INDEX

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Figures in bold; tables in italics

 

Absolute zero, 3, 69, 97, 255

Acetylene, 106, 131, 137

Acid

amino, 36, 240–45, 279, 305, 309

Arrhenius concept and, 277–78

Brönsted-Lowry, 278

carboxylic, 238, 238

fatty (see Fatty acids)

inorganic, 49

Lewis, 279

metal reactions, 45

molar mass of, 198

monoprotic, 212

nucleic, 242

polyprotic, 283, 297–98

short-chain carboxylic, 240

solution, 9, 32, 51, 185–86, 188, 190, 192, 202–3, 215, 280, 289, 337

strength, 279

strong, 105, 185, 240, 277, 279, 281–82, 284, 284, 285–86, 288, 298, 301

water as, 279

water solubility of, 240

weak, 105, 241, 277, 279, 281–84, 284, 285, 292, 300

Acid-base reactions, 45, 48, 240. See also Reactions: neutralization

Actinides, 118, 129

Activated state, 350

Air

characteristics, 63

composition, 63

Alcohol group, 239, 241

Alcohols, 172, 228, 238, 238, 239, 240, 241

Aldehydes, 237, 238, 238, 240

Aliphatic compounds, 236, 241

Alkalinity, 280

Alkanes, 235–39

Alkenes, 238, 238, 239

Alkyl groups, 239–40

Alloy, 8, 28, 36, 102, 174, 197

Alpha

decay, 364

particle, 363–64

Amide, 238, 238, 240, 286

Amine, 238, 238, 240

Amino acids, 36, 242, 279

Ampere (A), 327

Amphiprotic properties, 279, 286

Amphoteric properties, 279

AMU (atomic mass unit), 3, 16–17

Angular momentum, 113–14, 120

Anions, 118

Anode, 328–29, 329, 333, 335–36, 339

Area, 3

Arrhenius

concept, 277–78

equation, 349, 350

Atom

covalence of, 131

energy of, 113

Atomic mass, 17–18

Atomic mass unit (AMU), 3, 16–17

Atomic number (Z), 16

Atomic orbital, 135

Atomic properties, periodic law and, 122–25

Atomic spectroscopy, 112

Atomic theory, 16, 23, 30, 112

Atomic weight. See atomic mass

Atoms, 16

basic particles of, 362, 363

cis, 144

functional groups of, 237

trans, 144

Aufbau principle, 117–18

Autoionization, 279, 286

Avogadro’s hypothesis, 78–79, 85

Avogadro’s number, 17–18, 173, 328

Balancing equations and reactions. See Equations: balanced

Band theory, 144–45

Base(s), 277–79, 285–87

Brönsted-Lowry, 278

dihydroxy, 212

inorganic, 240

Lewis, 279

nitrogen, 242

strong, 277

weak, 185, 214, 278, 281–82, 284, 300

Batteries, 97, 329

Bayer process, 35

Beta

decay, 364

particle, 363, 364, 367

Binding energy, 362–63, 366

Biochemistry, 235, 242

Bohr orbit, n²a₀, 114–15

Bohr postulates, 113–14

Bohr theory, 113–14, 122–23

Boiling-point, 142, 171–72, 177, 180, 199, 222–24, 227, 238–40, 264

elevation ΔT_b, 224, 227

of water, 3, 101, 222–23

Bond(s)

angles, 131, 134, 138, 139, 139, 153–54

distance, 134, 147, 152

double, 131–32, 137–38, 143, 143, 147–49, 152, 154, 156, 235, 237, 237–38, 238, 238

energy, 131, 132, 134, 149, 150

fixed, 171

formation, 131

hybridization, 134

hydrogen, 171–72, 176–77, 180–81, 239, 241

in metals, 144–45, 157–58

ionic, 129

lengths, 138, 138, 170, 350

π, 137–38

rupture, 131

single covalent, 131, 138

structure and, 140–42

triple, 131, 137–38, 146, 147, 235, 238, 238

Bonding properties, 149–52

Boyle’s law, 64–65, 67, 71

Brönsted-Lowry concept, 278–79

British thermal unit (BTU), 96

Buffer solution, 282–83, 300–304, 316–17. See also Indicators; Titration

Calorimetry, 97, 101–3

Carbohydrates, 242

Carboxyl group, 239

Carboxylic acids, 240

Carboxylic carbon, 240

Catalysts, 87, 239, 242, 245, 261, 265, 347, 358

Cathode, 328–29, 329, 333–35, 338–39

Cation, 118, 129

Cellulose, 44, 242

Celsius temperature scale, 3, 10

Charles’ law, 64–65, 67, 70

Chemical. See specific topic

Close packing

in crystals, 170, 170

hexagonal, 170

structure, 170, 172–73

Collative properties, 222

Combustion, 45, 238

Composition problems, 31–36

Compound(s)

aliphatic, 236, 241

aromatic, 148, 236, 241

binary, 129

covalent, 129–30, 183

diamagnetic, 120, 155

formation, 100

formula, 129

ionic (see Ions)

organic, 45, 172, 235–42, 287

units, 7

Concentration

in chemical units, 198–99

effective, 258

effect of variation in, 261

in physical units, 197, 200–202

scale, 199–200

units, 198–99, 200, 202

Condensation reaction, 84, 239–41, 244–45

Conjugate acid-base pair, 278, 282, 286

Conversion factors, 6–7, 9, 13, 27–28, 33–34, 121, 202

Coordination compounds, 139–42, 155, 311, 313

Coordination number, 169, 170

Coulomb, 327

Covalence, 130–31, 133, 148

Covalent bonds and bonding, 129, 131–34, 138, 140, 142, 171

Covalent compounds, 129–30

Covalent crystals, 171

Covalent force, 130

Covalent radius (c), 118, 125, 173

Crystal(s), 168–171

close packing in, 170

covalent, 171

density, 168

dimensions, 172–76

forces, 170, 176–77

hexagonal symmetry, 168

lattice structure, 168

molecular, 170

properties, 168

structure, 168, 255

Dalton, John, 16

Dalton’s atomic theory, 23, 30

Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 66, 70–71, 228–29, 271

de Broglie, 114

equation, 122

Decay

alpha, 364

beta, 364

radioactive, 363, 367–69

Density, 3

electron, 125, 137, 154

gas, 70, 74, 78–79

Diamagnetic compounds, 120, 155

Diatomic molecules, 135, 183

Diffusion, 82, 84

Dihydroxy base, 212

Dilute solutions. See Solution(s): dilute

Dilution problems, 200, 205–6

Dimensional analysis, 4, 87

Dimer, 241, 261

Dipole

electric, 133

moment, 133, 150, 150, 172, 177

dipole attraction, 172

Disintegration rate constant, 365

Disorder, 253–54

Dissociation constant, K_d, 295, 312

Distribution

coefficient, 226, 234

ratio, 226

Double bond. See Bond(s): double

Dynamic equilibrium, 257

Effusion, 82, 89

Einstein equation, 362, 363

Electrical current, 327

Electrical potentials, 327, 331–32, 338

Electrical units, 327, 333–34

Electrical work, 331–32

Electricity, 46, 253, 327–30, 335

Electrode potential, 330, 331–32, 338

Electrolysis, 327, 328, 333, 335, 338–39

Electrolytes, 106, 280, 329

Electron

affinity, 120

capture, 364

cloud, 117–18, 130

configurations, 117

delocalization, 130, 132

location, 114

mass, 363

π, 137

placement and periodic table, 118

probability distribution, 134

projectile, 119

sea, 145, 157–58, 177

spin, 115, 120, 135, 151

valence, 118

volt (ev), 119

Electronegativity, 133, 183

Empirical formula, 26

Endothermic, 97–98, 105–6, 119, 131, 150, 259–60, 265

End point, 212, 216, 284, 284, 285, 302–4

Energetics, 350–51, 351

Energy

of activation, 349–50, 356–57

binding, 362, 366

conversion into heat, 96

enthalpy and, 97

heat as form of, 96

hydrogen atom and, 119

kinetic (see Kinetic energy)

quantum unit of, 112

relationships, 120, 351

types, 96

units, 81

Enthalpy (H), 97–99, 99, 100–101, 103–6, 222, 350

Entropy, 253, 254–56, 256, 262–64

Enzymes, 242

Equations

balanced, 43–44, 49–52, 80, 85, 87–88, 100, 105–6, 185–87, 193, 213, 256, 263, 266, 268, 312, 351, 357, 363

balancing, 43

coefficients and, 80

oxidation-reduction, 185–87

thermochemical, 104–6

writing, 43

Equilibrium

chemical, 257

constant, 258–59, 261, 265–68, 270, 272, 277, 279, 281, 283, 296, 299, 311–12, 340–41, 356

dynamic, 257

reactions, 277

Equivalence point, 283

Equivalent (eq), 198

Equivalent mass, 198, 204, 212–16, 328, 334–36

Esterification, 239, 261

Esters, 237, 238, 238, 239–41, 242, 243, 245, 268–69, 354

Estimation, 5

Ether, 226, 237–38, 238, 238, 239–242, 244

Ethylene, 37, 70, 104, 137, 149

Evaporation, 7, 66, 239

Exothermic reactions. See Reactions: exothermic

Exponents, 374–76

Factor-label method, 4

Fahrenheit temperature scale, 3, 9

Faraday, Michael, 328

Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, 327–28, 334–36

Fats, 240–42

Fatty acids, 7, 240–42

First-order reactions, 348

Force, 3

Formal charge (FC), 132

Formula(s), 18, 145

calculation, 29–31

empirical, 18

generation, 29–31

oxidation number, 187

from precise nuclidic molecular mass, 37

structural, 131

Fractional coefficients, 101

Free energy, 254, 256, 331–32, 254–57, 263, 331

Freezing-point, 222–23

lowering, ΔT_f, 223, 226

Functional groups, 237–38, 238, 238, 244–45

Fundamental particles, 362, 363. See also Electron; Neutron; Positron; Proton

Galvanic cell actions, 327–29, 331–32, 336–41

Gas

collection, 66, 71–72, 72

ideal

laws, 64–67 (see also Boyle’s law; Charles’ law, Gay-Lussac’s law)

molar masses and, 83–85

stoichiometry, 80

volume 63, 80, 83–85

Gay-Lussac’s law, 64–65, 68, 68–69

Geometric isomerism, 143–44, 237

Graham’s law of effusion, 82

Ground state, 133

Half-cells, 328–29, 329

Half-life, 353, 365, 368–70

Half-reaction, 182, 186–93, 216, 329, 331, 337, 339

Halides, 238, 238, 239

Halogens, 239

Heat, 96

absorption, 97

capacity, 96–98, 101–2

exchange, 97

of formation, 100

of fusion, 98

of sublimation, 98, 100

of vaporization, 98, 103–4

Henry’s law, 225–26, 230

Hertz, 112

Hess’ law of constant heat summation, 100

Holes

octrahedral, 170

tetrahedral, 170

Hund’s rule, 120, 124, 135, 151, 383

Hydrocarbons, 29, 235, 239, 240

Hydrogen

bonding, 171–72, 177, 239

bonds (see Bond(s): hydrogen)

ion, 45, 130, 184, 186, 278–79, 280, 282–83, 289, 291

Hydrolysis, 36, 239–40, 259, 281, 285, 294–96, 298–99, 302–3, 315, 320, 356, 358

Hydroxyl group, 241, 244–45

Ideal gases, 64–66, 79

Ideal gas law, 79–80, 82, 86, 224, 269

Immiscible substances, 226

Indicators, 212, 214, 282–83, 285, 304. See also Buffer solution; Titration

Inorganic compounds, 235, 240

Internal energy, E, 97

International system (SI) of units, 1

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 1, 236

Ion product, 312–13, 316, 318, 321

Ionic compounds, 129–30, 145, 183–84

Ionic crystals, 171

Ionic notation for equations, 184

Ionic radius (i), 118–19, 171, 171, 173–74

Ionization

of acids and bases, 287–92

energy, (IE), 119, 122–23

of water, 279–80, 293–94

Ions, 129–30

complex, 140

definition, 18

determining charge of, 129

polyatomic, 130

spectator, 184

Isomerism, 142, 144, 156–57, 237, 243. See also Isomers

Isomers

definition, 142

geometrical, 143–44, 156, 156–57, 157, 237

optical, 144, 144, 237

structural, 142–43, 156, 237, 244

Isotopes, 16–17, 19, 28, 364–65, 368–70

IUPAC, 236–37, 242–43, 245–46

Joule, 96

K-electron capture, 364

Kelvin, 3

Ketones, 238, 238, 240, 242, 245

Kinetic energy, 81, 99, 113, 119, 121–22, 347, 350–51, 366–67

Kinetic theory, 80–81, 89

Lanthanides, 118, 129

Latent heat

of sublimation, 98

of vaporization, 98

Lattice structure, 168. See also Crystal(s)

Law

of conservation of mass, 44

of conservation of matter, 43–44, 55, 182, 191, 199

of distribution, 226, 230–31

of mass action, 347–48

of multiple proportions, 22

Le Chatelier’s principle, 259, 271, 332

Length, 3

Lewis

acids, 279

concept, 279

structures, 132–33, 135–36, 138–39, 153–55, 286–87

Ligands, 140–44, 155, 157, 311–12

Light

frequency, 112

interaction with matter, 113–14

particles, 112–14

velocity, 112

waves, 112, 114

wavelength, 112

Limiting reactant, 44–45, 52–53, 88, 199

Line spectrums, 112

Lipids, 242

Liquefaction, 96

Liquid

composition, 172

forces in liquids, 171, 177

Logarithms, 380–86

common, 387–89

London forces, 172

Magnetic moment, 115, 120

Magnetic properties, 120, 142

Manometers, 64, 64

Mass, 3

Mass ratio, 44, 49

Mass relations from equations, 44

Mass spectrometer, 28, 42

Matter

living, 59, 235

magnetic properties of, 120

organic, 235

volatile, 34

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, 81

Measurement systems, 1

Mechanism of reactions, 349–51

Metal

bonding in, 144–45, 157–58

heavy, 158, 281

liquid, 172

orbitals, 141

transition, 118–19, 129, 179, 311, 315

Methyl group, 239, 249

Microwaves, 113

Millicurie (mCi), 365

Molal boiling-point constant, 224

Molal freezing-point constant, 223, 226

Molality, 198–200, 203–5, 222–24, 226–27, 229, 290–91

scale, 199

Molar concentration (M), 198, 198–200

Molar heat capacity, 96

Molar masses, 18, 20–22, 36–37

Molar volume, 79

Molarity, 198–99, 203, 213, 224, 229, 289, 311, 348–49, 351

Mole, 17–18

fraction, 79, 87, 199–200, 203, 205, 223, 228–29, 270–71

percent, 199

Molecular formula, 18

Molecular collisions, 81–82, 350

Molecular crystals, 170

Molecular mass, 28

Molecular orbital (MO) theory, 144. See also Orbital: molecular

Molecular relations from equations, 43–44

Molecular substances, 18

Molecular weight. See Molecular mass

Molecularity, 350

Molecular-orbital energy-level, 140–41

Molecular-orbital representation, 135

Molecules

asymmetric, 237

collisions between, 81

diatomic 135, 183

homonuclear diatomic, 136

multifunctional, 241

shape, 138–39, 152–55, 168

Monomers, 241–42, 245

Most probable velocity, U_mp, 81

Multiple proportions, 22–23

Nernst equation, 332–33, 340–41

Neutron, 16–17, 362, 363, 364–66

Nitrogen bases, 242

Noble gas, 118, 124, 129

Nomenclature, 235–36, 242–43

Nonelectrolytes, 222, 224, 280

Nonstoichiometric factors, 28

Normality, 198–200, 204–6, 214–16

Nuclear chemistry, 362

Nuclear equations, 363–64

Nucleic acids, 242

Nucleons, 16, 362–63, 366

Nucleus, 16–17, 365

Nuclides, 16–17, 19, 28, 364, 367–68, 370

Nuclidic mass (u), 17, 114, 367–68

Nuclidic molecular mass, 28

Octahedral complexes, 140, 144

Octahedral hole, 170, 173–74, 176

Octet rule, 131, 137, 142, 148

Oils, 241–42

Optical isomers, 144, 144, 237

Orbital, 114–16

antibonding, 135, 136, 137, 141, 151–52

bonding, 135, 136, 137, 141, 152

d, 116

electron migration and, 113

energy level, 113

filling process, 117

hybrid, 133–34, 136–37, 139, 140

hydrogen-like, 117

of metals, 141

molecular, 135, 140, 141, 144, 151, 155

non-bonding, 136–37, 141

orientation, 115

outermost, 117

p, 116

π, 135–36, 136, 137–38, 141

s, 116

σ orbitals, 136, 137

sp², 134, 137, 139, 287

stable, 113

wave characteristics, 114

Order of magnitude, 5, 350

Organic compounds, 45, 172, 235–42, 287

Osmosis, 224

Osmotic pressure, 36, 199, 222, 224, 229

Oxidation

definition, 240

number, 118, 133, 183–85, 187–91, 205, 216, 335

reaction, 182, 188–89, 329

state, 140, 141, 183–85, 190–92, 205, 239, 335, 340

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. See Reactions: oxidation-reduction

Oxidation-state method, 187

Oxidizing agent, 184, 187, 192–93, 199, 204, 328–30, 332, 336–37

Oxy-anions, 130

Ozone, 44, 132, 137, 352

Paramagnetic substances, 120, 140, 151, 155

Partial pressure, 70–71, 223

Particles, 114–16

Pascal, defined, 63

Pauli exclusion principle, 117, 135

Pauling, Linus, 134

Peptide, 240, 242, 245

Periodic table, 16, 22, 44, 49, 78, 117–19, 125, 145, 155, 365–66

Permitivity of free space, 113

pH and pOH scales, 280, 280

Photon, 112. See also Light

pK_a, 281, 283

Planck’s constant, 113, 114

Plastics, 239

Polyatomic ions, 130

Polyester, 37, 241

Polymerization, 239

Polymers, 44, 239, 241–42

Positron, 363, 363–65, 367–68

emission, 364

Precipitation, 312–13

Pressure, 3, 63

cause of, 81

changes in, 260

definition, 63, 66

measurement, 64

Proteins, 36, 242

Proton, 16, 363

donor, 278

Purines, 242

Pyramidines, 242

Q (reaction quotient), 258, 313

Quantum, 112

Quantum mechanics, 114

Quantum number, 114–15, 117, 124, 135, 141

Radioactive decay, 363, 367–69

Radioactivity, 362, 364, 365, 369

Radiochemistry, 364

Radius

anion, 118

atomic, 118–19

cation, 118

covalent, 118, 125, 138, 173

ionic, 171, 171

Raoult’s law, 223, 228

Rate

constant, 347, 351–56, 358, 365, 368, 370

equation, 347, 350, 354, 370

expression, 347–48

Reactions

acid-base, 45, 48, 240

acid-metal, 45

balancing, 44, 185, 193

bimolecular, 350

chiral, 237, 244

combination, 45, 238

condensation, 84, 239–41, 244–45, 251

decomposition, 46

double displacement (metathesis), 45

driving force for, 257

electrochemical, 101

enthalpy and, 98

exothermic, 97–98, 101, 105–6, 120, 131, 149–50, 259–60, 265, 351

gases, 85–88

heterogeneous, 347

homogenous, 347

irreversible, 254

mechanisms, 349–51

neutralization, 45, 198, 284–85

order, 347

oxidation-reduction (redox), 182, 184–87, 189–89, 191, 199, 216, 328–29, 332–33, 329

replacement, 45

reversible, 254

summation, 100–101, 105–6, 186, 188–92, 329

thermochemical, 101, 104–6

types, 45

unimolecular, 350

Reducing agent, 184–85, 187, 192–93, 198–99, 329–30, 332, 336–37

Reduction potentials, 330, 331, 337

Reduction reaction. See Reactions: oxidation-reduction

Reference dimensions, 1

Replacement (displacement) reactions, 45

Resonance, 132, 137–38, 146–49, 153–54

Resonance energy, 132, 149

Resonance hybrid, 132

Root-mean-square speed, u_rms, 81

Rydberg constant, 114, 122

Salt

bridge, 328

hydrated, 30

insoluble, 45, 185

organic, 42, 239, 354

strong, 282, 300

Saponification, 239

Schrödinger equation, 114, 117, 135

Semipermeable membrane, 224

Significant figures, 377–79

SI units. See Units: SI

Soap, 201, 239

Solidification, 96

Solids, 168

Solubility product, 312–13, 315–18, 321

Solution(s), 197

alkalinity, 280

composition, 197

concentration, 197

dilute, 205, 222–26, 259

of gases in liquids, 225–26, 230

ideal, 222–23, 228

neutral, 280

nonideal, 222

nonvolatile, 222

of precipitates, 313

standard, 212–13, 216

stoichiometry, 212–13

volumetric standard, 212

Specific heat, 96, 98, 101–2, 334

Specific rate (k), 347

Spectators, 106, 184–85, 192

Spectrochemical series, 142

Stability constant, 311–12, 340, 356

Standard conditions, 63–64

Standard enthalpies of formation, 99

Standard entropies, 255–56, 256

Standard half-cell potentials, 329. See also Half-cells

Standard heat of formation, 98–99

Standard reduction potentials, 330, 331, 337

Standard state, 255, 331

Starch, 44, 242

State functions, 253

Stoichiometric calculations, 212

Stoichiometry, 28, 193, 212

S.T.P. See Standard conditions

Substitution, 79, 123, 172, 226, 239, 241, 288

Sugars, 220, 242

Supercooling, 254, 262

Symbols, 18

Temperature, 2, 9

Celsius scale for, 3, 4

changes in, 259

definition, 2

Farenheit scale for, 3, 4, 9–10

Kelvine scale for, 3, 4, 10

triple point, 3

Tetrahedral hole, 170, 173–74

Tetrahedron, 134, 139–40, 152, 154, 173

Thermal conduction, 82

Thermochemistry, 99–101

Thermodynamics, 262–64

first law of, 253

second law of, 253–54

third law of, 255

Titrant, 284

Titration, 36, 212, 283–85, 303–4

curve, 284, 284

Torr, 64

Transition

elements, 145

metals, 118–19, 129, 315

Unit cells of symmetry, 168–69, 169, 173, 175

Units

compound, 7

concentration, 200

energy, 81

length, 5–7

mass, 5–7

multipliers, 1–2, 2, 3–21

non-SI, 2–3, 3

SI, 2–3

use and misuse, 4

Universal gas constant, 79, 257

Valence, 118, 131–33, 135–38, 137, 141–42, 146–47, 183

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR), 138–39, 153–55

Valence-bond representation, 131–35

van der Waals

forces, 172

radii (v), 118, 171, 176

Vaporization, 98, 100, 104, 171, 262

Vapor pressure, 222, 227–29

lowering, 222–23

Void spaces (holes), 170

Volatility, 172

Volt (V), 327

Voltaic (galvanic) cells, 327–29, 331–32, 336–41

VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion), 138–39, 153–55

Water

amphoteric nature of, 279

boiling point, 3, 101, 222–23

freezing point, 3

ionization of, 279–80, 293–94

specific heat of, 96

Watt (W), 327

Waves, 114–16

Weak force, 172

X-ray, 168, 175

Zero energy state, 113