1. Gauguin, Writings of a Savage, pp. 212, 267.
2. Stein, Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, p. 120.
3. Sickert, Complete Writings on Art, p. 253.
4. Whistler, Gentle Art of Making Enemies, p. 30.
5. Rosenberg, Discovering the Present, pp. 112, 118.
1. Bowness, Modern European Art, p. 73.
2. Doran, Conversations with Cézanne, p. 163.
3. Barr, Picasso, p. 270.
4. Cézanne, Paul Cézanne, Letters, pp. 329–30.
5. Fry, Cézanne, p. 3.
6. Bowness, Modern European Art, p. 37.
7. Doran, Conversations with Cézanne, pp. 59, 78.
8. Bell, “Debt to Cézanne,” p. 77.
9. Cézanne, Paul Cézanne, Letters, pp. 302–3.
10. Gasquet, Joachim Gasquet’s Cézanne, p. 148.
11. Sylvester, Looking at Giacometti, pp. 35–36.
12. Schapiro, Paul Cézanne, pp. 18–19.
13. Doran, Conversations with Cézanne, p. 38.
14. Cézanne, Paul Cézanne, Letters, pp. 316–17.
15. Merleau-Ponty, Sense and Non-Sense, pp. 14–15.
16. Fry, Cézanne, pp. 47–48.
17. Schapiro, Paul Cézanne, p. 18.
18. Schapiro, Paul Cézanne, p. 19.
19. Barr, Picasso, pp. 270–71.
20. McCully, Picasso Anthology, p. 145.
21. Berger, Success and Failure of Picasso, pp. 35–36.
22. Cabanne, Pablo Picasso, p. 272.
23. Galenson, “Quantifying Artistic Success,” table 3; Galenson, “Measuring Masters and Masterpieces,” table 3.
24. Rubin, Seckel, and Cousins, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, pp. 14, 119.
25. Richardson, Life of Picasso, 2:45–83.
26. Golding, Cubism, p. 60.
27. Gilot and Lake, Life with Picasso, pp. 123–34.
28. Cabanne, Pablo Picasso, p. 511.
29. Schapiro, Unity of Picasso’s Art, pp. 5, 29.
30. Schlemmer, Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer, p. 102.
31. McCully, Picasso Anthology, pp. 146–48.
32. Valéry, Degas, Manet, Morisot, p. 51.
33. This is an extension of the scheme presented by Richard Wollheim, “Minimal Art,” p. 396.
34. Rewald, Post-Impressionism, p. 86.
35. Gauguin, Writings of a Savage, p. 5.
36. Van Gogh, Complete Letters of Vincent van Gogh, 2:606–7.
37. Duchamp, Writings of Marcel Duchamp, p. 125.
38. Friedman, Charles Sheeler, p. 72.
39. Stiles and Selz, Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art, p. 89.
40. Madoff, Pop Art, p. 104.
41. Zevi, Sol LeWitt, p. 78.
42. Lyons and Storr, Chuck Close, p. 29.
43. Smithson, Robert Smithson, p. 192.
44. Mangold, Robert Mangold, p. 163.
45. Richter, Daily Practice of Painting, pp. 23, 30.
46. Gouma-Peterson, Breaking the Rules, p. 60.
47. Benezra and Brougher, Ed Ruscha, p. 146.
48. Kimmelman, “Modern Op,” p. 48.
49. Kendall, Monet by Himself, p. 178.
50. Renoir, Renoir, My Father, p. 188.
51. Lindsay and Vergo, Kandinsky, p. 370.
52. Klee, Diaries of Paul Klee, 1898–1918, pp. 236–37.
53. Holty, “Mondrian in New York,” p. 21.
54. Miró, Joan Miró, p. 211.
55. Sylvester, Looking at Giacometti, pp. 76–77.
56. Shapiro and Shapiro, Abstract Expressionism, p. 397.
57. Friedman, Jackson Pollock, p. 100.
58. De Kooning, Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, p. 69.
59. Gibson, Issues in Abstract Expressionism, p. 241.
60. Terenzio, Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell, p. 227.
61. Graham-Dixon, Howard Hodgkin, p. 214.
62. Balthus, Vanished Splendors, p. 55.
63. Gruen, Artist Observed, p. 302.
64. Kimmelman, Portraits, p. 43.
65. Kuthy, Pierre Soulages, p. 23.
66. Livingston, Art of Richard Diebenkorn, p. 72.
67. Rose, Frankenthaler, p. 36.
68. Bernstock, Joan Mitchell, p. 57.
69. Simon, Susan Rothenberg, p. 137.
70. Vollard, Cézanne, p. 86.
71. Rewald, Paintings of Paul Cézanne.
72. O’Brian, Pablo Ruiz Picasso, p. 288.
73. Gilot and Lake, Life with Picasso, p. 123.
74. Lehman, Age and Achievement, pp. 330–31.
75. Joyce, Hockney on “Art,” p. 214.
76. Rubin, Cézanne, p. 37.
77. Golding, Cubism, p. 15.
78. Sickert, Complete Writings on Art, p. 216.
79. Ghiselin, Creative Process, p. 14.
80. Kubler, Shape of Time, p. 10.
81. Warhol, Philosophy of Andy Warhol, p. 178.
82. Bourdieu, Field of Cultural Production, p. 116.
83. Tuchman and Barron, David Hockney, p. 87.
84. Baxandall, Patterns of Intention, chaps. 1–2.
85. Schapiro, Worldview in Painting, pp. 142–43.
86. Kubler, Shape of Time, p. 10.
87. Referring to art and literature, the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu observed, “There are in fact very few other areas in which the glorification of ‘great individuals,’ unique creators irreducible to any condition or conditioning is more common or uncontroversial”; Field of Cultural Production, p. 29.
88. As is the case for scholars, the initial recognition of important artists is typically by their fellow artists. See the interesting comments by Alan Bowness, Conditions of Success.
89. Tomkins, Off the Wall, p. 118.
90. Richter, Daily Practice of Painting, pp. 24, 256.
91. Bowness, Modern European Art, p. 73.
92. Sylvester, About Modern Art, pp. 229–30.
93. Fry, Last Lectures, pp. 3, 14–15.
1. Kubler, Shape of Time, p. 83.
2. Rosenberg, Art on the Edge, p. 80.
3. For a full description of the regression analysis, see Galenson, Painting outside the Lines, pp. 195–96.
4. A regression in which the binary dependent variable was equal to 1 for paintings owned by museums, and 0 otherwise, produced the following estimate (t-statistics are given in parentheses):
Probability of museum ownership = .249 + .0041 age at execution
(4.04) (3.08)
n = 945, R2= .01
5. Thus, for example, eight paintings by Cézanne appeared in four or more of the textbooks surveyed for Galenson, “Quantifying Artistic Success,” 17n1. The mean size of these eight paintings was 2,151 sq. in. This is more than three times as large as the overall mean, of 657 sq. in., of all Cézanne’s paintings in Rewald’s catalogue raisonné.
6. A regression with the natural logarithm of a painting’s surface area in square inches as the dependent variable yields the following estimate:
Ln(size) = 4.86 + .22 age at execution + .337 museum ownership
(43.7) (9.33) (5.80)
n = 945, R2= .124
Thus controlling the age at which the painting was made, paintings by Cézanne owned by museums at the time of publication of Rewald’s catalogue were on average one-third larger than those privately owned.
7. These results for Cézanne are likely to extend to other artists as well. It will be demonstrated later that art scholars’ judgments of when artists have done their best work generally agree with market valuations. As a result, because these best works are most sought after by museums, the auction market will generally understate the true value of work from the artist’s best period relative to that of the rest of his career. This effect typically serves to strengthen the usefulness of using auction data to date the timing of the artist’s best work.
8. Greenberg, Collected Essays and Criticism, 4:118.
9. De Chirico, Memoirs of Giorgio de Chirico, pp. 70, 225.
10. Duret, Manet and the French Impressionists, p. 72.
11. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 49.
12. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 277.
13. Guérin, Lettres de Degas, p. 107.
14. Vollard, Degas, p. 102.
15. Valéry, Degas, Manet, Morisot, p. 50.
16. Moore, Impressions and Opinions, p. 229. A survey of 33 textbooks found that 20 different paintings of dancers by Degas were illustrated a total of 29 times, but that no one of them appeared in more than four of the books; Galenson, “Quantifying Artistic Success,” p. 13.
17. Kandinsky, Kandinsky, Complete Writings on Art, pp. 369–70.
18. Golding, Paths to the Absolute, p. 67.
19. Kuh, Artist’s Voice, p. 191.
20. Goodrich and Bry, Georgia O’Keeffe, p. 19.
21. Kuh, Artist’s Voice, p. 190.
22. Lynes, O’Keeffe, Stieglitz and the Critics, 1916–1929, p. 288.
23. Selz, Work of Jean Dubuffet, p. 105.
24. Russell, Matisse: Father and Son, p. 286. For evidence from textbooks that demonstrates the absence of notable individual works or peak years for Dubuffet, see Galenson, “New York School versus the School of Paris,” p. 149.
25. Heller, Edvard Munch, pp. 70–80, 107.
26. Giry, Fauvism, p. 250.
27. Hamilton, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, p. 166.
28. Cooper, Cubist Epoch, p. 42.
29. Richardson, Life of Picasso, 2:105.
30. Green, Juan Gris, pp. 41, 55; Golding, Cubism, pp. 130–31.
31. Green, Juan Gris, pp. 18–19; Golding, Visions of the Modern, p. 92.
32. Green, Juan Gris, p. 51.
33. Soby, Giorgio de Chirico, pp. 42, 161.
34. Soby, Giorgio de Chirico, p. 157.
35. Soby, Giorgio de Chirico, p. 161.
36. Varnedoe, Jasper Johns, p. 7.
37. Battcock, Minimal Art, p. 161.
38. Friedman, Jackson Pollock, p. 100.
39. Shapiro and Shapiro, Abstract Expressionism, p. 397.
40. Newman, Barnett Newman, p. 248.
41. Spender, From a High Place, p. 275.
42. Sylvester, Interviews with American Artists, p. 57.
43. Breslin, Mark Rothko, p. 232.
44. De Kooning, Spirit of Abstract Expressionism, p. 226.
45. Newman, Barnett Newman, p. 254.
46. Breslin, Mark Rothko, pp. 317, 469.
47. Breslin, Mark Rothko, p. 526.
48. Breslin, Mark Rothko, p. 211.
49. Karmel, Jackson Pollock, pp. 20–21.
50. Newman, Barnett Newman, p. 251.
51. Newman, Barnett Newman, p. 240.
52. Hess, Willem de Kooning, p. 149.
53. Friedman, Jackson Pollock, p. 183.
54. Jones, Machine in the Studio, p. 90.
55. Sylvester, Interviews with American Artists, p. 224.
56. Madoff, Pop Art, p. 104.
57. Battcock, Minimal Art, p. 158.
58. Johns, Writings, Sketchbook Notes, Interviews, p. 113.
59. Jones, Machine in the Studio, pp. 197–98.
60. Gruen, Artist Observed, p. 225.
61. Battcock, Minimal Art, pp. 157–58.
62. Madoff, Pop Art, pp. 107–8.
63. On the selection of these ten artists, see Galenson, “Was Jackson Pollock the Greatest Modern American Painter?” table 2, p. 119.
64. Bowness, Conditions of Success, pp. 9–11.
65. Franc, Invitation to See. For a list of individuals consulted in the selection of the works, see p. 185.
66. E.g., see Wood et al., Modernism in Dispute, pp. 77–81.
67. Solomon, “Frank Stella’s Expressionist Phase,” p. 47.
68. Graczyk, “MOMA Hiatus Gives Houston Rare Art.”
69. Graczyk, “MOMA Hiatus Gives Houston Rare Art.”
70. Elderfield, Visions of Modern Art, p. 19.
71. Graczyk, “MOMA Hiatus Gives Houston Rare Art.”
72. Bowness, Conditions of Success, p. 51.
73. Duff, “In Payscales, Life Sometimes Imitates Art,” p. B1.
74. Galenson, “Quantifying Artistic Success,” table 5, p. 14; Galenson, “Measuring Masters and Masterpieces,” table 5, p. 63.
75. Franc, Invitation to See, pp. 58, 170.
1. Zevi, Sol LeWitt, p. 80.
2. Crone, “Form and Ideology,” pp. 87–88; Livingstone, “Do It Yourself,” pp. 69–72.
3. Bockris, Warhol, pp. 164, 170.
4. Zevi, Sol Le Witt, p. 95.
5. Russell, Seurat, pp. 135–65; Herbert, Seurat, pp. 83–84.
6. Rich, Seurat and the Evolution of “La Grande Jatte,” p. 10.
7. Rich, Seurat and the Evolution of “La Grande Jatte,” p. 58.
8. Rewald, Georges Seurat, p. 26.
9. Spurling, Unknown Matisse, p. 293.
10. Rubin and Lanchner, André Masson, p. 21.
11. Friedman, Jackson Pollock, p. 100.
12. Carmean and Rathbone, American Art at Mid-Century, pp. 133–39.
13. De Leiris, Drawings of Edouard Manet, pp. 30–31.
14. Reff, Manet: Olympia, pp. 69–77; de Leiris, Drawings of Edouard Manet, pp. 13, 61, 109.
15. Duret, Manet and the French Impressionists, p. 90
16. House, Monet, pp. 45, 230.
17. House, Monet, p. 183.
18. House, Monet, pp. 145–46, 188.
19. Bomford et al., Art in the Making, pp. 122–23; also see House, Monet, chap. 11.
20. House, Monet, p. 191.
21. Jirat-Wasiutynski and Newton, Technique and Meaning, p. 44.
22. Bomford et al., Art in the Making, p. 165.
23. Jirat-Wasiutynski and Newton, Technique and Meaning, p. 76. On the timing of Gauguin’s major work, see Galenson, “Quantifying Artistic Success,” p. 15.
24. Brettell and Lloyd, Catalogue of the Drawings by Camille Pissarro, pp. 42–49; also see House, “Camille Pissarro’s Idea of Unity,” p. 20.
25. Gauguin, Writings of a Savage, p. 22.
26. Rewald, Georges Seurat, p. 68.
27. Foster, Thomas Eakins Rediscovered, pp. 128–29, 142–43.
28. Tucker and Gutman, “Photographs and the Making of Paintings,” pp. 225–38.
29. Tucker and Gutman, “Pursuit of ‘True Tones,’ ” pp. 353–66.
30. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 73.
31. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, pp. 273–74.
32. Rewald, Paul Cézanne, p. 203.
33. Cachin, et al., Cézanne, pp. 100–102, 104–8, 116–20.
34. Cachin, Signac, pp. 8–18.
35. Bomford et al., Art in the Making, pp. 114–15; Wilson, Manet at Work, pp. 22–27; de Leiris, Drawings of Edouard Manet, pp. 54–63; Reff, Manet: Olympia, p. 78.
36. De Leiris, Drawings of Edouard Manet, pp. 33, 170–71.
37. De Leiris, Drawings of Edouard Manet, p. 33.
38. Collins, 12 Views of Manet’s Bar, pp. 13, 177, 240.
39. De Leiris, Drawings of Edouard Manet, p. 33.
40. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 30.
41. Brettell and Lloyd, Catalogue of the Drawings by Camille Pissarro, p. 23.
42. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 64.
43. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 132.
44. Rewald, Post-Impressionism, p. 130.
45. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 158.
46. Rewald, Georges Seurat, p. 68.
47. Broude, Seurat in Perspective, pp. 28–29.
48. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, p. 135.
49. E.g., see Daix, Picasso, p. 336.
50. Gilot and Lake, Life with Picasso, pp. 115–16.
51. Brassaï, Conversations with Picasso, p. 347.
52. Kubler, Shape of Time, p. 6.
53. Kendall, Monet by Himself, p. 172.
54. Clark, Landscape into Art, pp. 170–76.
55. For a detailed analysis of the specific elements of Monet’s early innovation, see House, Monet, pp. 51–53, 77, 115.
56. Stuckey, Monet, pp. 206, 217; Kendall, Monet by Himself, p. 255.
57. Stuckey, Monet, p. 217.
58. Kubler, Shape of Time, p. 6.
59. House, Monet, p. 201. For later examples of this attitude, see Newman, Barnett Newman, p. 198; Sylvester, Interviews with America Artists, p. 187.
60. E.g., Greenberg, Collected Essays and Criticism, 3:228; 4:3–11; Agee, Sam Francis, p. 20.
61. House, Monet, p. 217.
62. Kendall, Monet by Himself, p. 265.
63. Rewald, Post-Impressionism, p. 368.
64. Van Gogh, Complete Letters of Vincent van Gogh, 2:515.
65. Van Gogh, Complete Letters of Vincent van Gogh, 3:6, 28–31.
66. Greenberg, Homemade Esthetics, p. 117.
67. Gruen, Artist Observed, p. 222.
68. Madoff, Pop Art, p. 198.
69. Galenson, “Was Jackson Pollock the Greatest Modern American Painter?” table 3, p. 119.
1. Rewald, History of Impressionism, p. 140.
2. Hamilton, Manet and His Critics, p. 15.
3. Courbet, Letters of Gustave Courbet, p. 129. The painting was of course L’Atelier, which is included in table 4.1.
4. Courbet, Letters of Gustave Courbet, p. 230.
5. For discussion see Galenson and Jensen, “Careers and Canvases.”
6. Daix, Picasso, p. 56; Cottington, “What the Papers Say,” p. 353.
7. Rewald, History of Impressionism, p. 172.
8. Sickert, Complete Writings on Art, p. 254.
9. Isaacson, Monet: Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe, chaps. 1–5; Stuckey, Monet, p. 334.
10. Rewald, History of Impressionism, pp. 166–68.
11. Hanson, Manet and the Modern Tradition, p. 44.
12. Hamilton, Collected Words, 1953–1982, p. 266.
13. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art, p. 101.
14. Chipp, Theories of Modern Art, p. 101.
15. E.g., see Drucker, Theorizing Modernism, pp. 67–69.
16. Curiger, Meret Oppenheim, pp. 20–21.
17. Curiger, Meret Oppenheim, p. 39.
18. Elderfield, Visions of Modern Art, p. 158; Hughes, Shock of the New, pp. 33–36.
19. Barr, Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism, pp. 49–50.
20. Elderfield, Visions of Modern Art, p. 158; Hughes, Shock of the New, p. 243.
21. Livingstone, Pop Art, pp. 33–36.
22. Morphet, Richard Hamilton, p. 149; Hamilton, Collected Words, pp. 22–24.
23. Morphet, Richard Hamilton, p. 7; Livingstone, Pop Art, p. 33.
24. Livingstone, Pop Art, p. 34.
25. Livingstone, Pop Art, p. 36.
26. Galenson, “Reappearing Masterpiece.”
27. Lin, Boundaries, pp. 4:8–10.
28. Lin, Boundaries, p. 4:11.
29. Goldberger, “Memories,” p. 50.
30. Munro, Originals, pp. 285–86.
31. Stokstad and Grayson, Art History, p. 1162.
32. Rosenberg, De-definition of Art, p. 130.
33. Rosenberg, De-definition of Art, pp. 130–31.
34. Galenson and Weinberg, “Age and the Quality of Work,” pp. 761–77.
35. Breslin, Mark Rothko, p. 427.
36. Johns, Writings, Sketchbook Notes, Interviews, p. 136.
37. Sanouillet and Peterson, Writings of Marcel Duchamp, p. 125.
38. Tomkins, Bride and the Bachelors, p. 24.
39. Tomkins, Duchamp, p. 58.
40. Rubin, Frank Stella, p. 32.
41. Pissarro, Letters to His Son Lucien, pp. 96–97, 174, 221.
42. Galenson and Weinberg, “Creating Modern Art,” pp. 1063–71.
43. De Duve, Kant after Duchamp, p. 216.
44. Terenzio, Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell, pp. 137–38.
45. Danto, Embodied Meanings, p. 85.
46. Cézanne, Paul Cézanne, Letters, p. 231.
47. Sandler, Art of the Postmodern Era, p. 443.
48. Brassaï, Conversations with Picasso, p. 180.
49. E.g., see Tomkins, Duchamp, pp. 240–50; Golding, Paths to the Absolute, pp. 78–79.
50. Spurling, Unknown Matisse, p. 297.
51. Rewald, Post-Impressionism, pp. 37–38; Spurling, Unknown Matisse, pp. 134–35, 178.
52. Mathews, Mary Cassatt, pp. 125–26, 140–42, 146–50.
53. Golding, Paths to the Absolute, pp. 48–53; Golding, Visions of the Modern, pp. 172–76.
54. Golding, Paths to the Absolute, pp. 47–58; Golding, Visions of the Modern, pp. 171–77.
55. Terenzio, Collected Writings of Robert Motherwell, pp. 155–67.
56. Friedman, Jackson Pollock, pp. 37–38; Ashton, New York School, p. 67.
57. Breslin, Mark Rothko, pp. 93–96.
58. Rubin, Frank Stella, p. 12.
59. Galenson, “Was Jackson Pollock the Greatest Modern American Painter?” table 5, p. 122; Rubin, Frank Stella, p. 171.
60. Sandler, Art of the Postmodern Era, pp. 301–5; Hopkins, After Modern Art, pp. 126–27.
61. Richter, Daily Practice of Painting, p. 16.
62. E.g., see Sandler, Art of the Postmodern Era, p. xxvi; Hopkins, After Modern Art, p. 2.
63. Haftmann, Painting in the Twentieth Century, 1:377.
64. Alberro and Norvell, Recording Conceptual Art, p. 53.
65. Tamplin, Arts; Lucie-Smith, Movements in Art since 1945.
66. Archer, Art since 1960, p. 213.
1. Wittkower, Sculpture, p. 144.
2. Vasari, Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, p. 285.
3. Van de Wetering, Rembrandt, pp. 75–81.
4. Van de Wetering, Rembrandt, p. 168; Ainsworth, Art and Autoradiography, pp. 25–96.
5. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, pp. 59–60, 70–71, 144.
6. Adams, Rembrandt’s “Bathsheba Reading King David’s Letter,” pp. 36–38.
7. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, pp. 7–16.
8. Van de Wetering, Rembrandt, pp. 160–65.
9. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, pp. 16, 99.
10. Van de Wetering, Rembrandt, p. 164.
11. Schwartz, Rembrandt, pp. 227–31; Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, p. 59.
12. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, pp. 5, 101–2.
13. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, pp. 88–99.
14. Schwartz, Rembrandt, p. 289.
15. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, pp. 72–77; Adams, Rembrandt’s “Bathsheba Reading King David’s Letter,” p. 154.
16. Hinterding, Luijten, and Royalton-Kisch, Rembrandt the Printmaker, p. 64.
17. Alpers, Rembrandt’s Enterprise, p. 100.
18. Curiously, van de Wetering offers an interpretation that is at odds with the hypothesis that Rembrandt was an experimental painter. Thus in discussing a painting by Rembrandt that depicts a painter in his studio, standing at a distance from his painting (which is turned away from the viewer), van de Wetering suggests that the painter is shown developing a mental conception of the painting before beginning to paint it, and he further suggests that this was Rembrandt’s own method; Rembrandt, pp. 88–89. This would imply that Rembrandt worked conceptually. Yet Gary Schwartz has challenged van de Wetering’s interpretation of Painter in His Studio: “The young painter in the studio is holding a handful of brushes, so he must be working up his panel in color, rather than creating the composition, which was done in monochrome. At that stage . . . all of its major elements must already have been blocked in. The moment when the artist transferred the conception in his mind’s eye to the panel has already passed”; Rembrandt, p. 55. Although it is not known whether Painter in His Studio was intended to represent Rembrandt, Schwartz’s interpretation of the painting would be consistent with the practice of an experimental painter, who has stepped back from his work in progress to examine its appearance and judge how he should proceed.
19. Rosenberg, Slive, and ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architecture, p. 80.
20. Jensen, “Anticipating Artistic Behavior.” Except where other sources are specifically cited, the following discussion of old masters’ techniques is based on this paper. Also see Galenson and Jensen, “Young Geniuses and Old Masters.”
21. Goffen, Masaccio’s “Trinity,” pp. 53, 92.
22. Ames-Lewis, Drawing in Early Renaissance Italy, pp. 24–26.
23. Vasari, Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, p. 67; Kemp, Leonardo da Vinci, p. 24.
24. Honour and Fleming, Visual Arts, p. 475.
25. Rosand, Meaning of the Mark, p. 32.
26. Gombrich, Gombrich on the Renaissance, 1:58.
27. Kemp, Leonardo da Vinci, pp. 54–56, 68.
28. Gombrich, Gombrich on the Renaissance, 1:58.
29. Kemp, Leonardo da Vinci, pp. 198–99.
30. Kemp, Leonardo da Vinci, pp. 264–70.
31. Gombrich, Gombrich on the Renaissance, 1:62.
32. Hibbard, Michelangelo, p. 99.
33. Freedberg, Painting in Italy, pp. 21–25.
34. E.g., see Hibbard, Michelangelo, pp. 118, 152, 209.
35. Ackerman, Architecture of Michelangelo, p. 7.
36. Wittkower, Sculpture, pp. 143–44.
37. Vasari, Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, p. 219.
38. Ames-Lewis, Draftsman Raphael, p. 151.
39. Ames-Lewis, Draftsman Raphael, pp. 3, 8.
40. Rosand, Meaning of the Mark, p. 69.
41. Cartwright, Early Work of Raphael, p. 42.
42. Gombrich, Gombrich on the Renaissance, 1:68.
43. Belting, Invisible Masterpiece, p. 53.
44. Vasari, Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, p. 231. Even if the statement does not reflect Raphael’s own opinion, it demonstrates that Vasari clearly defined Raphael’s conceptual strengths in clear expression and orderly composition.
45. Clark, What Is a Masterpiece? p. 44.
46. Pope-Hennessy, Raphael, p. 104.
47. Ames-Lewis, Draftsman Raphael, p. 99.
48. Vasari, Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, pp. 267–68.
49. Vasari, Vasari’s Lives of the Artists, p. 232.
50. Pope-Hennessy, Raphael, pp. 217–21.
51. Cole, Titian and Venetian Painting, pp. 170–71.
52. Manca, Titian 500, pp. 205–7.
53. Biadene, Titian, p. 97.
54. Rosand, Meaning of the Mark, pp. 60–61.
55. Meilman, Cambridge Companion to Titian, pp. 29–30.
56. Van de Wetering, Rembrandt, pp. 162–69.
57. Fry, Last Lectures, pp. 14–15.
58. Rosenberg, Slive, and ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architecture, p. 62.
59. Rosenberg, Slive, and ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architecture, pp. 62, 66.
60. Rosenberg, Slive, and ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architecture, pp. 67, 73.
61. McKim-Smith, Anderson-Bergdoll, and Newman, Examining Velázquez, p. 40.
62. Brown and Garrido, Velázquez, p. 18.
63. McKim-Smith, Anderson-Bergdoll, and Newman, Examining Velázquez, p. 94.
64. Brown and Garrido, Velázquez, p. 19.
65. Ortega y Gasset, Velázquez, Goya and the Dehumanization of Art, pp. 99–100.
66. McKim-Smith, Anderson-Bergdoll, and Newman, Examining Velázquez, p. 95.
67. Brown and Garrido, Velázquez, p. 191.
68. Gaskell and Jonker, Vermeer Studies, pp. 145–52.
69. Gaskell and Jonker, Vermeer Studies, p. 187.
70. Rosenberg, Slive, and ter Kuile, Dutch Art and Architecture, pp. 47–48.
71. Richardson, “Picasso: A Retrospective View,” p. 294.
1. Rodin, Rodin on Art and Artists, p. 11.
2. Smithson, Robert Smithson, p. 192.
3. Hamilton, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, p. 62.
4. Elsen, Auguste Rodin, p. 115.
5. Lampert, Rodin, p. 135.
6. Elsen, Auguste Rodin, p. 154.
7. Elsen, Rodin, p. 141.
8. Elsen, Auguste Rodin, p. 164.
9. Elsen, Rodin, p. 141.
10. Lampert, Rodin, p. 135.
11. Grunfeld, Rodin, p. 289.
12. Elsen, Rodin, p. 145.
13. Elsen, Rodin, p. 89.
14. Grunfeld, Rodin, pp. 374–77.
15. Butler, Shape of Genius, p. 340.
16. Grunfeld, Rodin, p. 577.
17. Wittkower, Sculpture, pp. 253–55.
18. Geist, Brancusi, pp. 28, 142.
19. Geist, Brancusi/The Kiss, p. 99.
20. Hamilton, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, p. 462.
21. Geist, Constantin Brancusi, pp. 21–23.
22. Moore, Henry Moore, p. 145.
23. Apollonio, Futurist Manifestos, pp. 21–47.
24. Coen, Umberto Boccioni, p. 94.
25. Golding, Boccioni’s “Unique Forms of Continuity in Space,” pp. 12–14; Coen, Umberto Boccioni, p. 205.
26. Perloff, Futurist Moment, chap. 3; Coen, Umberto Boccioni, p. 203.
27. Apollinaire, Apollinaire on Art, pp. 320–21.
28. Golding, Boccioni’s “Unique Forms of Continuity in Space,” p. 28.
29. Milner, Vladimir Tatlin and the Russian Avant-Garde, chap. 3.
30. For a more detailed discussion see Milner, Vladimir Tatlin and the Russian Avant-Garde, chap. 8.
31. Milner, Vladimir Tatlin and the Russian Avant-Garde, p. 170.
32. Hughes, Shock of the New, p. 92.
33. Hohl, Alberto Giacometti, pp. 19–27.
34. Wilson, Alberto Giacometti, pp. 227–37.
35. Sartre, “Search for the Absolute,” p. 4.
36. Hohl, Alberto Giacometti, p. 19.
37. Sartre, “Search for the Absolute,” p. 6.
38. Sylvester, Looking at Giacometti, pp. 76–77.
39. Wilson, Alberto Giacometti, pp. 227–37.
40. Sartre, “Search for the Absolute,” p. 16.
41. McCoy, David Smith, p. 18.
42. Sylvester, Interviews with American Artists, p. 3.
43. Marcus, David Smith, pp. 89, 118–19.
44. Sylvester, Interviews with American Artists, p. 7.
45. McCoy, David Smith, pp. 78, 84, 155.
46. Kuh, Artist’s Voice, p. 233.
47. McCoy, David Smith, p. 148.
48. McCoy, David Smith, p. 184.
49. McCoy, David Smith, p. 182.
50. Krauss, Terminal Iron Works, pp. 181–85.
51. Marcus, David Smith, p. 96.
52. Smithson, Robert Smithson, p. 68.
53. For a number of examples, see Hobbs, Robert Smithson.
54. Robins, Pluralist Era, p. 85.
55. Hobbs, Robert Smithson, pp. 194–95.
56. Smithson, Robert Smithson, pp. 143–53.
57. Galenson, “Reappearing Masterpiece,” p. 6.
58. Eliot, Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, p. 43.
59. Barry, Robert Frost on Writing, p. 126.
60. Dove, Best American Poetry 2000, pp. 269–84.
61. Lehman, “All-Century Team,” p. 43.
62. For a listing of the anthologies used, see Galenson, “Literary Life Cycles,” appendix.
63. Lowell, Collected Prose, p. 9.
64. Jarrell, No Other Book, p. 233.
65. Poirier, Robert Frost, pp. 72–73.
66. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: From the 1890s . . ., p. 235.
67. Barry, Robert Frost on Writing, p. 160.
68. Barry, Robert Frost on Writing, pp. 126–28.
69. Lowell, Collected Prose, p. 10.
70. Thompson, Fire and Ice, p. 133.
71. Stevens, Letters of Wallace Stevens, p. 289.
72. Stevens, Necessary Angel, p. 6; Stevens, Opus Posthumous, p. 164.
73. Lensing, Wallace Stevens, pp. 125, 140.
74. MacLeod, Wallace Stevens and Modern Art, p. 131.
75. Lensing, Wallace Stevens, p. 146.
76. Lensing, Wallace Stevens, p. 138.
77. Doyle, Wallace Stevens, p. 393.
78. Jarrell, No Other Book, p. 237.
79. Stevens, Collected Poetry and Prose, pp. 807–8.
80. Williams, Autobiography of William Carlos Williams, pp. 174, 391.
81. Williams, Autobiography of William Carlos Williams, p. 391.
82. Williams, Autobiography of William Carlos Williams, p. 357.
83. Jarrell, No Other Book, p. 79.
84. Axelrod and Deese, Critical Essays on William Carlos Williams, p. 51.
85. Jarrell, No Other Book, p. 77.
86. Dickey, Babel to Byzantium, p. 192.
87. Stevens, Collected Poetry and Prose, p. 815.
88. Jarrell, No Other Book, p. 77.
89. Lowell, Collected Prose, p. 33.
90. Stauffer, Short History of American Poetry, p. 259.
91. Shucard, Moramarco, and Sullivan, Modern American Poetry, p. 124.
92. Carpenter, Serious Character, pp. 405–16.
93. Gordon, T. S. Eliot, p. 101.
94. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: From the 1890s . . ., p. 333; Kenner, Poetry of Ezra Pound, p. 73.
95. Wilson, Shores of Light, pp. 46–47.
96. Aiken, Reviewer’s ABC, p. 324.
97. Williams, Selected Essays of William Carlos Williams, p. 21.
98. Cory, “Ezra Pound,” p. 38.
99. Shucard, Moramarco, and Sullivan, Modern American Poetry, p. 99.
100. Gordon, T. S. Eliot, p. 42.
101. Stauffer, Short History of American Poetry, p. 266.
102. Eliot, Letters of T. S. Eliot, 1:530.
103. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: From the 1890s . . ., pp. 499, 502.
104. Wilson, Axel’s Castle, p. 110.
105. Aiken, Reviewer’s ABC, p. 177.
106. Williams, Autobiography of William Carlos Williams, p. 174.
107. Cowley, Exile’s Return, pp. 110–11.
108. Williams, Selected Essays of William Carlos Williams, p. 103; Williams, Autobiography of William Carlos Williams, p. 174.
109. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After, pp. 41–42.
110. Baum, E. E. Cummings and the Critics, pp. 27, 118, 191–92.
111. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After, pp. 4–5; Gray, American Poetry of the Twentieth Century, p. 195.
112. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After, p. 45.
113. Baum, E. E. Cummings and the Critics, p. 117.
114. Dickey, Babel to Byzantium, p. 100.
115. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After, pp. 4–5.
116. Hamilton, Robert Lowell, p. 232.
117. Roberts, Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry, p. 489.
118. Kunitz, A Kind of Order, A Kind of Folly, p. 154.
119. Hamilton, Robert Lowell, p. 277.
120. Plimpton, Poets at Work, p. 116.
121. Gray, American Poetry of the Twentieth Century, pp. 253–55.
122. Lowell, Collected Poems, pp. vii, xii.
123. Kunitz, A Kind of Order, A Kind of Folly, p. 159.
124. Plimpton, Poets at Work, p. 133.
125. Jarrell, No Other Book, p. 253.
126. Hall, Weather for Poetry, p. 195.
127. Alexander, Ariel Ascending, p. 199.
128. Schmidt, Lives of the Poets, p. 829.
129. Perkins, History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After, p. 593.
130. Wagner, Sylvia Plath, p. 71.
131. Wagner, Sylvia Plath, pp. 60, 73.
132. Alexander, Ariel Ascending, p. 195.
133. Plath, Ariel, p. xiii.
134. Alexander, Ariel Ascending, p. 202.
135. Wagner, Sylvia Plath, p. 196.
136. Hughes, Winter Pollen, p. 161; Alexander, Ariel Ascending, p. 94.
137. Plath, Letters Home, p. 468.
138. Galenson, “Literary Life Cycles,” table 5.
139. Alexander, Rough Magic, p. 344.
140. Joyce, Letters of James Joyce, 1:37–38.
141. Woolf, Collected Essays, 2:99.
142. For discussion see Galenson, “Portrait of the Artist as a Young or Old Innovator,” p. 4.
143. Woolf, Collected Essays, 1:194.
144. Collins, Dickens, p. 324.
145. Ford and Lane, Dickens Critics, pp. 53, 137.
146. Collins, Dickens, pp. 38, 343.
147. Ford and Lane, Dickens Critics, p. 376.
148. Woolf, Collected Essays, 1:194.
149. Ford and Lane, Dickens Critics, pp. 109, 259.
150. Burt, Novel 100, pp. 52–53; also see Engel, Maturity of Dickens, pp. 3–4; Jordan, Cambridge Companion to Charles Dickens, p. 157.
151. Golding, Idiolects in Dickens, pp. 214, 219, 228.
152. Melville, Tales, Poems, and Other Writings, pp. 55, 59.
153. Parker, Herman Melville, 1:616.
154. Matthiessen, American Renaissance, p. 425.
155. Lawrence, Selected Literary Criticism, p. 387.
156. Vincent, Trying-Out of Moby-Dick, pp. 126–35; Sealts, Melville’s Reading, pp. 68–69.
157. Arvin, Herman Melville, pp. 144–45, 148–49.
158. Branch, Melville, p. 255.
159. Lawrence, Selected Literary Criticism, p. 390.
160. Kazin, American Procession, p. 144.
161. Branch, Melville, pp. 415–16.
162. De Voto, Mark Twain at Work, p. 100.
163. Kazin, American Procession, pp. 183, 189.
164. Trilling, Liberal Imagination, p. 117.
165. Kazin, American Procession, p. 191.
166. Hearn, Annotated Huckleberry Finn, p. 5.
167. Howells, My Mark Twain, pp. 166–67.
168. Rogers, Mark Twain’s Satires and Burlesques, pp. 5–6.
169. Doyno, Writing Huck Finn, p. 102.
170. Rogers, Mark Twain’s Satires and Burlesques, pp. 5–6.
171. Emerson, Mark Twain, pp. 142–48; De Voto, Mark Twain at Work, pp. 53–55.
172. Neider, Autobiography of Mark Twain, p. 265.
173. Emerson, Mark Twain, p. 128.
174. Young, Ernest Hemingway, p. 212.
175. Trilling, Liberal Imagination, pp. 106, 116.
176. Ellison, Going to the Territory, p. 316.
177. De Voto, Mark Twain at Work, p. 89.
178. Miller, Theory of Fiction, pp. 30, 35, 44, 171.
179. McWhirter, Henry James’s New York Edition, pp. 9, 109.
180. Gard, Henry James, pp. 118–19.
181. Edel, Henry James, p. 17.
182. Gard, Henry James, p. 118.
183. Woolf, Collected Essays, 1:280.
184. Deming, James Joyce, 2:747.
185. Kenner, Dublin’s Joyce, p. 45; Litz, Art of James Joyce, p. 10.
186. Woolf, Writer’s Diary, p. 49.
187. Trilling, Last Decade, p. 27.
188. Wilson, Axel’s Castle, p. 205.
189. Beja, James Joyce, p. 64.
190. Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses, pp. 67–68, 122–23.
191. Litz, Art of James Joyce, pp. 4, 7, 9, 27.
192. Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses, p. 20.
193. O’Brien, James Joyce, p. 97.
194. Courthion, Le Visage de Matisse, pp. 92–93.
195. Litz, James Joyce, p. 116.
196. Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses, p. 174; also see Gilbert, Letters of James Joyce, 1:172; Litz, Art of James Joyce, p. 12.
197. Litz, James Joyce, p. 96.
198. Woolf, Diary of Virginia Woolf, 3:62.
199. Mepham, Virginia Woolf, p. xiv.
200. Woolf, Diary of Virginia Woolf, 3:203.
201. Majumdar and McLaurin, Virginia Woolf, p. 427.
202. Majumdar and McLaurin, Virginia Woolf, pp. 101, 144, 175, 213.
203. Bennett, Virginia Woolf, pp. 142, 148.
204. Woolf, Mrs. Dalloway, pp. vii-viii.
205. Woolf, Diary of Virginia Woolf, 3:106.
206. Woolf, Moments of Being, p. 72.
207. Woolf, Diary of Virginia Woolf, 2:186, 209; 3:7, 152.
208. Majumdar and McLaurin, Virginia Woolf, p. 243.
209. Sklar, F. Scott Fitzgerald, p. 157.
210. Trilling, Liberal Imagination, p. 252.
211. Fitzgerald, Crack-Up, p. 310.
212. Ruland and Bradbury, From Puritanism to Postmodernism, pp. 299–300.
213. Bloom, Genius, p. 41.
214. Claridge, F. Scott Fitzgerald, 2:48.
215. Bruccoli, F. Scott Fitzgerald, p. 80.
216. Claridge, F. Scott Fitzgerald, 2:456; 4:46.
217. Bruccoli, F. Scott Fitzgerald, p. 169.
218. Claridge, F. Scott Fitzgerald, 2:149.
219. Meyers, Hemingway, p. 91.
220. Young, Ernest Hemingway, p. 205.
221. Young, Ernest Hemingway, pp. 92, 177–91.
222. Kazin, On Native Grounds, pp. 334–35.
223. Meyers, Hemingway, pp. 14, 78.
224. Barbour and Quirk, Writing the American Classics, pp. 141–42.
225. Reynolds, Hemingway’s First War, p. 238.
226. Young, Ernest Hemingway, p. 93.
227. Baker, Hemingway and His Critics, p. 33.
228. Meyers, Hemingway, pp. 17, 303, 430–31, 441.
229. Young, Ernest Hemingway, pp. 245–46.
230. For a more detailed discussion of the construction of the quantitative measure and full citations to the critical monographs considered, see Galenson, “Portrait of the Artist as a Young or Old Innovator.”
231. Hitchcock, Hitchcock on Hitchcock, p. 48.
232. Welles, Interviews, p. 102.
233. Seven of the eight directors considered here directed at least one movie that received a combined total of more than 15 votes from the directors and critics in Sight and Sound’s 2002 poll (described later). The eighth—Hawks—was placed among the Pantheon Directors by Andrew Sarris in his classic book, The American Cinema (as were also Ford, Hitchcock, Renoir, and Welles among the directors considered here).
234. The 2002 Sight and Sound poll was based on rankings submitted by 108 directors and 144 critics. The rankings of each of these individuals are available on the Web at www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten.
235. Bordwell, Cinema of Eisenstein, pp. 9–12.
236. Taylor, Eisenstein Reader, pp. 35, 40, 56.
237. Taylor, Eisenstein Reader, p. 65.
238. Mast, Short History of the Movies, pp. 159, 161, 165.
239. Bordwell, Cinema of Eisenstein, p. 46.
240. Taylor, Eisenstein Reader, p. 4.
241. Truffaut, Films in My Life, pp. 36, 42, 46–47.
242. Wollen, Paris Hollywood, p. 161.
243. Renoir, Renoir on Renoir, pp. 112–13, 179.
244. Truffaut, Films in My Life, pp. 36–37.
245. Renoir, Renoir on Renoir, pp. 250–51.
246. Leprohon, Jean Renoir, p. 193.
247. Thomson, Biographical Dictionary of the Cinema, p. 508.
248. Gottesman, Focus on Citizen Kane, pp. 69–72.
249. Gottesman, Focus on Citizen Kane, pp. 73–76.
250. For discussion see Kael, Raising Kane; Carringer, Making of Citizen Kane.
251. Gottesman, Focus on Citizen Kane, p. 127.
252. Wollen, Paris Hollywood, p. 12.
253. American Film Institute, “Orson Welles.”
254. American Film Institute, “John Ford.”
255. An indication of both of these phenomena is given by the AFI ranking of the 100 greatest American movies of all time, based on a survey conducted in 1998. In spite of the fact that Ford had been the first recipient of the AFI’s Life Achievement Award, no film of his ranked among the top 20 movies, and only three ranked in the top 100: The Grapes of Wrath ranked 21st, Stagecoach ranked 63rd, and The Searchers ranked just 96th. In contrast, the voters in the 2002 Sight and Sound poll placed The Searchers first among Ford’s films, The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance second, and The Grapes of Wrath and Stagecoach tied for third, together with My Darling Clementine. (Unlike this difference in the ranking of Ford’s films, Citizen Kane ranked first in both the 1998 AFI ranking and Sight and Sound’s 2002 poll.)
256. Ford, Interviews, p. ix; Sarris, John Ford Movie Mystery, p. 174.
257. Ford, Interviews, p. ix; Welles, Interviews, p. 76.
258. Ford, Interviews, p. ix.
259. Welles, Interviews, p. 46; Ford, Interviews, p. 16.
260. Mast, Short History of the Movies, p. 252; Ford, Interviews, p. 64.
261. Ford, Interviews, p. 47.
262. Ford, Interviews, p. 85.
263. Truffaut, Films in My Life, p. 63.
264. Ford, Interviews, p. 71.
265. Bogdanovich, John Ford, pp. 24, 31; Sarris, John Ford Movie Mystery, p. 124.
266. Hitchcock, Hitchcock on Hitchcock, p. 205.
267. Truffaut, Films in My Life, p. 77.
268. Hitchcock, Interviews, p. 158.
269. Hitchcock, Interviews, p. 80; Hitchcock, Hitchcock on Hitchcock, pp. 255–56.
270. Hitchcock, Hitchcock on Hitchcock, pp. 109, 208.
271. LaValley, Focus on Hitchcock, p. 98.
272. Truffaut, Hitchcock, p. 8.
273. Hitchcock, Interviews, p. 130.
274. Sarris, American Cinema, p. 58.
275. Hitchcock, Hitchcock on Hitchcock, p. 115.
276. Wood, Hitchcock’s Films, p. 17.
277. Truffaut, Films in My Life, p. 87.
278. McBride, Hawks on Hawks, pp. 8, 109.
279. Bogdanovich, Who the Devil Made It, p. 262.
280. McBride, Hawks on Hawks, p. 82.
281. Wood, Howard Hawks, p. 11.
282. Sarris, American Cinema, p. 55.
283. Hillier and Wollen, Howard Hawks, American Artist, p. 74.
284. Sarris, The American Cinema, p. 53.
285. Mast, Howard Hawks, Storyteller, p. 367.
286. McCarthy, Howard Hawks, p. 7.
287. Godard, Godard on Godard, p. 173.
288. Godard, Interviews, p. 4.
289. Andrew, Breathless, p. 171.
290. Wollen, Paris Hollywood, p. 92.
291. Roud, Jean-Luc Godard, p. 36.
292. Godard, Interviews, p. 5; Godard, Godard on Godard, p. 175.
293. McCabe, Godard, p. 121.
294. Sontag, Styles of Radical Will, pp. 150–53.
295. Farber, Negative Space, p. 259.
296. Sterritt, Films of Jean-Luc Godard, p. 20.
297. Brown, Focus on Godard, p. 112.
298. Bondanella, Films of Federico Fellini, pp. 1–4.
299. Chandler, I, Fellini, pp. 11, 58.
300. Bondanella, Federico Fellini, p. 8.
301. Bondanella, Films of Federico Fellini, p. 71.
302. Bondanella, Federico Fellini, p. 111.
303. Bondanella, Films of Federico Fellini, p. 72.
304. Bondanella, Films of Federico Fellini, p. 98.
305. Bondanella, Federico Fellini, pp. 131–32.
306. Bondanella, Films of Federico Fellini, p. 146.
1. Heaney, Finders Keepers, p. 220.
2. Spender, Making of a Poem, pp. 48–49.
3. Jelliffe, Faulkner at Nagano, pp. 36–37, 42, 53, 90, 161; Gwynn and Blotner, Faulkner in the University, pp. 143–44, 206–7. On Faulkner as an experimental writer, see Galenson, “Portrait of the Artist as a Young or Old Innovator.”
4. Stevens, Necessary Angel, pp. 167–69.
5. Ashton, American Art since 1945, p. 132.
6. Nichols, Movies and Methods, p. 556
7. Balzac, Unknown Masterpiece, pp. 14, 23–24, 27.
8. Doran, Conversations with Cézanne, p. 65.
9. Bruccoli, F. Scott Fitzgerald, p. 455.
10. James, Novels and Tales of Henry James, 16:81–82, 90, 93, 95, 105.
11. James, Painter’s Eye, pp. 216–18, 223, 227–28.
12. For a full presentation of the evidence and documentation of this discussion, see Galenson, “Methods and Careers of Leading American Painters in the Late Nineteenth Century.”
13. Miró, Joan Miró, pp. 51, 55, 63, 150.
14. Guiguet, Virginia Woolf and Her Works, p. 356; Woolf, Collected Essays, 1:151–53.
15. Jacobsen, Instant of Knowing, p. 75.
16. Eliot, Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, pp. 249, 252–53.
17. Gordon, T. S. Eliot, pp. 519–20.
18. Eliot, Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, p. 250.
19. Eliot, Literary Essays of Ezra Pound, p. 52.
20. As noted earlier in the text, Eliot concluded that it was rare for writers’ work to gain in quality as they aged, but he did allow that there were exceptional poets who had managed to overcome the obstacles: thus, “With Shakespeare, one sees a slow, continuous development of mastery of his craft of verse,” and “Yeats is pre-eminently the poet of middle age;” Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot, pp. 250, 252. Both Shakespeare and Yeats appear to have been experimental innovators. Eliot also commented on the experimental Dickens’s ability to produce a masterpiece, Bleak House, in middle age; ibid., p. 249.
21. Fry, Last Lectures, p. 3.
22. Lehman, Age and Achievement, p. 331.
23. Lee, “Going Early into That Good Night,” p. A15.
24. Lehman, Age and Achievement, p. vii.
25. Lehman, Age and Achievement, pp. 77–78.
26. Lehman, Age and Achievement, pp. 325–26.
27. Martindale, “Personality, Situation, and Creativity,” p. 221.
28. Gardner, Creating Minds, p. 376; also see p. 248.
29. Simonton, Greatness, p. 185.
30. Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity, p. 39.
31. Adams-Price, Creativity and Successful Aging, p. 272
32. An anonymous referee of this book called my attention to an exception to this practice. A quantitative study of the performance of 73 film directors over the course of their careers found that some directors’ work deteriorated over time, but that other directors’ performance improved with age. Although they did not report individual results for most of the directors, the authors did mention that John Ford was among those whose work improved over time; Zickar and Slaughter, “Examining Creative Performance over Time Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling.”
33. Simonton, Scientific Genius, p. 72.
34. For evidence of changes over time in the predominance of experimental and conceptual approaches to modern painting, see Galenson and Weinberg, “Age and the Quality of Work,” and Galenson and Weinberg, “Creating Modern Art.”
35. E.g., see Simonton, Creative Genius, p. 73.
36. Berlin, Hedgehog and the Fox, p. 3
37. Ghiselin, Creative Process, p. 1.
38. Galenson and Weinberg, “Creative Careers.”
39. Gray, American Poetry of the Twentieth Century, p. 130.
40. Meyers, Robert Frost, p. 81.
41. Lowell, Collected Prose, p. 10.
42. Eliot, Literary Essays of Ezra Pound, p. 9
43. Pound, Pisan Cantos, p. 96.
44. Pound, ABC of Reading, p. 26.
45. Woolf, Diary of Virginia Woolf, 2:188–89, 199–200, 202–3; Woolf, Collected Essays, 1:244.
46. Fitzgerald, Crack-Up, p. 165. Surprisingly, this hypothesis is also given by Simonton, Scientific Genius, p. 69.
47. Cézanne, Paul Cézanne, Letters, p. 315.
48. Galenson, Painting outside the Lines, pp. 178, 188; Galenson, “Literary Life Cycles,” table 5; Galenson, “Portrait of the Artist as a Very Young or Very Old Innovator.”
49. Galenson, “Portrait of the Artist as a Very Young or Very Old Innovator”; Doordan, Twentieth-Century Architecture, pp. 187–88.
50. Doordan, Twentieth-Century Architecture, pp. 181, 193, 160, 206, 233, 282, 255.
51. Cézanne, Paul Cézanne, Letters, p. 288.
52. Barr, Picasso, p. 270.