellation in, 416418

Force transducer:

dynamic calibration of, 418422

flexure, 251252, 286

load cell, 404, 416

platform scale, 444

tool dynanometer, 11

Fourier series, 57, 226, 361, 735

Fourier transform:

direct, 230232, 737738

illustration, 742743

symmetrical rules, 742

discrete Fourier transform, 362

fast Fourier transform, 361

inverse transform, 233, 740742

Frequency domain analysis, See Frequency response

Frequency measurement, 352353

Frequency modulation, 260262, 678

Frequency, natural, 190, 192

measurement of, 193

Frequency response, 179, 205, 662664

Bode plots, 207, 665

elementary transfer

functions, 208212

interpretations, 212216

general transfer function, 216219

Frequency standard, 33

Functional stages, 911, 610616

Gage blocks, 33, 388

Gage, dimensional, 251, 268270

pneumatic, 170, 292

Gage factor, 17, 279280, 290

Galvanometer, 191, 205, 271

Gates, logic, 327333

Ground, instrument, 160

Ground loop, 371, 531

Hot-wire/hot-film anemometer, 491

constant current, 494

constant temperature, 493

Hydraulic servo, 149

Ice bath, 15, 521

Impedance:

bridge, 136

concept, 110111

definition of, 108

electrical, 714, 716717

input/output, 109110

matching, 111112

Impedance head, 417

Impulse function, 182

frequency content of, 234

Impulse response, 189, 195

Incremental model, 6165, 7274

one-port device, 62

two-port device, 73

three-port device, 74, 125

Inductance, mutual, 119, 265

self-inductance, 265

Induction potentiometer, 274

Inductive transducers:

applications, 266275, 602605

basic types, 265

Infrared detection, 256, 542

Inherent insensitivity, 162163

Initial state (operating point):

effect on linearization, 6164

from impulse input, 189, 195

of sensors, 19, 4144

of transistor amplifier, 128131

Input, auxiliary, 66, 70

cross-sensitivity of, 6

desired and undesired, 4, 41

noise, 5, 41

primary and secondary, 70

“guard” input, 371

Input coupling (AC/DC), 581586

Input impedance, 109, 155

feedback effect on, 154

measurement of, 516578

of voltage follower, 415

Input test signals, 182

Input/output coupling, 6, 631, 641645

Instrument, classification of, 181

modeling, 99101

zero and sensitivity drift, 54

Integrated circuit, 306, 308, 556

Integrator:

operational amplifier, 312

RC network, 212214

Interferometry:

dimensional measurement, 392394

laser velocimeter, 471

flow visualization, 463

International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS-68), 33, 510

Irreversible effects, 4748

Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws, 699710, 714

Laboratory, goals, 22, 24

reports, 2628

types of, 2425

Laminar flowmeter, 473

Laser velocimeter, 470471

Leakage (sampling), 363, 366

Least squares method, 4951, 53

Linear characteristics, 5254

implications of, 53

Linear model, 62

Linearity drift, 54

Linearity, independent and proportional, 5253

Linearization, 6165

of energy models, 7274

Liquid-in-glass thermometer, 236, 237

Liquid level transducers:

bubblers, 434

capacitive, 293, 295

differential transformer, 252

Load cell, 251252, 288, 416, 608

Loading, effects, 67, 74, 75, 111

dyanmic loading, 20, 416

mass loading, 10, 305, 416

Loading, in current measurement, 116

in displacement measurement, 117

in static force measurement, 115

in voltage measurement, 112114, 579581

Logic circuits, 338349, 369

Logic gates, 329333

LVDT, See Differential transformer

Magnetic shield, 161

Magnetic flowmeter, 471473

Manometer, 427428, 446

Mass cancellation, 416

Mass flowmeter, 497

thermal, 473

bridge circuit, 499

Mass loading, 10, 305, 416

Mass standard, 30

Measurand, 4, 6, 41

potential sensors for, 13

Measurement:

nature of, 79

”perfect” measurement, 7, 71

physical laws for, 41

significance of, 34

valid measurement, 1, 1718

Measurement methods, 12, 9798

comparative method, 105

comparison of methods, 105108

differential method, 102104

inferential method, 104105

null-balance method, 97100

unbalance method, 100102

Measuring system:

functional stages of, 910, 610617

structure of, 97

Mercury-in-glass thermometer, 236, 237, 511

stem correction, 512

Microphone, capacitive, 295

Mistakes, in measurement, 78

Modeling, of linear systems, 178179

Modulation: (see also Carrier input)

amplitude modulation (AM), 246249, 255258

laboratory demonstration, 680684

frequency modulation (FM), 260, 679

pulse modulation, 261263

Modulation, in noise reduction, 165

Motion measurement, 395397

Multimeter, d’Arsonval, 36, 571

digital, 573

Multiplexing, 264, 341343

in data acquisition, 368

Mutual inductance, 119

Natural frequency, 190, 192193

Noise:

definition of, 5

in differential measurement, 102

documentation, 166169

output, 4245

potential sources of, 13, 41

sensitivity, 43

effect of initial state, 44

Noise reduction methods:

cancellation, 164165

filtering, selective, 157159

statistical, 159

information conversion, 165167

inherent insensitivity, 162163

shielding, 160162

Nomenclature, 29

Nonlinearity, 47, 5557

effect of feedback, 151

effect on output signal, 5761

Nonself-generating transducers, 67, 70, 125, 243

Nozzle, flow, 481481

Null-balance method, 97100

Ohmmeter circuit, 36

RTD, 535537

Ohm’s law, 695699, 713

One-port device, Thevenin’s equivalent, 112117

Operating point, See Initial state

Operational amplifier (op amp):

applications, 316324

basic circuits, 310316

characteristics, 306310

in charge amplifier, 316318, 409

in instrument amplifier, 319

laboratory experiment, 690693

model of, 307, 309

Optical pyrometer, 550552, 556

Orifice flowmeter, 478481

Oscillator, 573

Oscilloscope:

cathode ray, 349351, 569571

input coupling (AC/DC), 581586

trigger system, 586590

storage oscilloscope, 359

Output signal, 6

primary and secondary, 70

Output impedance, 109, 702

effect of feedback, 154

measurement of, 576578

Output storage device, 358

Overshoot, 192193

effect of damping ratio, 194

PC-based instruments, 374

Period measurement, 352

Periodic input, response to, 226228

Phase angle, 711712

Phase angle measurement, 352

Physical laws for sensing, 1213

first-order effects, 4146, 592

signal-to-noise ratio, 42

second-order effects, 4748

Taylor series expansion, 4142

Piezoelectric, transducers, 403

basic principles, 403404

equivalent circuits, 407410

material, 405

Pitot static tube, 104, 482484

compressible flow, 484

Planck’s law, 542545

Pneumatic gage, 170, 392

Potentiometer, induction, 274

function generator, 597

Preamplifier, 314315, 319, 344

Precision, definition of, 77

Pressure measurement, 423

related physical laws, 433

Pressure transducers:

applications, 433436

dynamic calibration, 439441

installations, 437439

types, bourdon tube, 101, 252, 430

bonded strain gage, 288, 430

capacitance, 294

inductance, 269

manometer, 428

sensing element, 427432

for high pressure, 429

Pressure-to-force conversion, 435

in accelerometer, 435

Pulse modulation, 261263

Pyrometer, 542, 549

components in, 553556

measurement uncertainty, 547549

optical chopper, 255, 554556

type, broad-band, 548, 552, 555

narrow-band, 547, 550552, 556

two-color (ratio), 550

Radioisotope flowmeter, 464

Ramp function, 182

Ramp response, 188, 195

Random error, 79

Range, dynamic, 54

Ratio pyrometer, 550552

Reynolds number, 459, 489

Readibility, scale, 54

Recorder, strip-chart, 355

Rejection ratio, common-mode, 103

Reports, laboratory, 2628

Resistance:

in parallel, 697

in series, 696

Resistance thermometer:

characteristics, 534535

circuits, 535538

construction, 532534

error sources, 538

standards, 535

thermistors, 539542

Resistance measurement, 370372, 537

Resistance transducers, 593599

Resolution, 55

Resonant circuits, 717721

Resolver, 271

Rise time, 203

Root-mean-square (rms) value, 573576, 712713

Root-sum-square (rss) error, 8285

Rosette, strain gage, 276, 622

strain-to-stress, 278, 622624

Rotameter, 485, 487

Rotary differential transformer, 250

RTD, See Resistance thermometer

Sample-and-hold circuit, 343344

Sampling rate, 363367

Second-order instruments:

frequency response, 211212

demonstration, 670673

laboratory experiment, 673674

time response, 190196

demonstration, 655659

laboratory experiment, 660662

settling time, 661

Seebeck effect, 14, 514

coefficient, 515

Seismic instrument, 190, 398401

acceleration measurement, 401

displacement measurement, 399

velocity measurement, 399

Self-generating transducers, 67, 70

as two-port device, 117, 244

Sensing process, 47, 20

physical laws for, 41

Sensitivity, definition of, 42, 184

drift, 47

effect of initial condition, 4344

null and unbalance methods, 105108

Sensors: (see also Transducers)

initial-boundary conditions, 1920

primary and secondary, 1011, 283

types, 1213

Settling time, 661

Shielding, 160161

Shock tube, 440

SI units, 3032

Signal:

averaging, 159

definition of, 6

digital, 326

periodic, 226

transient, 233

sensitivity, 42

waveform reproduction, 196198

Signal analyzer, 360

Signal conditioning, 10, 305, 370, 674

Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), 4244

in differential measurement, 103

Sinusoidal functions, 709713

Slip ring, 164284

Sonic flowmeter, 466470

Standard deviation, 51

Standards, 2933

Statistics, 2, 17, 7879

Stefan-Boltzmann law, 542, 546

Step function, 182

frequency content of, 234

Step response, 185188, 192

laboratory experiments, 651, 655

Strain gage:

applications, 283290, 617648

gage factor, 17, 279280, 290

gage selection, 277281

materials, 16, 275, 279

rosette, 276, 622

Strain gage circuits: (see also Transducer circuits)

bridge constant, 139, 283

resistance of components, 164, 284285, 289

Stress-strain, biaxial, 276, 278, 618621, 645647

Strip-chart recorder, 355

Stroboscope, 356358, 396, 607

Synchro transducer, 274

System parameters, 117125

Systematic error, 79

Switch, electronic, 327

Tachometer, 267, 271

Tape recorder, magnetic, 354

Taylor series, 41, 592

Temperature standard (IPTS-68), 510

Temperature measurement:

accuracy, 33

methods of, 509

Test signals, 181184, 233236

Thermal flowmeter, 473476

Thermistor, 539542

material tolerance, 540

resistance versus temperature, 541

Thermocouple:

data transmission, 531532

dynamic compensation, 221, 675677

error sources, 521522, 527530

laws, 1516, 517518

gradient approach, 518521

reference junction, 15, 523

hardware compensation, 524

software compensation, 521523

series-parallel circuit, 530

thermal EMF, 515517

types, 516517

Thermocouple potentiometer, 98, 596

Thermocouple probes, 524526

Thermocouple wire, 527528

Thermometer:

bimetallic, 511512

integrated circuit (IC), 556

liquid-in-glass, 511514

stem correction, 512

dynamic analysis, 236, 237

pressure, 513

resistance, 532

Thevenin’s equivalent, 109, 702705

Three-port, See Transducer model

Time constant:

dynamic compensation of, 219222

effect of, 188, 201, 206, 666, 668

evaluation of, 187188, 206, 652653, 668

examples of, 185187

hot-wire anemometer, 494

thermocouple, 650

Time interval measurement, 352

Time response:

analog data correction, 200204

definition of, 21

laboratory experiment, 648662

limitation of, 204

scope of study, 178, 181

test signals, 181184, 233236

Torque measurement, 287, 294, 422425

Torr, 427

Transducers, definition of, 11

calibration of, 20, 7477

data acquisition, 368370

interaction with environment, 47, 19, 4142, 81

Transducer circuits:

ballast circuit, 35, 141144, 282

basic circuits, 141142

ideal power source, 143, 144147

non-ideal power source, 144

Transducer model:

controlled source (amplifier), 125127

dynamic model, 177179, 181, 205

energy model, 7075

one-port, 112

two-port, 118

three-port, 125

incremental model, 6164, 7274

information model, 6669

null-balance method model, 99

unbalance method model, 102

self-/nonself-generating, 67, 70

Thevenin’s, 109

Transfer function, 178179

Bode plots, 206

elementary functions, 208212

interpretations, 212216

general function, 216219

Transients:

frequency contents of, 228231

test signals, 233236

system response, 233

Transistor amplifier, 126134

Transport delay, 184

True value, 51, 77

True waveform reproduction, 196198

Truth table, 329, 332, 336, 338

Turbine flow meter, 488489, 498499

Two-color pyrometer, 550552

Two-port device, 7074, 117118

parameters, 118125

Ultra-sonic flowmeter, 466470

Unbalance method, 100102

Uncertain analysis:

confidence level, 77, 80

criterion, maximum, 8283

root-sum-square, 8284

overall uncertainty, 8182

Uncertainty analysis, applications:

alternative test method, 86

estimation in design, 85

compounding of errors, 8284

Uncertainty, in pryometry, 547548

Undershoot, 201204

Units, definition of, 29

SI system, 3032

Valid measurement, 1, 1718

Velocity (motion) transducers:

ac/dc tachometer, 271, 272

drag-cup, 267, 270

miscellaneous, 397

moving coil, 271, 273

permanent magnet, 396397

proximity counter, 267, 272

seismic instruments, 398400

stroboscope, 396

vibrating wedge, 396

Venturi tube, 481482

Vernier caliper, 389

Viscosity, absolute (dynamic), 458

kinematic, 458

Viscosity meter, 436

Voltage follower, 314315, 319, 344

Voltage divider, 696

Voltage measurement, 112114, 579581

Vortex-shedding flowmeter, 489491

Waveform reproduction, 196198

Wheatstone bridge, 135

Wien’s radiation law, 545

Window, sampling, 367

X-Y plotter, 356

Zero-order instrument, 184

demonstration,

frequency domain, 665

time domain, 650