Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. John J. Leary Jr., Talks with T.R. from the Diaries of John J. Leary, Jr. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), viii.

2. Clinton quoted in Ryan Lizza, “The Second Term: What Will Obama Do Now That He’s Reëlected?” The New Yorker, June 18, 2012.

3. From the Diary of Adam Gurowski, January 20, 1863, Diary from November 18, 1862 to October 18, 1863 (New York: Carleton, 1864), 99–100.

4. AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 1, 1862, CW, 5:537; AL, “First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas, Ottawa, Ill.,” August 21, 1858, ibid., 3:16.

5. Stuart Jeffries, “Mario Vargas Llosa: A Life in Writing,” The Guardian, June 15, 2013.

6. From the Diary of Adam Gurowski, April 14, 1865, Diary 1863–’64–’65 (Washington, D.C.: Morrison, 1866), 398–99.

7. Robert G. Ingersoll in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 307–8; Stephen Greenblatt, The Swerve: How the World Became Modern (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 11–12.

8. Douglas L. Wilson, Honor’s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998); Douglas L. Wilson, Lincoln Before Washington: New Perspectives on the Illinois Years (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997).

9. AL, “Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865,” CW, 8:332.

10. Frederick Douglass, The Frederick Douglass Papers. Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, ed. John W. Blassingame et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979–1992), 4:436.

CHAPTER 1. A WARY HANDSHAKE

1. Diary of Benjamin B. French, February 24, 1861, Benjamin B. French Family Papers, LC; Diary of Elizabeth Virginia Lomax, March 12 and 31, 1861, Lomax Family Papers, VHS; George Mason to Samuel Cooper, Spring Bank, Va., March 10, 1861, Cooper Family Papers, VHS; entry of March 12, 1861, in The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed. Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas (New York: Macmillan, 1952), 3:109; “Deplorable State of Affairs at Washington,” New York Herald, March 13, 1861.

2. Descriptions vary as to the number of officers in attendance (from fourteen to two hundred). Samuel P. Heintzelman, a precise engineer who attended the meeting, noted in his diary that seventy-eight officers were present: Heintzelman Diary, March 13, 1861, Samuel Peter Heintzelman Papers, LC; also Gideon Welles to Edgar T. Welles, Washington, D.C., March 13, 1861, Gideon Welles Papers, LC; “From Washington,” Alexandria [Va.] Gazette, March 13, 1861; “Affairs of the Nation,” New York Times, March 13, 1861; Albert Gallatin Riddle, Recollections of War Times: Reminiscences of Men and Events in Washington 1860–1865 (London: G. P. Putnam, 1895), 11.

3. The author is grateful to the White House Historical Association for providing several images of the East Room from this time; a contemporary depiction of its shabbiness can be found in William O. Stoddard, Inside the White House in War Times: Memories and Reports of Lincoln’s Secretary, ed. Michael Burlingame (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 5. The description of the officers’ uniform is in “Uniform and Dress of the Army of the United States,” n.d. (c. 1856), RG 94, NARA. The quotations are from Riddle, Recollections of War Times, 11, and John Caldwell Tidball, “Washington 1861,” John Caldwell Tidball Manuscripts, LC.

4. The Confederate Constitution can be found at www.avolon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa.asp; Joseph Holt to AL, War Department, March 9, 1861, ALP-LC; correspondence between Confederate commissioners, William Seward, and Judge John Campbell, Washington, D.C., March 12, 1861, ALP-LC; Commissioners to Robert Toombs, March 12, 1861, in John G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln: A History (New York: Century, 1886–1890), 3:403–7; see also Heintzelman Diary, March 7, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC; Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 160; L. E. Chittenden, Personal Reminiscences, 1840–1890 (New York: Richmond, Croscup, 1893), 90–91; John G. Nicolay, Notes on Situation 1861, n.d. [c. 1880], John G. Nicolay Papers, LC.

5. Tidball, “Washington 1861,” Tidball Manuscripts, LC; Joseph Holt and Winfield Scott to AL, War Department, March 5, 1861, ALP-LC. Two thoughtful accounts of the Fort Sumter crisis are Russell McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), and William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, vol. 2, Secessionists Triumphant, 1854–1861 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

6. AL, “Address to the Ohio Legislature, Columbus,” February 13, 1861, CW, 4:204; AL, “Speech at Pittsburgh,” February 15, 1861, ibid., 4:211; AL, “Address to the New Jersey General Assembly,” February 1861, ibid., 4:237; Montgomery Blair to Martin Van Buren, Washington, D.C., April 29, 1861, Martin Van Buren Papers, LC; Francis P. Blair to Van Buren, Silver Springs, Md., May 1, 1861, Van Buren Papers, LC; Robert Anderson to “dear friend,” Fort Sumter, S.C., March 11, 1861, Samuel Wylie Crawford Papers, LC.

7. Nelson D. Lankford, Cry Havoc! The Crooked Road to Civil War, 1861 (New York: Viking, 2007), 34–35; Anderson to “dear friend,” March 11, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC; James Buchanan to Joseph Holt, Wheatland, March 16, 1861, Joseph Holt Papers, LC; William Butler to Lyman Trumbull, March 14, 1861, quoted in McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War, 222. Lincoln’s 1861 deliberations on peace and war are discussed in more detail in chapter 6.

8. For varied responses to the inaugural address, see Diary of Francis O. French, March 4, 1861, French Papers, LC; Edwin Greble to Sue [Greble], March 4, 1861, Edwin Greble Papers, LC; Diary of Mrs. Eugene McLean, March 4, 1861, quoted in “When the States Seceded,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, January 28, 1914, 286; Charles Brown Fleet to Fred [Fleet], Columbian College, March 5, 1861, in Betsy Fleet and John D. P. Fuller, eds., Green Mount: A Virginia Plantation Family During the Civil War; Being the Journal of Benjamin Robert Fleet and Letters of His Family (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1962), 49–50; [Homo], “Letter from Washington,” Alexandria [Va.] Gazette, March 5, 1861; “Mr. Lincoln’s Inaugural Address,” Milledgeville [Ga.] Southern Federal Union, March 12, 1861; Lankford, Cry Havoc!, 25–29. See also New York Times, March 14, 1861, quoted in Lankford, Cry Havoc!, 24; AL, “First Inaugural Address,” CW, 4:249–71. There is an insightful analysis in Douglas L. Wilson, Lincoln’s Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words (New York: Vintage, 2006), 42–70.

9. William T. H. Brooks to father, Fort Clark, Tex., March 15, [18]61, William T. H. Brooks Papers, USAHEC; David Dixon Porter, “Journal of Occurrences During the War of the Rebellion,” n.d. [c. 1865], David D. Porter Family Papers, LC; Journal of Samuel Wylie Crawford, March 6 and 8, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC; Crawford to brother, Fort Sumter, S.C., March 7, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC. See also Heintzelman Diary, March 5, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC. For a longer description of the inaugural’s impact on Southerners, see chapter 6.

10. James M. McPherson, Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 14–15; Sam Ward to [Samuel L. M.] Barlow, Washington, D.C., March 31, 1861, Samuel L. M. Barlow Papers, HL; A. K. McClure, Abraham Lincoln and Men of War-Times (Philadelphia: Times Publishing, 1892), 293; Stoddard, Inside the White House, 3; AL, quoted July 3, 1861, in The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, 1850–1864, ed. Theodore Calvin Pease and James G. Randall (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1925), 1:476.

11. William H. L. Wallace to Ann [Wallace], Washington, D.C., March 9, 1861, in Harry E. Pratt, ed., Concerning Mr. Lincoln, in Which Abraham Lincoln Is Pictured as He Appeared to Letter Writers of His Time (Springfield, Ill.: The Abraham Lincoln Association, 1944), 70–71; Gideon Welles Diary, March 8, 1861, Welles Papers, LC; Porter, “Journal of Occurrences,” n.d. [c. 1865], Porter Papers, LC.

12. For a lengthier description of AL during the Black Hawk War, see chapter 4. Detailed descriptions of the war can be found in Patrick J. Jung, The Black Hawk War of 1832 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007); and Cecil Eby, “That Disgraceful Affair”: The Black Hawk War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973).

13. Statements of John T. Stuart and George M. Harrison in HI, 64, 327–28, and 554; Noah Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences of Lincoln,” Scribner’s Monthly, February 1878, 563; Jung, Black Hawk War, 88–89; AL, “Speech in the House of Representatives on the Presidential Question,” July 27, 1848, CW, 1:509–10; AL, “Speech at Bath, Ill.,” August 16, 1858, ibid., 2:543.

14. For AL’s pride in his captaincy, see AL to Jesse W. Fell, Springfield, Ill., December 20, 1859, CW, 3:512. His command is discussed in Benjamin F. Irwin to WHH, September 22, 1866, HI, 353; David M. Pantier to WHH, Petersburg, Ill., July 21, 1865, HI, 78; Jung, Black Hawk War, 79–80; Eby, “That Disgraceful Affair,” 107–8; William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, Herndon’s Lincoln, ed. Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis (Galesburg, Ill.: Knox College Lincoln Studies Center, 2006), 70–71; Ida M. Tarbell, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Macmillan, 1920), 1:76–77. For the general lack of discipline, see Report of William Orr to John Y. Sawyer, n.d. [c. July 1, 1832], in Ellen M. Whitney, ed., The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1970–1978), 2:727–28. AL’s problems as commander in chief are discussed in Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “‘The Grand Old Duke of York’: How Abraham Lincoln Lost the Confidence of His Military Command,” forthcoming.

15. AL, “The War with Mexico,” January 12, 1848, CW, 1:439; AL, “Speech to Springfield Scott Club,” August 14 and 26, 1852, ibid., 2:149–50; see also Gerald J. Prokopowicz, “‘If I Had Gone Up There, I Could Have Whipped Them Myself’: Lincoln’s Military Fantasies,” in The Lincoln Forum: Rediscovering Abraham Lincoln, ed. John Y. Simon and Harold Holzer (New York: Fordham University Press, 2002), 77–92.

16. Constitution of the United States of America, article 2, section 2, paragraphs 1 and 2, in Johnny H. Killian, George A. Costello, and Kenneth R. Thomas, eds., The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2004), 459–91; McPherson, Tried by War, 4–5; Mark E. Neely Jr., “War and Partisanship: What Lincoln Learned from James K. Polk,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 74, no. 3 (Autumn 1981): 209–10; David M. Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1976), 95; Fergus M. Bordewich, America’s Great Debate: Henry Clay, Stephen A. Douglas, and the Compromise That Preserved the Union (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 131–33; AL, “The War with Mexico,” January 12, 1848, CW, 1:431–42.

17. AL to Governor Andrew Curtin, Harrisburg, Pa., February 22, 1861, CW, 4:243; Dorothy Schaffter and Dorothy M. Mathews, The Powers of the President as Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1956), 17–18 and 31; AL, “Message to Congress,” July 4, 1861, CW, 4:421–41. The quotation is from AL to Baltimore Committee, April 22, 1861, ibid., 4:341.

18. Erasmus D. Keyes, Fifty Years’ Observation of Men and Events, Civil and Military (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1884), 348. For Lincoln’s wavering on his appointment of Cameron, see AL to Cameron, Springfield, Ill., December 31, 1860, and January 3, 1861, Simon Cameron Papers, LC. For petitions to AL promoting or denouncing Cameron, see Joseph Medill to Charles Ray, Washington, D.C., January 13, 1861; Elihu B. Washburne to Ray, Washington, D.C., January 13, 1861; Herman Kreismann to Ray, Washington, D.C., January 16, 1861; Horace White to “doctor” [Charles Ray], Washington, D.C., n.d. [January 1861], all in Charles H. Ray Papers, HL; see also CW, 4:165–68; WHH to Lyman Trumbull, Springfield, Ill., January 27, 1861, Lyman Trumbull Papers, LC. For Fogg’s quotation, see George C. Fogg to AL, Washington, D.C., February 5, 1861, ALP-LC. For Cameron’s admission that he knew nothing of military matters, see undated entry for November 1861 in Adam Gurowski, Diary from March 4, 1861 to November 12, 1862 (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1862), 117. For an assessment of Cameron’s qualifications, see A. Howard Meneely, The War Department, 1861: A Study in Mobilization and Administration (New York: Columbia University Press, 1928), 83–84.

19. Diary of Ethan Allen Hitchcock, October 4, 1861, copy in William A. Croffut Papers, LC; Orville Hickman Browning to AL, Chicago, January 19, 1861, ALP-LC; T. S. Bell to Joseph Holt, Louisville, January 19, 1861 (quoting New York Tribune), Holt Papers, LC; S. S. English to Joseph Holt, Louisville, March 2, 1861, Holt Papers, LC; Jos. Sagar to Joseph Holt, Richmond, March 6, 1861, Holt Papers, LC; AL to Holt, Executive Mansion, March 12, 1861, Holt Papers, LC; correspondence of Robert Holt and Joseph Holt, 1860–1861, Holt Papers, LC. See also the biography of Holt by Elizabeth D. Leonard, Lincoln’s Forgotten Ally: Judge Advocate General Joseph Holt of Kentucky (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011).

20. Robert V. Bruce, Lincoln and the Tools of War (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), 49; Simon Cameron, “Vindication of the Administration of the War Department,” n.d. [c. 1865], Cameron Papers, LC; Diary of Ethan Allen Hitchcock, August 29 and October 4, 1861, Croffut Papers, LC; Horace Gray to [Henry] Dawes, Boston, August 26, 1861, Henry Dawes Papers, LC; “Sutler Outrage by Secretary of War,” New York Tribune, undated clipping in J. H. Jordan to AL, Cincinnati, July 4, 1861, ALP-LC; William C. Davis, Lincoln’s Men: How President Lincoln Became Father to an Army and a Nation (New York: Free Press, 1999), 52; “Conversation with the President,” October 2, 1861, Nicolay Papers, LC.

21. William T. Sherman to brother [John Sherman], Lancaster, Pa., March 9, 1861, and to Thomas Ewing Jr., St. Louis, April 26, 1861, both in William Tecumseh Sherman, Sherman’s Civil War: Selected Correspondence of William T. Sherman, 1860–1865, ed. Brooks D. Simpson and Jean V. Berlin (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 61–62 and 75. See also Sherman to brother, St. Louis, April 18, 1861, William Tecumseh Sherman Papers, LC; William Tecumseh Sherman to John Sherman, April 22, 1861, in William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman (New York: D. Appleton, 1875), 1:168. Sherman’s diary indicates he was in Washington only on March 6–7, 1861, and he must have met Lincoln at that time. See also Rachel Sherman Thorndike, ed., The Sherman Letters: Correspondence Between General and Senator Sherman from 1837 to 1891 (London: Sampson, Low, Marston, 1894), 108–9.

22. Two excellent biographies of Scott are Charles Winslow Elliott, Winfield Scott: The Soldier and the Man (New York: Macmillan, 1937), and Allan Peskin, Winfield Scott and the Profession of Arms (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2003). For Scott’s personal grandeur, see William Woods Averell, Ten Years in the Saddle: The Memoir of William Woods Averell, ed. Edward K. Eckert and Nicholas J. Amato (San Rafael, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1978), 242; John P. Usher, President Lincoln’s Cabinet (Omaha: Nelson H. Loomis, 1925), 21–22. For Scott’s bias toward Southerners, see James B. Fry, Military Miscellanies (New York: Brentano’s, 1889), 482–83; Keyes, Fifty Years’ Observation, 134, 318, 319, and 328. Keyes expressed his bitterness on the issue to president-elect Lincoln even before the conflict began: see Erasmus D. Keyes to AL, New York, November 26, 1860, Civil War Letters 1861–1865, NYHS.

23. Winfield Scott, General Regulations for the Army; or, Military Institutes (Philadelphia: M. Carey & Sons, 1821). For differing views of Scott’s abilities and infirmities at the time of the secession crisis, see Elihu B. Washburne to AL, Washington, D.C., December 17, 1860, ALP-LC; Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, March 9, 1861, Levi Woodbury Papers, LC.

24. Winfield Scott, “Views,” October 29, 1860, manuscript copy in Wyndham Robertson Papers, VHS; marginal notes indicate Scott sent copies to Buchanan, Secretary of War John Floyd, Virginia governor John Letcher, Richmond banker William H. MacFarland, Unionist William Cabell Rives, Col. Francis H. Smith (the head of the Virginia Military Institute), and Kentucky congressman John J. Crittenden. See also the dispatches of Rudolph Schleiden in Ralph Haswell Lutz, “Rudolph Schleiden and the Visit to Richmond, April 25, 1861,” Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1915, 210. For “I lived there once,” see Elihu B. Washburne to AL, Washington, D.C., December 17, 1860, ALP-LC; for “a firm man,” see Diary of Mary Boykin Chesnut, November 8, 1861, in Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, ed. C. Van Woodward (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 232.

25. Peskin, Winfield Scott, 233–41; Scott, “Views,” October 29, 1860, Robertson Papers, VHS; Scott to John B. Floyd, New York, October 30, 1860 (“all dangers and difficulties”), ALP-LC; Scott to Secretary of War, Washington, D.C., December 28, 1860, Crawford Papers, LC; Scott to Hon. J.J. Crittenden, New York, November 12, 1860 (“silence . . . may be fatal”), John J. Crittenden Papers, LC.

26. Heintzelman Diary, March 13, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC.

27. For the number of officers in the capital, see “From Washington,” Alexandria [Va.] Gazette, March 13, 1861. The best sources on the military in 1861 are Meneely, War Department, and George T. Ness Jr., The Regular Army on the Eve of the Civil War (Baltimore: Toomey Press, 1990). George Washington is quoted in Meneely, War Department, 14, and the standing army figures are from Ness, Regular Army, 1–5. See also Charles P. Stone, “Washington on the Eve of the War,” in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, ed. Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence Clough Buell (New York: Century, 1887–1888), 1:7n; Fred Albert Shannon, The Organization and Administration of the Union Army, 1861–1865 (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1928), 1:28; Jefferson Davis to John B. Floyd, December 13, 1860, RG 94, NARA.

28. For conditions and regulations in the Army in 1861, see William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 193–200 and 283–90; Ness, Regular Army, 1–5 and 19–46; Meneeley, War Department, 108–9; James B. Fry to “general” [James S. Wadsworth], Arlington, Va., August 12, 1861, Wadsworth Family Papers, LC; L. E. Chittenden, Recollections of President Lincoln and His Administration (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1891), 152 and 169–70; Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (Washington: Privately published, 1907), 90–93. For the “dis-g-u-s-t” at the situation felt by one star officer—Robert E. Lee—see Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters (New York: Viking, 2007), 184–86.

29. For West Point’s superior scientific credentials, see Skelton, American Profession of Arms; Todd Shallat, Structures in the Stream: Water, Science and the Rise of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994); Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898 (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1986); Russell F. Weigley, Towards an American Army: Military Thought from Washington to Marshall (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962). See also “William Buel Franklin,” in George Washington Cullum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1891), 2:152–53; “Montgomery C. Meigs,” ibid., 1:631–32; Remarks of Mrs. Philip Rounseville Alger [Meigs’s granddaughter], Annapolis, Md., 1957, Montgomery C. Meigs Papers, LC.

30. Army operations during the Mexican War are well laid out in Richard Bruce Winders, Mr. Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997). For Scott’s “head-work,” see Winfield Scott, Memoirs of Lieut.-General Winfield Scott, L.L.D., Written by Himself (New York: Sheldon, 1864), 2:428. The Duke of Wellington is quoted in Frederic D. Schwarz, “The Halls of Montezuma,” American Heritage 48, no. 5 (September 1997): 106.

31. Ness, Regular Army, 3; Meneely, War Department, 28–30 and 49–52; Diary of Elizabeth Virginia Lomax, December 7, 1860, Lomax Papers, VHS; James A. Hardie to William T. Sherman, Fort Vancouver, February 28, 1861, W. T. Sherman Papers, LC; C[admus] M. Wilcox to George B. McClellan, Santa Fe, March 24, 1861, George B. McClellan Papers, LC; Diary of William Howard Russell, April 2, 1861 in William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 5; Gideon Welles to Gustavus Fox, Hartford, December 5, 1870, Woodbury Papers, LC; Simon Cameron, Remarks on Return to Harrisburg, n.d. [c. 1864], Cameron Papers, LC; Statement of Henry Wilson in Congressional Globe, 36th Cong., 1st sess., 1861:2794.

32. Meneely, War Department, 29–49. See also Alfred Mordecai to G. B. Lamar, Watervliet Arsenal, N.Y., December 2, 1860; G. B. Lamar to Major A. Mordecai, New York, December 3, 1860; John E. Wool to Maj. A[lfred] Mordecai, Head Quarters, Dept. of the East, Troy, N.Y., December 27, 1860; George T. Balch to John E. Wool, Watervliet Arsenal, N.Y., December 27 and 28, 1860; John E. Wool to Winfield Scott, Washington, D.C., February 25, 1861; Alfred Mordecai to sister, Watervliet Arsenal, N.Y., November 24, 1860 (“chafe of public affairs”), all Alfred Mordecai Papers, LC.

33. Bernard Bee to [Henry] Heth, Fort Laramie, Nebraska Territory, January 4, 1861, MoC; Joseph E. J[ohnston] to George B. McClellan, Washington, D.C., December 3, 1860, McClellan Papers, LC; Jeanne T. Heidler, “‘Embarrassing Situation’: David E. Twiggs and the Surrender of the United States Forces in Texas, 1861,” in Lone Star Blue and Gray: Essays on Texas in the Civil War, ed. Ralph A. Wooster (Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1995), 35–36; Walter L. Buenger, Secession and the Union in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984), 154.

34. David E. Twiggs to Scott, December 13, 1860, OR, I, 1:579; Col George W. Lay for Winfield Scott to Twiggs, December 28, 1860, ibid. I, 1:579; Twiggs to L[orenzo] Thomas, December 27, 1860, ibid., I, 1:579; Twiggs to Thomas, January 2 and 7, 1861, ibid., I, 1:590; Twiggs to Scott, January 15, 1861, ibid., I, 1:581; Twiggs to Thomas, January 18, 1861, ibid., I, 1:581; Sam Houston to Gen. D[avid] E. Twiggs, Austin, January 20, 1861, in The Writings of Sam Houston, 1813–1861, ed. Amelia W. Williams and Eugene C. Barker (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1938–1943), 8:284–85; Twiggs to Houston, San Antonio, January 22, 1861, in ibid., 8:285; Ben McCulloch to John H. Reagan, San Antonio, February 25, 1861 (“an insult to the commissioners”), OR, I, 1:609.

35. William T. H. Brooks to father, March 15, 1861, Brooks Papers, USAHEC; Edward L. Hartz to father, Camp Hudson, Tex., March 11, 1861, Edward L. Hartz Papers, LC; David E. Twiggs to James Buchanan, East Pascagoula, Miss., March 30, 1861, Edwin M. Stanton Papers, LC.

36. Heintzelman Diary, February 25, March 2 and 25, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC; Samuel Wylie Crawford to brother, Fort Sumter, S.C., March 14 and 15, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC; John E. Wool to Sarah [Wool], Washington, D.C., February 28, 1861, John E. Wool Papers, New York State Library, Albany, N.Y.

37. Samuel Cooper to Alfred Mordecai, Montgomery, Ala., April 1, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; “Samuel Cooper” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 1:150–51; “Ambrose Hill,” ibid., 2:314; “John Withers,” ibid., 2:388–89; “Julius P. Garesché,” ibid., 2:81–82; James I. Robertson Jr., General A. P. Hill: The Story of a Confederate Warrior (New York: Random House, 1987), 33–34.

38. Louis Garesché, Biography of Lieut. Col. Julius P. Garesché, Assistant Adjutant-General, U.S. Army (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1887), 350–52 and 357–58; Army Register 1861, kept by Garesché, Julius J. Garesché Papers, LC. The percentage of defections is taken from Wayne Wei-Siang Hsieh, West Pointers and the Civil War: The Old Army in War and Peace (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 91–92. Meneely states that a total of 313 men resigned from the Army (War Department, 106). Skelton gives a smaller percentage, but his numbers do not include those who left but chose not to fight on either side; his source is Francis B. Heitman, Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army from Its Organization, September 29, 1789, to March 2, 1903 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903), which is less complete and accurate than calculations based on Cullum, which Hsieh and Meneely used—see Skelton, American Profession of Arms, 355. See also carte de visite of Julius P. Garesché, n.d. [c. 1861–1862]; William J. Easton to A. J. P. Garesché, St. Louis, April 23, 1863; William Rosecrans to Maj. A. J. Dallas, San Francisco, January 21, 1880, all Julius Garesché Papers, GU; and Dr. Homer Pittard, “The Strange Death of Julius Peter Garesché,” at www.latinamericanstudies.org/civil-war.

39. Winfield Scott, Rules and Regulations for the Field Exercise and Manoeuvres of Infantry (Philadelphia: Anthony Finley, 1824), 247; Charles P. Stone, “Washington in March and April, 1861,” Magazine of American History, July 1885, 3; Samuel Du Pont to Commander Andrew Hull, January 25, 1861, and Samuel Du Pont to Henry Winter Davis, Louviers, February 17, 1861, both in Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from His Civil War Letters, ed. John D. Hayes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969), 1:32. See also William S. Dudley, Going South: U.S. Navy Officer Resignations and Dismissals on the Eve of the Civil War (Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Foundation, 1981), 4 and 11. A copy of Navy Department orders striking men from the rolls is in Gideon Welles to Thomas Locke Harrison, Navy Department, July 26, 1861, John M. McCalla Papers, DU. For an example of someone who tried to have his honor reestablished after dismissal, see Fitzhugh Lee to Dr. S. Glasgow, November 18, 1894, Edmund Jennings Lee Papers, VHS. John Bankhead Magruder’s brother George Magruder, who resigned but did not fight for either side, was another who attempted, unsuccessfully, to have his honorable status reinstated in the Navy.

40. Copies of the army form letters accepting resignations can be found in the Mordecai Papers, LC, and the James Ewell Brown Stuart Papers, VHS. For disgruntlement at the casual acceptance of resignations, see Porter, “Journal of Occurrences,” n.d. [c. 1865], Porter Papers, LC; see also Diary of George Templeton Strong, April 27, 1861, 3:135–36; “Look to the Army,” New York Times, March 7, 1861; “Resignation of Major Mordecai,” Albany Evening Journal, n.d. [May 1861], photostats, Mordecai Papers, LC.

41. Averell, Ten Years in the Saddle, 245 (“gradually receded”); Gideon Welles to wife, Washington, D.C., April 20, 1861, Welles Papers, LC; “Narrative,” in Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles: Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, ed. Howard K. Beale (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960), 1:5; Cameron, “Remarks on Return to Harrisburg,” n.d. [c. 1864], Cameron Papers, LC; John A. Dahlgren quoted in Bruce, Lincoln and the Tools of War, 6; Dabney Herndon Maury, Recollections of a Virginian in the Mexican, Indian, and Civil Wars (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1894), 128–29; William Farrar Smith, Autobiography of Major General William F. Smith, 1861–1864, ed. Herbert M. Schiller (Dayton, Ohio: Morningside, 1990), 29; Heintzelman Diary, March 13, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC; Diary of Mrs. Eugene McLean, January 1, 1861, in McLean, “When the States Seceded,” 283–84.

42. Henry L. Wayne to J. E. B. Stuart, Milledgeville, Ga., April 12, 1861, Stuart Papers, VHS; Averell, Ten Years in the Saddle, 235.

43. Stephen N. Siciliano, “Major General William Farrar Smith: Critic of Defeat and Engineer of Victory,” PhD diss., College of William and Mary, 1984, 45–46; G. W. Custis Lee to “Mac” [James B. McPherson], Engineer Department, November 19, 1860, James B. McPherson Papers, LC; John Wool to Thurlow Weed, January 20, 1861, in Samuel Rezneck, “The Civil War Role 1861–1863 of a Veteran New York Officer Major-General John E. Wool (1784–1869),” New York History 44, no. 3 (July 1963): 255n.

44. William B. Skelton, “Officers and Politicians: The Origins of Army Politics in the United States Before the Civil War,” Armed Forces and Society 6, no. 1 (Fall 1979): 22–48; Heintzelman Diary, February 22, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC; Edward Hartz to father, Camp Hudson, Tex., December 15, 1860, Hartz Papers, LC; Quotations: Garesché, Biography of Julius Garesché, 350–51; Edward L. Hartz to father, Camp Hudson, Tex., March 11, 1861, Hartz Papers, LC ; J. H. Bailey to John P. Hawkins, Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis, March 14, 1861, Hawkins-Canby-Speed Family Papers, USAHEC; Samuel Wylie Crawford to brother, Fort Sumter, S.C., January 17, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC; Samuel Wylie Crawford to “AS,” March 19, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC.

45. The two naval officers in Pensacola were Commander Ebenezer Ferrand and Lt. Francis B. Renshaw: see Dudley, Going South, 5–6; see also J[ohn] G. Nicolay, Memorandum of Conversation with Joseph Holt, April 2, 1874, Nicolay Papers, LC; John E. Wool to AL, Head Quarters Dept. of the East, Troy, N.Y., January 11, 1861, ALP-LC.

46. For concerns about Scott, see Elihu B. Washburne to AL, December 17, 1860, ALP-LC; Lyman Trumbull to AL, Senate Chamber, January 3, 1861, ALP-LC; see also Jesse W. Weik, “How Lincoln Was Convinced of General Scott’s Loyalty,” The Century Magazine, February 1911, 593–94; Keyes Diary, March 29, 1861, in Keyes, Fifty Years’ Observation, 61 and 377–78; Charles P. Stone, “A Dinner with General Scott,” Magazine of American History, June 1884, 528–29 (Scott quotation on 529); Mary Custis Lee to Charles Marshall, n.d. [February 1871], Mary Custis Lee Papers, VHS; Peskin, Winfield Scott, 86–88 and 233–36.

47. Peskin, Winfield Scott, 233–36; Nannie Rodgers Macomb to Montgomery C. Meigs, January 6, 1861, Meigs Papers, LC; Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, March 9, 1861, Woodbury Papers, LC.

48. Peskin, Winfield Scott, 239; AL to Winfield Scott, copy in hand of John Nicolay, March 9, 1861, ALP-LC; Scott to Robert Anderson, Washington, D.C., March 11, 1861, ALP-LC; Scott to AL, Washington, D.C., March 12, 1861, ALP-LC.

49. For a “narrative” of the cabinet meetings, see Welles, Diary of Gideon Wells, 1:3–6; Diary of Edward Bates, March 9, 1861, Edward Bates Papers, LC; Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln, 3:392–93; see also Francis P. Blair to Montgomery Blair, Silver Spring, Md., March 12, 1861, ALP-LC; memorandum of A. D. Bache, Washington, D.C., March 7 and 8, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC. For contradictory advice about Fort Sumter, see Ethan Allen Hitchcock to Winfield Scott, St. Louis, March 7, 1861, Ethan Allen Hitchcock Papers, LC; James Watson Webb to AL, Washington, D.C., March 12, 1861, ALP-LC; Alexander Rives to William H. Seward, Washington, D.C., March 9, 1861, William H. Seward Papers, UR; Henry Dana Ward to William H. Seward, New York, March 9, 1861, Seward Papers, UR. “Is Democracy a Failure?” appeared in the New York Times on March 14, 1861.

50. John A. Dahlgren to T. R. Westherook [?], Washington, D.C., January 18, 1861, John Adolphus Bernard Dahlgren Papers, LC; Fitz John Porter to Samuel Cooper, Report on Fort Moultrie, November 11, 1860, Civil War Letters 1861–1865, NYHS; Porter’s record shows he left Washington on special assignment on February 15, 1861, but returned before March 30: see “Fitz-John Porter” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 2:219–30.

51. “Don Carlos Buell” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 2:219–30; for Buell’s grasp of the situation, see Averell, Ten Years in the Saddle, 244; Stephen D. Engle, Don Carlos Buell: Most Promising of All (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 58–63. See also Francis W. Pickens to D. F. Jamison, Executive Department, December 28, 1860; Orders of F[rancis] Pickens, December 28–29, 1860, and January 1–2, 1861; F[rancis] W. Pickens to Maj. Gen. Schierle, Head Quarters, December 31, 1860, all Crawford Papers, LC. And see John B. Floyd to President [Buchanan], War Department, December 29, 1860, John B. Floyd Papers, VHS; Memorandum of John G. Nicolay, December 22, 1860, Nicolay Papers, LC. The quotation about Hill is from Crawford Diary, March 25 and April 4, 1861, Crawford Papers, LC.

52. David Hunter to AL, Fort Leavenworth, Kans., October 20 and December 18, 1860, ALP-LC; David Hunter to AL, Washington, D.C., March 4, 1861, ALP-LC; John Pope to AL, Cincinnati, January 27, 1861, ALP-LC; George W. Hazzard to AL, Cincinnati, October 21 and December 24, 1860, ALP-LC; Edwin V. Sumner to AL, St. Louis, December 17, 1860, ALP-LC; E[rasmus] D. Keyes to AL, New York, November 26, 1860, Erasmus D. Keyes Correspondence, NYHS.

53. Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, February 11, 1861, 1:453–54.

54. AL proposed Ellsworth for both chief clerk of the War Department and inspector general of the militia, with oversight of a newly created bureau. Orlando B. Willcox, Forgotten Valor: The Memoirs, Journals and Civil War Letters of Orlando B. Willcox, ed. Robert Garth Scott (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999), 270–71; Isaac Hill Bromley, “Historic Moments: The Nomination of Lincoln,” Scribner’s Magazine, November 1893, 648; AL to Simon Cameron, March 5, 1861, Cameron Papers, LC; AL, “Draft of a Proposed Order to Establish a Militia Bureau,” March 18, 1861, CW, 4:291; AL to Edward Bates, Washington, D.C., March 18, 1861, ibid., 4:291; Herman Kreismann to Charles Ray, January 16, 1861, Ray Papers, HL; AL quoted in Elmer Ellsworth to Mrs. Charles H. Spofford, Washington, D.C., March 22, 1861, in Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), 151. See also Alexander H. Britton to uncle [John Morris], Washington, D.C., May 6, 1861, Alexander H. Britton Correspondence, NYHS; Frank E. Brownell, “Ellsworth’s Career: Philadelphia Weekly Times, June 18, 1881,” in Peter Cozzens and Robert I. Girardi, eds., The New Annals of the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 2004), 3–11; “C. Augustus” [Artemus Ward], “Progress of Mr. Lincoln,” Vanity Fair, March 2, 1861.

55. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 254–55 and 273; Winfield Scott, Memo to AL, May 1, 1861, ALP-LC; Diary of Frank Vizetelly, May 25, 1861, quoted in www.emergingcivilwar.com/2012/04/04/drawing-the-war-part-3-frank-vizetelly; Willcox, Forgotten Valor, 269–72; Brownell, “Ellsworth’s Career,” 11.

56. New York Herald, May 25, 1861; C. M. Butler to wife, Washington, D.C., n.d. [May 27, 1861], C. M. Butler Correspondence, ILPL; David Detzer, “Fateful Encounter: Jim Jackson and Elmer Ellsworth,” North and South 9, no. 3 (June 2006): 43–44. Overviews of Ellsworth’s actions can be found in Brownell, “Ellsworth’s Career,” and Charles A. Ingraham, Elmer E. Ellsworth and the Zoaves of ’61 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925). For the way professionals handled these situations, see S. F. Du Pont to Sophie [Du Pont], Port Royal, S.C., May 29, 1862, in Samuel Francis Du Pont, 2:78. Du Pont’s men encountered a South Carolina woman hoisting a rebel flag above the town hall; one officer “felt much instigated to . . . pull it down, but was restrained lest it might bring on a fight and he be compelled to shell the town.”

57. Printed invitation to Miss Mary E. Edwards, Inaugural Ball of Zachary Taylor, March 1849, Decatur House Papers, LC.

58. Douglas Southall Freeman, R. E. Lee: A Biography (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934–1935), 1:417. For Lee’s charisma, see Pryor, Reading the Man, chapter 12.

59. R. E. Lee to Agnes Lee, San Antonio, November 7, 1860, Nancy Astor Papers, Museum of English Rural Life, University of Reading, Reading, U.K. For Lee’s unsettled state of mind, see, e.g., Heintzelman Diary, March 5, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC; Diary of William Oliver Webster, March 18, 1861, private collection.

60. For details of Lee’s ambivalence and the division of his family, see Pryor, Reading the Man, chapter 17; Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “‘Thou Knowest Not the Time of Thy Visitation’: A Newly Discovered Letter Reveals Robert E. Lee’s Lonely Struggle with Disunion,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 119, no. 3 (September 2011): 277–96. See also Williams C. Wickham to Winfield Scott, Richmond, March 11, 1861, ALP-LC; Worthington G. Snethen to AL, Baltimore, December 13, 1860, ALP-LC; “Richard Bland Lee,” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 1:160–61; Mary Custis Lee to Charles Marshall, n.d. [February 1871], Mary Custis Lee Papers, VHS.

61. For Lee’s stance on slavery see Pryor, Reading the Man, chapters 9 and 16. For his ideas on secession, see ibid., 285–97; Pryor, “‘Thou Knowest Not’”; Heintzelman Diary, March 5, 1861, Heintzelman Papers, LC. The Lee quotations in this paragraph are from, respectively, R. E. Lee to “dear son,” San Antonio, December 14, 1860, Robert E. Lee Papers, DU; Cornelius Walker Diary, March 26, 1861, MoC; and Lee to Agnes Lee, Fort Mason, Tex., January 29, 1861, Lee Family Papers, VHS; see also Ness, Regular Army, 9. No overtures from the Confederate government to Lee have been found, but so many were directed to other Southern officers it would be surprising if he had not been approached. Examples include W. H. Hardee to Alfred Mordecai, Montgomery, Ala., March 4, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; George Thomas to Gov. John Letcher, New York Hotel, March 12, 1861, online at www.virginiamemory.com.

62. “Narrative,” in Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 1:6 and 39. Examples of Virginians lobbying the administration include Alexander Rives to William H. Seward, Washington, D.C., March 9, 1861, Seward Papers, UR; Benjamin Ogle Tayloe to Seward, Washington, D.C., March 13, 1861, Seward Papers, UR; statement of Charles H. Morehead, October 9, 1862, in David Rankin Barbee and Milledge L. Bonham Jr., eds., “Fort Sumter Again,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 28, no. 1 (June 1941): 64–71; entry of October 22, 1861, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 28; Lucius E. Chittenden, “President Lincoln and His Administration at the Commencement of the War,” n.d. [c. 1865], Lucius E. Chittenden Manuscripts, HL. An overview of AL’s overtures to Virginians can be found in Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2:119–23. The quotation is from AL to Montgomery Blair, March 13, 1861, CW, 4:282.

63. Scott quoted in Howell Cobb, “Reminiscences of Washington,” Cameron Papers, LC; “Robert E. Lee,” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 1:421; Mary C. Lee to “Rooney,” n.d., enclosed with R. E. Lee to same, March 27, 1861, George Bolling Lee Papers, VHS.

64. Sam Houston to Sam Houston Jr., Austin, November 7, 1860, in Writings of Sam Houston, 8:184–85; Sam Houston to Thomas L. Rosser, Austin, November 17, 1860, in ibid., 8:199; see also Houston to John B. Floyd, Austin, November 28, 1860, in ibid., 8:204–5; Houston to “old friend,” excerpt, Southern Intelligencer, February 20, 1861, ibid., 8:264. The last statement was excerpted more fully in Alexandria [Va.] Gazette, March 6, 1861.

65. William H. Seward to AL, Sunday evening, [March 1861], ALP-LC, reported that Lander was in Washington and that Seward would bring him to meet the President that evening. Notes to this letter state that this was written on March 24. However Lander was in Austin by March 29 and could not possibly have reached Texas in such a short time. Given that it was written on a Sunday, the note must have been sent on March 10: see F. W. Lander to Col. C. A. Waite, Austin, March 29, 1861, OR, I, 1:551–52. Houston’s account is in Sam Houston to Editor, Civilian and Galveston Gazette, September 16, 1861, quoted in Joy Leland, ed., Frederick West Lander: A Biographical Sketch (1822–1862) (Reno, Nev.: Desert Research Institute, 1993), 195–97. Discussion of proposed size of force in Howard C. Westwood, “President Lincoln’s Overture to Sam Houston,” The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 88, no. 2 (October 1984): 143–44. Scott’s order to entrench Union men is in Scott to Col. Carlos A. Waite, March 19, 1861, OR, I, 1:589 and 599. For Houston’s meeting with advisers and his rejection of the offer, see, A. W. Terrell, “Recollections of General Sam Houston,” The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 16, no. 2 (April 1912): 134–35; Charles A. Culberson, “General Sam Houston and Secession,” Scribner’s Magazine, May 1906, 586–87. The best overviews are in Llerena B. Friend, Sam Houston: The Great Designer (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1954), 351–57; Westwood, “President Lincoln’s Overture.” Houston’s public statement of March 6, 1861, “To the People of Texas,” can be found in Writings of Sam Houston, 8:277.

66. Diary of Erasmus Keyes, March 22, 1861, in Keyes, Fifty Years’ Observation, 420; Fitz John Porter to A[lbert] S. Johnston, April 8, 1861, copy in Fitz-John Porter Papers, LC; Charles P. Roland, Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964), 244–50; Brian McGinty, “I Will Call a Traitor a Traitor,” Civil War Times Illustrated 20, no. 3 (June 1981): 28–30 (Johnston quoted on 29).

67. Lee had, in fact, known Houston since his cadet days at West Point. For their association and the high regard in which Lee was held, see Albert M. Lea to R. E. Lee, Austin, February 18, 1860, Mary Custis Lee Papers, VHS; Lea to Sam Houston, Austin, February 18, 1860, Mary Custis Lee Papers, VHS; R. E. Lee to Albert M. Lea, San Antonio, March 1, 1860, Texas State Library, Austin, Tex.

68. Every full colonel from Virginia but Lee remained with the Union Army, as did ten out of thirteen from the South as a whole. See Wayne Wei-Siang Hsieh, “‘I Owe Virginia Little, My Country Much’: Robert E. Lee, the United States Regular Army and Unconditional Unionism,” in Edward L. Ayers, Gary Gallagher, and Andrew Torget, eds., Crucible of the Civil War: Virginia from Secession to Commemoration (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006), 36–49; “Lundsford Lindsay Lomax,” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 2:654; William Marvel, Mr. Lincoln Goes to War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006), 12. The Lomax quotation is from Lansford Lindsay Lomax to “Billy,” Washington, D.C., April 21, 1861, Lomax Papers, VHS. For praise of Charles Read Collins—“he was superb & admirable, both in person & character”—see Edward Porter Alexander, Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander, ed. Gary W. Gallagher (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 366; see also “Charles Read Collins,” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 2:716. For angst in the Mordecai family, see Alfred Mordecai Jr. to father [Alfred Mordecai], West Point, N.Y., April 28, 1861, and extensive correspondence of March through May 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; see also “Alfred Mordecai, Jr.,” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 1:299–301.

69. Caroline Mordecai Plunkett to Alfred Mordecai, Richmond, March 11, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; Cobb, “Reminiscences,” Cameron Papers, LC; Peter Johnston to Joseph Johnston, Richmond, March 10, 1861, Joseph E. Johnston Papers, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.; J. E. Johnston to Col. T[homas] Gantt, Washington, D.C., June 23, 1888, Johnston Papers, Swem Library, College of William and Mary. See also Craig Symonds, Joseph E. Johnston: A Civil War Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992), 93–96.

70. For financial concerns see entry of September 2, 1861, in Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, 187; Alexander Dallas Boche to Alfred Mordecai, Washington, D.C., January 4, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; see also Pryor, “‘Thou Knowest Not,’” 293n; Diary of Elizabeth Virginia Lomax, February 8, 1861, Lomax Papers, VHS.

71. For Lee’s disloyalty (as well as that of Johnston and Magruder) as an impulse to the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, see AL to Erastus Corning and Others, [June 12], 1863, CW, 6:265; see also “John B. Magruder,” in Cullum, Biographical Register, 1:455–56; Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988), 175; Thomas M. Settles, John Bankhead Magruder: A Military Reappraisal (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2009), 113–15; Gilbert E. Govan and James W. Livingood, A Different Valor: The Story of General Joseph E. Johnston, C.S.A. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), 27–28. Lincoln pointedly refused to protect Lee property (even with its Mount Vernon connections), quickly agreed to the proposal of turning the Lees’ home at Arlington into a cemetery that would preclude the return of the family, and was particularly irate when he found that Lee’s son Rooney, taken prisoner in 1863, was being treated with leniency. See Journal of Horace Green, June 17, 1862, in Horace Green, “Lincoln Breaks McClellan’s Promise,” The Century Magazine, February 1911, 594–95; M[ontgomery] C. Meigs to Edwin M. Stanton, Washington, D.C., June 15, 1864, Records of Office of the Quartermaster General, NARA; Remarks of Mrs. Alger, 1957, Meigs Papers, LC; Reminiscence of Benjamin F. Butler, in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 145.

72. John B. Magruder to James Lyons, Fort Clark, Tex., January 24 and August 25, 1856, in John Bankhead Magruder, The Presidential Contest of 1856 in Three Letters (Washington, D.C.: Privately published, 1857), 2–15; Washington Evening Star, March 26, 1861.

73. Settles, John Bankhead Magruder, 113–15; Bruce, Lincoln and the Tools of War, 16; Allan Magruder Statement in [John B. Baldwin], Interview Between President Lincoln and Col. John B. Baldwin, April 4th, 1861: Statements and Evidence (Staunton, Va.: Spectator Job Office, 1866).

74. Settles, John Bankhead Magruder, 113–14; entry of April 21, 1861, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 5; James Lyons to Jefferson Davis, Dagger’s Springs, July 31, 1878, in Jefferson Davis, Constitutionalist: His Letters, Papers, and Speeches, ed. Dunbar Rowland (Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1923), 8:216; Rebecca R. J. Pomeroy to Mary [?], Indiana Hospital, Washington, D.C., March 27, 1862, typescript, Rebecca R. J. Pomeroy Letters, Schlesinger Library, HU; AL quoted in Samuel D. Sturgis to Editor, Philadelphia Evening Telegraph, June 12, 1870, in Fehrenbacher and Fehrenbacher, Recollected Words, 431–32.

75. Tidball, “Washington in 1861,” Tidball Manuscripts, LC.

76. Samuel Du Pont to William Whetten, Port Royal, S.C., December 28, 1861, in Samuel Francis Du Pont, 1:293; T. W. Higginson, “Regular and Volunteer Officers,” Atlantic Monthly, September 1864, 349–50; Potter, The Impending Crisis, 95.

77. Robert Colby to AL, New York, May 18, 1861, ALP-LC.

78. Several historians have intimated that AL seriously studied military science, but there is no evidence that he consulted more than one book. See Gerald J. Prokopowicz, Did Lincoln Own Slaves? And Other Frequently Asked Questions About Abraham Lincoln (New York: Pantheon, 2008), 127n; comment on Halleck’s work in John F. Marszalek, Commander of All Lincoln’s Armies: A Life of Henry W. Halleck (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004), 44–46; also David Homer Bates, Lincoln in the Telegraph Office: Recollections of the United States Military Telegraph Corps During the Civil War (New York: Century, 1907), 122. For AL’s continued awkwardness at formal military gatherings, see, e.g., entries of April 6, 8, and 9, 1863, in Marsena Rudolph Patrick, Inside Lincoln’s Army: The Diary of Marsena Rudolph Patrick, Provost Marshal General, Army of the Potomac, ed. David S. Sparks (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1964), 231–32; Stearns E. Tyler to wife, April 6 [1863], Stearns E. Tyler Letters, UVa; Adam H. Pickel to brother, April 12, 1863, Adam H. Pickel Correspondence, ILPL; Journal of Samuel Clear, March 23, 1865, in The Civil War Notebook of Daniel Chisholm: A Chronicle of Daily Life in the Union Army, 1864–1865, ed. W. Springer Menge and J. August Shimrak (New York: Ballantine, 1989), 70; Col. August V. Kautz to Isabelle Savage, Headqrs. 1st Div. Army of the James, March 29, 1865, August V. Kautz Papers, ILPL.

79. John G. Nicolay to General [C. B.] Fisk, Washington, D.C., August 14, 1864, Nicolay Papers, LC; Elihu B. Washburne to AL, Siller’s Plantation, [Fort Gibson], May 1, 1863, ALP-LC; Ethan Allen Hitchcock to Mary Mann, Washington, D.C., July 14, 1864, Hitchcock Papers, LC; Peter Welsh to wife, camp near Falmouth, Mass., April 10, 1863, in Peter Welsh, Irish Green and Union Blue: The Civil War Letters of Peter Welsh, Color Sergeant, 28th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteers, ed. Lawrence Frederick Kohl with Margaret Cossé Richard (New York: Fordham University Press, 1986), 84; Diary of George Templeton Strong, September 24, 1862, 3:259; AL to Joseph Hooker, Washington, D.C., April 15, 1863, CW, 6:175; Meigs, “Conduct of the War,” 292; Frederick Law Olmsted to Henry Whitney Bellows, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1862, in The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted, ed. Charles E. Beveridge et al. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977–2015), 4:426; George Meade to [wife], camp opposite Fredericksburg, Va., May 23, 1862, in The Life and Letters of George Gordon Meade: Major-General United States Army, ed. George Gordon Meade Jr. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 1:267; entry of July 14, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 62. A longer discussion of AL’s struggle to project authority is in Pryor, “‘Grand Old Duke of York.’”

80. Donald, Lincoln, 288–90; William Seward to AL, Washington, D.C., April 1, 1861, ALP-LC; AL to Seward, April 1, 1861, CW, 4:316–17; “Narrative,” in Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 1:21; Montgomery Blair to Martin Van Buren, April 29, 1861, Van Buren Papers, LC; Francis P. Blair to Van Buren, May 1, 1861, Van Buren Papers, LC; Franklin Pierce to Martin Van Buren, Concord, N.H., April 16, 1861, Van Buren Papers, LC.

81. John Hay to WHH, Paris, September 5, 1866, HI, 331–32; Diary of Ethan Allen Hitchcock, May 24, 1863, Croffut Papers, LC; see also Chester G. Hearn, Lincoln, the Cabinet, and the Generals (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010), ix and xi. For the need to establish a proper war council, see, e.g., Samuel F. Du Pont to Henry Winter Davis, Astor House, October 8, 1861, in Samuel Francis Du Pont, 1:162–64; entry of December 31, 1861, in Edward Bates, The Diary of Edward Bates, 1859–1866, ed., Howard K. Beale (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), 218–19; Herman Haupt to AL, Washington, D.C., December 22, 1861, Stanton Papers, LC; AL to Edwin M. Stanton, Washington, D.C., January 22, 1862, CW, 5:108. The quotation is from Edwin D. Mansfield to E. A. Hitchcock, May 26, 1862, Hitchcock Papers, LC. For a longer discussion of AL’s stylistic problems, see Francis V. Greene, “Lincoln as Commander-in-Chief,” Scribner’s Magazine, July 1909, 107 and 109; Pryor, “‘Grand Old Duke of York.’”

82. AL admitted his discomfort with the military in AL to William S. Rosecrans, March 17, 1863, CW, 6:139. See also Michael Burlingame, “Surrogate Father Abraham” in The Inner World of Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 73–91; Propkopowicz, “If I Had Gone Up There,” 88–91; Thomas J. Goss, The War Within the Union High Command: Politics and Generalship During the Civil War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003), 206. The colonel’s quotation is from Alvin C. Voris to wife, Suffolk, Va., December 10, 1862, typescript, Alvin Coe Voris Papers, VHS.

83. Montgomery C. Meigs, “General M. C. Meigs on the Conduct of the Civil War,” American Historical Review 26, no. 2 (January 1921): 286; Gustavus V. Fox to M[ontgomery] Blair, Baltic, at sea, April 17, 1861, in Gustavus Vasa Fox, Confidential Correspondence of Gustavus Vasa Fox, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1861–1865, ed. Robert Means Thompson and Richard Wainwright (New York: Naval History Society/De Vinne Press, 1918–1919), 1:33–36; Fox, “Result of G. V. Fox’s Plan for Reinforcing Fort Sumter; in His Own Writing,” ibid., 1:40–41; Montgomery Blair to Martin Van Buren, Washington, D.C., April 29, 1861, Van Buren Papers, LC; AL to Capt. G. V. Fox, Washington, D.C., May 1, 1861 (“accident, for which”), CW, 4:350–51; Tom Ewing [?] to brother [W. T. Sherman], Washington, D.C., April 24, 1861 (“blown his trumpet”), W. T. Sherman Papers, LC. For accounts of this remarkable mess-up, see Diary of Montgomery Meigs, March 29 through April 6, 1861, in Meigs, “On the Conduct of the Civil War,” 299–302 and 286; Francis P. Blair to Martin Van Buren, May 1, 1861, Van Buren Papers, LC; “Narrative,” in Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 1:21–28 and 35–41; Gideon Welles, “Fort Sumter,” The Galaxy, November 1870, 624–30; “Admiral [David Dixon] Porter’s Statement,” March 11, 1873, Crawford Papers, LC. An overview is in Craig L. Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 15–34.

84. For AL’s haphazard method of consultation and “administration,” see “Narrative,” in Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 1:62–67; Diary of Edward Bates, January 10, 1862, 223. For the chronic irregular correspondence of Chase, Blair, and others, see, e.g., Salmon P. Chase to George B. McClellan, Washington, D.C., July 7, 1861, in Salmon P. Chase, The Salmon P. Chase Papers, ed. John Niven et al. (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1993–1998), 3:74–75; Chase to Bradford R. Wood, Washington, D.C., March 28, 1862, ibid., 3:152–53; Chase to David Hunter, Washington, D.C., February 14, 1863, ibid., 3:381; Chase Diary, August 2, 1862, ibid., 1:355–56; Frank P. Blair to “dear judge” [Montgomery Blair], St. Louis, August 21 and 29, and September 1, 1861, Blair Family Papers, LC; Diary of Edward Bates, February 26, 1863, 280–81. The source for the quotation is James H. Wilson to U. S. Grant, February 25, 1864, in Ulysses S. Grant, The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. John Y. Simon et al. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1967–2012), 10:141–42n.

85. Hundreds of such irregular letters are available; the examples here are George W. Hazzard to John G. Nicolay, Ft. McHenry, July 6, 1861, ALP-LC; William Nelson to Salmon P. Chase, Shiloe [sic], April 10, 1862, in Chase Papers, 3:168–69; Malcolm Ives to James Gordon Bennett, Washington, D.C., January 15, 1862 (example of speaking to the press), James Gordon Bennett Papers, LC; Fitz John Porter to “dear friend” [Manton Marble], near Yorktown, April 26, and n.p., August 10, 1862, both Manton Marble Papers, LC; Edward A. Miller, Lincoln’s Abolitionist General: The Biography of David Hunter (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1997), 123–24 and 131–32; OR, I, 14:448–49; Henry W. Halleck to Francis Lieber, Washington, D.C., June 6, 1863, Francis Lieber Papers, HL; Samuel Curtis to AL, Benton Barracks, October 12, 1861, ALP-LC. See also entry of July 24, 1861, Russell, My Diary, 475–76. For one of many examples of McClellan’s disrespectful attitude, see McClellan to wife [Mary Ellen McClellan], Coal Harbor, Va., May 25 [1862], in George B. McClellan, The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan: Selected Correspondence, 1860–1865, ed. Stephen W. Sears (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989), 275.

86. Winfield Scott to George B. McClellan, Washington, D.C., May 21, 1861, McClellan Papers, LC; Winfield Scott to S[imon] Cameron, Washington, D.C., August 9, 1861, ALP-LC; Scott to Cameron, October 15, 1861, copy in Stanton Papers, LC; OR, II, pt. 3:4; William D. Kelley, Lincoln and Stanton: A Study of the War Administration of 1861 and 1862 with Special Consideration of Some Recent Statements of Gen. Geo. B. McClellan (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1885), 4; Diary of Edward Bates, January 10, 1862, and February, 26, 1863, 223 and 280. See also Skelton, American Profession of Arms, 284.

87. Diary of Edward Bates, February 20, 1863, and June 13–16, 1864, 280, 376–77, and 386; Dispatch of Henry Villard, December 16, 1860, in Henry Villard, Lincoln on the Eve of ’61: A Journalist’s Story, ed. Harold G. Villard and Oswald Garrison Villard (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974), 39; Chase Diary, October 11, 1862, Chase Papers, 1:420; entry of December 24, 1864, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 2:207; Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, xi–xiii; Greene, “Lincoln as Commander-in-Chief,” 107 and 109.

88. Dudley, Going South, 4 and 11; Lankford, Cry Havoc!, 71–72.

89. AL to William S. Rosecrans, March 17, 1863, CW, 6:139; McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War, 192–93; General Order No. 7, Adjutant General’s Office, March 20, 1861, Garesché Papers, GU.

90. Meigs, “On the Conduct of the Civil War”; AL to Winfield Scott (note in John Hay’s hand), June 5, 1861, CW, 4:394. Russell F. Weigley, Quartermaster General of the Union Army: A Biography of M. C. Meigs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), is well done.

91. The issue of picking leaders is discussed at greater length in Pryor, “‘Grand Old Duke of York.’” See also W. T. Sherman to brother [John Sherman], camp near Vicksburg, January 25, 1863, in Sherman, Selected Correspondence, 375; Sherman to Thomas Ewing Sr., St. Louis, June 3, 1861, ibid., 97; Sherman to brother [John Sherman], St. Louis, June 8, 1861, ibid., 100; Sherman to brother [John Sherman], Lancaster, Pa., December 29 and 30, 1863, ibid., 578–80; Sherman to brother [John or C. T. Sherman?], St. Louis, April 18, 1861, W. T. Sherman Papers, LC. For Meigs distancing himself from White House politics, see Meigs Diary, 1861–1865, Meigs Papers, LC.

92. Upholding AL’s choices are Archer Jones, who denied he ever promoted generals for political reasons; Herman Hattaway, who donned him with nearly omniscient foresight; Mark Neely, who added that the President had a “clear-sighted unwillingness to allow partisan concerns to interfere with decisions critical to the army”; James McPherson, who defended the frequently disastrous appointments as “the best possible at the time”—or actually the product of bungling by Halleck (himself a Lincoln appointee); and Craig Symonds, who apologized that Lincoln’s decisions were “the product of political necessity” and stated that he was willing to reverse them when necessary—although the inept Halleck, Banks, Dahlgren, Sigel, Butler, and myriad others were allowed to continue destroying campaigns and wasting lives until the end of the war. See Brooks D. Simpson, “Lincoln and His Political Generals,” JALA 21, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 65; Mark E. Neely Jr., The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 61–62 and 90; McPherson, Tried by War, 5–13 and 266; Craig L. Symonds, “Men, Machines, and Old Abe: Lincoln and the Civil War Navy,” in Simon and Holzer, The Lincoln Forum, 50. Others assessing AL’s methodology as commander in chief have found that at best there was only marginal political advantage to his political appointments, that politics and preference polarized the Army and dictated the pace of the war, and that much of AL’s tactical failure came from faulty commissions. Simpson has neatly laid out the grave cost of the political mistakes: see Simpson, “Lincoln and His Political Generals,” 63–77; see also David Work, Lincoln’s Political Generals (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 31 and 227–34; Goss, War Within the Union High Command, 48, 77, and 105.

93. On Baker and the unfortunate affair at Ball’s Bluff, see the meticulous William F. Howard, The Battle of Ball’s Bluff: The Leesburg Affair, October 21, 1861 (Lynchburg, Va.: Privately published, 1994); Dahlgren’s promotion and its unfortunate aftermath are discussed in entries of October 9, 1862, and June 23, 1863, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 1:163–64 and 341; see George Boweryem to Sydney Howard Gay, Morris Island, S.C., October 9 and 13, 1863, Sydney Howard Gay Family Papers, CU. For a good overview, see Robert J. Schneller Jr., A Quest for Glory: A Biography of Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1996), 180–97, 229–42, and 279–82. One of many examples of disgruntlement at Pope’s promotion can be found in the entry for June 27, 1862, in David Hunter Strother, A Virginia Yankee in the Civil War: The Diaries of David Hunter Strother, ed. Cecil D. Eby Jr. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 63. For Lincoln’s political reasons for picking Hooker, despite his awareness of Hooker’s character flaws, see Henry J. Raymond, “Extracts from the Journal of Henry J. Raymond,” Scribner’s Monthly, February 1880, 704–5 (entry for January 24, 1863); and Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, January 26, 1863, 1:619; the phrase “glib and oily art” is from King Lear (a Lincoln favorite), act I, sc. 1. Farragut’s reaction is in his letter to Samuel Du Pont, April 20, 1863, Samuel Francis Du Pont, 3:49; for Garesché’s, see Garesché, Biography of Julius Garesché, 365–66.

94. Goss, War Within the Union High Command, 105–7; Work, Lincoln’s Political Generals, 230–33. A detailed discussion of army reaction to Stanton and Halleck is in Pryor, “‘Grand Old Duke of York.’” For Bank’s nonperformance, see William Baker to Sydney Howard Gay, New Orleans, April 15, 1864, Gay Papers, CU; T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and His Generals (New York: Vintage, 2011), 190, 228–29, and 309. The quotation on McClernand comes from Charles A. Dana to Edwin M. Stanton, behind Vicksburg, June 22, 1863, Stanton Papers, LC. AL’s general acquiescence to the demands of the radicals is discussed in Bruce Tap, Over Lincoln’s Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998); T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and the Radicals (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965).

95. George [John G.] Nicolay to Therena [Bates], Washington, D.C., December 28, 1862, Nicolay Papers, LC; Philip Kearny to [Cortland] Parker, Williamsburg Road, May 27, 1862, typescript, Philip Kearny Papers, LC; George Thomas to Andrew Johnson, Dickens, Tenn., August 16, 1862, George H. Thomas Manuscripts, HL; John Reynolds quoted in Jeffry D. Wert, The Sword of Lincoln: The Army of the Potomac (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 257; W. T. Sherman to brother [John Sherman], Vicksburg, May 29, 1863, Sherman, Selected Correspondence, 474.

96. For Garfield’s battlefield prowess and AL’s attempt to co-opt him politically, see William Dennison to Edwin M. Stanton, Columbus, November 4, 1863, Stanton Papers, LC; James A. Garfield to Henry Hopkins, n.d. [c. December 1863], in Theodore Clarke Smith, The Life and Letters of James Abram Garfield (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925), 1:355–56; James A. Garfield, account of campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee, n.d. [1864], John Roberts Gilmore Papers, Johns Hopkins University, Special Collections, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Baltimore, Md. For “stupidity and weakness,” see Allan Peskin, Garfield (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1978), 153. Alpheus Williams comments on the “low, groveling lick-spittle subserving [sic]” manner needed to receive a promotion in a letter to his daughter written near the Chattahoochee River, Ga., on July 15, 1864, in Alpheus S. Williams, From the Cannon’s Mouth: The Civil War Letters of General Alpheus S. Williams, ed. Milo M. Quaife (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1959), 332. Baldy Smith’s remark is in W. F. Smith to Montgomery Blair, August 23, 1863, in Siciliano, “Major General William Farrar Smith,” 205–6; see also 183–85. See also AL to Carl Schurz, Washington, D.C., November 10, 1862, CW, 5:494.

97. Henry Halleck to John M. Schofield, Washington, D.C., September 20, 1862, in OR, I, 13:654. AL discussed his military appointments with Carl Schurz, November 10, 1862, CW, 5:494–95; and AL to John M. Schofield, May 27, 1863, CW, 6:234. See also David Farragut to wife [Virginia Farragut], USFS Hartford, May 7, 1864, David Glasgow Farragut Papers, HL.

98. Simpson, “Lincoln and His Political Generals”; Goss, War Within the Union High Command, 207–11, gives a somewhat more upbeat assessment of political generals than does Work, Lincoln’s Political Generals, 228–33, which is more detailed.

99. For AL’s reluctance to shed blood, see his reply to Gov. Andrew J. Curtain at Harrisburg, Pa., February 22, 1861, CW, 4:243. For claims that he excelled as commander or improved over time, see Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones, How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 689 and 695; see also Williams, Lincoln and His Generals, 7; Frank J. Williams, “Abraham Lincoln and the Changing Role of Commander in Chief,” in Lincoln Reshapes the Presidency, ed. Charles E. Hubbard (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 2003), 26 and 28; McPherson, Tried by War, 5–13 and 266–67; Symonds, Lincoln and His Admirals, 36; John F. Marszalek, Lincoln and the Military (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2014), 110–13. For AL’s lack of improvement over time and officers’ assessment of his performance, see Pryor, “‘Grand Old Duke of York.’”

CHAPTER 2. PFUNNY PFACE

1. The flag raising took place on June 29, 1861—see Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861. For a description of the South Lawn and atmosphere of military concerts, see entry for April 27, 1861, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 13. For Lincoln’s pensive mood, see N. P. Willis to Ida Tarbell, n.d., quoted in Ida M. Tarbell, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Macmillan, 1920), 2:51–52.

2. Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861; Benjamin P. Thomas, Abraham Lincoln: A Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952), 270.

3. Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861; Tarbell, Life of Lincoln, 2:51–52; Dorothy Schaffter and Dorothy M. Mathews, The Powers of the President as Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1956), 17; Edward S. Corwin, Total War and the Constitution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), 16–19.

4. Tarbell, Life of Lincoln, 2:51–52; Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861; B[enjamin] B. French to Ellen M. French, Washington, D.C., June 30, 1861, Benjamin B. French Family Papers, LC; Chicago Tribune, June 30 [?], 1861 (the author is grateful to Michael Burlingame for providing the Tribune reference). A sketch of the scene by Alfred R. Waud is owned by the Library of Congress’s Prints and Photograph Division (DRAW/US-Waud, no. 291).

5. Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861; AL, “Speech at Lafayette, Ind.,” February 11, 1861, CW, 4:192; AL, “Speech at Flag Raising Before Independence Hall, Philadelphia,” February 22, 1861, ibid., 4:241; AL, “Remarks at Flag Raising at the Post Office,” May 22, 1861, quoted in Daily National Intelligencer, May 23, 1861. A similar but slightly less interesting version of the later speech is found in CW, 4:382–83. Ken Burns’s documentary The Civil War quotes Lincoln as saying that he would “rather be assassinated than see a single star removed from the American flag,” but this author found no such authenticated statement; the closest is the speech given at Independence Hall on February 22, 1861, in which AL says he would almost rather be assassinated on the spot than give up the principles embodied in the Declaration of Independence (CW, 4:240). For slogans on patriotic envelopes, see Steven R. Boyd, Patriotic Envelopes of the Civil War: The Iconography of Union and Confederate Covers (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010).

6. Entry of June 29, 1861, Horatio Nelson Taft Diary, LC; Chicago Tribune, June 30 [?], 1861. The quotations are from B[enjamin] B. French to Ellen M. French, Washington, D.C., June 30, 1861, French Papers, LC; [Charles Farrar Browne], “Artemus Ward on the Crisis,” Vanity Fair, January 26, 1861.

7. “Remarks of A. Lincoln at Flag Raising at South Front of the Treasury Building,” July 4, 1861, unnamed newspaper quoted in Allen C. Clark, “Abraham Lincoln in the National Capital,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society 27 (1925): 26 (the statement does not appear in CW); entry of June 29, 1861, Taft Diary, LC; Chicago Tribune, June 30 [?], 1861; Benjamin B. French to Ellen M. French, Washington, D.C., June 30, 1861, French Papers, LC; Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861.

8. Daily National Intelligencer, July 1, 1861; Benjamin Brown French, From the Diary and Correspondence of Benjamin Brown French, ed. Amos Tuck French (New York: Privately published, 1904); Benjamin Brown French, Witness to the Young Republic: A Yankee’s Journal, 1828–1870, ed. Donald B. Cole and John J. McDonough (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1989).

9. MTL to Josiah G. Holland, Chicago, December 4, 1865, in Justin G. Turner and Linda Levitt Turner, eds., Mary Todd Lincoln: Her Life and Letters (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 293.

10. John Henry Brown to John M. Read, Springfield, Ill., August 16, 1860, Read Family Papers, LC; Robert Gould Shaw to Effie [Josephine Shaw], Washington, D.C., April 30, 1861, in Robert Gould Shaw, Blue-Eyed Child of Fortune: The Civil War Letters of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, ed. Russell Duncan (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 88; Edward Dicey, Spectator of America, ed. Herbert Mitgang (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1971), 95; Reminiscence of Benjamin Perley Poore, n.d. [c. 1888], in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 230–31. For AL at the punch line, see Henry Villard, Memoirs of Henry Villard, Journalist and Financier, 1835–1900 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1904), 1:143.

11. Diary of Benjamin B. French, September 4, 1861, French Papers, LC; Noah Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, ed. Herbert Mitgang (New York: Rinehart, 1958), 260; Reminiscence of Donn Piatt, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 480; AL to Mary Speed, Bloomington, Ill., September 27, 1841 (on tooth loss), CW, 1:260–61; John H. Littlefield to WHH, Washington, D.C., December 13, 1866, HI, 514. See also entry of October 23, 1861, in The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed. Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas (New York: Macmillan, 1952), 3:188; Reminiscence of James B. Fry, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 389; Henry C. Whitney, Life on the Circuit with Lincoln (Boston: Estes & Lauriat, 1892), 171–72.

12. WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, Chicago, June 13, 1865, HI, 37; William G. Greene to WHH, Tallula, Ill., December 20, 1865, ibid., 145; Joseph Gillespie to WHH, Edwardsville, Ill., December 8, 1866, ibid., 508; AL, “Speech in the Illinois Legislature Concerning the Surveyor of Schuyler County,” January 6, 1835, CW, 1:31; WHH interview with S. T. Johnson, Indiana, September 14, 1835, HI, 118; Elizabeth Crawford to WHH, n.p., January 4, 1866, ibid., 151–52; AL to Sangamo Journal (the “Rebecca Letter”), Lost Townships, August 27, 1842, CW, 1:291–97; AL, “Memorandum of Duel Instructions to Elias H. Merryman,” September 19, 1841, ibid., 1:300. For a discussion of the Shields episode, see Douglas L. Wilson, Honor’s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 265–76. The quip about McClellan, from November 1862, is often quoted with various wording—see Charles Lincoln Van Doren and Robert McHenry, eds., Webster’s Guide to American History: A Chronological, Geographical and Biographical Survey and Compendium (Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam, 1971), 233.

13. Joseph Gillespie to WHH, Edwardsville, Ill., January 31, 1866, HI, 181–82; Constance Rourke, American Humor: A Study of the National Character (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1931), 152–56; T. G. Onstot quoted in Benjamin Thomas, “Lincoln’s Humor” and Other Essays, ed. Michael Burlingame (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 4; Whitney, Life on the Circuit, 185; Noah Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences of Lincoln,” Scribner’s Monthly, March 1878, 680; Albert B. Chandler, unpublished reminiscences from journal entries, c. 1892, Albert B. Chandler Papers, USAHEC.

14. Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, 255–59; Thomas D. Jones, “A Sculptor’s Recollections of Lincoln,” in Rufus Rockwell Wilson, ed., Lincoln Among His Friends: A Sheaf of Intimate Memories (Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1942), 261–62; dispatch of Henry Villard, New York Herald, February 20, 1861, quoted in Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), 456–57; Diary of Fanny Seward, January 20, 1862, William H. Seward Papers, UR; Samuel F. Du Pont to Sophie [Du Pont], USS Wabash, Port Royal, S.C., April 25, 1863, in Samuel Francis Du Pont, Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from His Civil War Letters, ed. John D. Hayes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969), 3:60; undated entry from July or August 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 78.

15. Reminiscence of Elihu B. Washburne, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 13; P. D. Gurley reminiscences in Ervin Chapman, ed., Latest Light on Abraham Lincoln and War-Time Memories (New York: Fleming H. Revel, 1917), 2:502; Silas W. Burt, “Lincoln on His Own Storytelling,” The Century Magazine, February 1907, 502.

16. P. M. Zall, ed., Abe Lincoln Laughing: Humorous Anecdotes from Original Sources by and About Abraham Lincoln (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982); Alexander K. McClure, “Abe” Lincoln’s Yarns and Stories (Chicago: Henry Neal, 1904). McClure’s “close” relationship with Lincoln is in question; John Hay referred to him as one of the “professional liars” who had “written several volumes of reminiscences of Lincoln with whom I really think he never had two hours’ conversation in his life”: John Hay to Charles Francis Adams, December 19, 1903, quoted in John Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War in the Diaries and Letters of John Hay, ed. Tyler Dennett (1939; repr., Westport, Conn.: Negro Universities Press, 1972), 136. See also John Forney in Charles M. Segal, ed., Conversations with Lincoln (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1961), 272; Reminiscence of George Julian, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 54; Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, 256.

17. Joseph Gillespie to WHH, January 31 and December 8, 1866, HI, 181–82 and 508; Whitney, Life on the Circuit, 177; Egbert L. Viele, “A Trip with Lincoln, Chase and Stanton,” Scribner’s Monthly, October 1878, 816 (Viele wrote another piece containing the same story, with slight variations, for The Independent Lincoln Number, April 4, 1895, copy in John G. Nicolay Papers, LC); entry of December 31, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 135. The New York politician Chauncey DePew, n.d. [c. 1888], is quoted in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 434.

18. Entry of July 18, 1863, and addendum for July–August 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 64 and 76; Diary of George Templeton Strong, December 13, 1862, 3:278; A. J. Blucker to James Gordon Bennett, July 14, 1862, James Gordon Bennett Papers, LC.

19. Abner Ellis, statement for WHH, n.d. [January 1866], HI, 173; Henry Whitney to WHH, June 23 and September 17, 1887, ibid., 442 and 617; WHH interview with H. E. Drummer, n.p., n.d. [c. 1865–1866], ibid., 644; Nathaniel Hawthorne’s excised remarks in Rufus Rockwell Wilson, ed., Intimate Memories of Lincoln (Elmira, N.Y.: Primavera Press, 1945), 466. Hawthorne later wrote of his decision to edit his remarks in “Our Whispering Gallery, IV,” Atlantic Monthly, April 1871, 512. See also Walt Whitman to Nat and Fred Gray, Washington, D.C., March 19, 1863, in Walt Whitman, Walt Whitman’s Civil War, ed. Walter Lowenfels (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), 174; Reminiscence of Hugh McCulloch, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 417.

20. General Ethan Allen did not actually visit England after the Revolution. However, he did conduct negotiations with the British in Quebec. The Lincoln anecdotes in this paragraph are from WHH interview with Christopher C. Brown, n.p., n.d. [c. 1865–1866], HI, 438; Abner Ellis, statement for WHH, n.d. [January 1866], ibid., 174; John B. Weber to WHH, Pawnee, Ill., November 5, 1866, ibid., 396 (a similar story to Ellis’s); Chandler, unpublished reminiscences, Chandler Papers, USAHEC.

21. Leonard Swett to WHH, Chicago, January 17, 1866, HI, 165–66; Abram Bergen, “Personal Recollections of Abraham Lincoln as a Lawyer,” The American Lawyer 5 (May 1897): 213; Thomas, “Lincoln’s Humor,” 12; David Donald quoted in Zall, Abe Lincoln Laughing, 7.

22. WHH interview with Richard M. Lawrence, n.p., June 23, 1888, HI, 715–16; entry of April 30, 1864, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 194; entry of January 11, 1862, Taft Diary, LC; Diary of Benjamin B. French, May 4, 1862, and March 23, 1864, French Papers, LC; Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, March 3, 1863, Levi Woodbury Papers, LC; Dicey, Spectator of America, 92–95. For the performances of Tom Thumb and Hermann the Prestidigitateur, see George [John G.] Nicolay to Therena Bates, Washington, D.C., November 24, 1861, Nicolay Papers, LC; Journal of Samuel Heintzelman, November 25, 1861, Samuel Peter Heintzelman Papers, LC; Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, February 13, 1863, Woodbury Papers, LC; Diary of Benjamin B. French, November 24, 1861, French Papers, LC.

23. Joshua Speed to WHH, Louisville, December 6, 1866, HI, 499; WHH to [Jesse] Weik, Springfield, Ill., November 17, 1885, and December 22, 1888, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Charles A. Dana, “Reminiscences of Men and Events of the Civil War: IX. The End of the War,” McClure’s Magazine, August 1898, 381.

24. For discussions of Lincoln’s mercurial moods, see Joshua Wolf Shenk, Lincoln’s Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005); Norbert Hirschhorn, Robert G. Feldman, and Ian Greaves, “Abraham Lincoln’s Blue Pills: Did Our 16th President Suffer from Mercury Poisoning?” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 44, no. 3 (Summer 2001): 315–32; Michael Burlingame, “Melancholy Dript from Him as He Walked,” in The Inner World of Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 92–122; Seymour Fisher and Rhoda L. Fisher, Pretend the World Is Funny and Forever: A Psychological Analysis of Comedians, Clowns, and Actors (Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1981). In his poem “Lincoln,” James Whitcomb Riley wrote, “And yet there stirred within his breast / A fateful pulse that, like a roll / Of drums, made high above the rest / A tumult in his soul.”

25. For AL’s magnetic appeal in his early years, see, e.g., WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, June 13, 1865, HI, 42; Abner Y. Ellis, statement for WHH, Moro, Ill., January 23, 1866, ibid., 171; WHH interview with James H. Matheny, n.p., n.d. [November 1866], ibid., 431–32; Joseph Gillespie to WHH, January 31 and December 8, 1866, ibid., 181 and 508; Jason Duncan to WHH, n.d. [c. late 1866–early 1867], ibid., 541; Henry C. Whitney, statement for WHH, n.d. [c. 1887], ibid., 648. See also John J. Duff, A. Lincoln, Prairie Lawyer (New York: Rinehart, 1960), 18; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, chapters 1 and 2.

26. WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, June 13, 1865, HI, 37; Bergen, “Personal Recollections of Abraham Lincoln as a Lawyer,” 213; Duff, A. Lincoln, Prairie Lawyer, 59–60.

27. William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 43–44; Reminiscence of Titian J. Coffey, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 235; Ward Hill Lamon, Recollections of Abraham Lincoln, 1847–1865, ed. Dorothy Lamon Teillard (Washington, D.C.: Privately published, 1911), 124.

28. Silas Burt claimed that these words were Lincoln’s, recorded just after speaking with him: Silas Burt, “Lincoln on His Own Story Telling,” in Wilson, Lincoln Among His Friends, 333; AL, “Speech on the Sub-Treasury,” December [26], 1839, CW, 1:177–78; AL, “First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas, Ottawa, Ill.,” August 21, 1858, ibid., 3:29; AL, “Speech at Hartford, Conn.,” March 5, 1860, ibid., 4:10–11; Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, 264–65.

29. George B. McClellan to wife [Mary Ellen McClellan], n.p. [Washington, D.C.], October 16, 1861, in George B. McClellan, The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan: Selected Correspondence, 1860–1865, ed. Stephen W. Sears (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989), 107; Horace Greeley, “Lincoln to Hodges,” New York Tribune, April 29, 1864; Henry Dawes, statement on Abraham Lincoln, n.d., Henry Dawes Papers, LC.

30. AL, “The Presidential Question,” July 27, 1848, CW, 1:509, quoting Shakespeare’s Sonnet 94; Robert Bray, “‘The Power to Hurt’: Lincoln’s Early Use of Satire and Invective,” JALA 16, no. 1 (1995): 39–58; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 300–303; Douglas L. Wilson, “Abraham Lincoln Versus Peter Cartwright,” in Lincoln Before Washington: New Perspectives on the Illinois Years (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 55–73.

31. Judge [David] Davis, n.d., note in Nicolay Papers, LC; AL, “‘A House Divided’ Speech,” Springfield, Ill., June 16, 1858, CW, 2:467; Stephen A. Douglas, c. 1858, from untitled newspaper story, in Zall, Abe Lincoln Laughing, 4–5; Noah Brooks, “The President’s Last Story,” February 22, 1865, in Noah Brooks, Lincoln Observed: Civil War Dispatches of Noah Brooks, ed. Michael Burlingame (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 163–64; Noah Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences,” Scribner’s Monthly, February 1878, 564; Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, 263; John Nicolay to E. Stafford, Springfield, Ill., March 17, 1860, Nicolay Papers, LC.

32. WHH to Jesse Weik, Springfield, Ill., February 9, 1887, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; WHH notes for Jesse Weik, “A new & good one,” n.d., Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Leonard Swett to WHH, Chicago, July 17, 1866, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; entries of November 29, 1862, and April 22, 1865, in Orville Hickman Browning, The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, 1850–1864, ed. Theodore Calvin Pease and James G. Randall (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1925), 1:588–89 and 2:25; Shenk, Lincoln’s Melancholy, 116–17; Martinette Hardin quoted in Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 180–81; AL, “Remarks at Pittsburgh,” February 14, 1861, CW, 4:209.

33. Diary of George Templeton Strong, October 23, 1861, 3:188; Villard, Memoirs of Henry Villard, 1:152; Benjamin B. French to brother [Henry F. French], Washington, D.C., March 6, 1861, French Papers, LC; Reminiscence of R. E. Fenton, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 70–71; WHH quoted in Zall, Abe Lincoln Laughing, 5; John Hay to John Nicolay, September 11, 1863, in Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War, 91. Some European journalists agreed with Hay’s assessment: see The Times [London], September 17, 1863. See also WHH to C. O. Poole, Springfield, Ill., January 9, 1886, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC.

34. For Lincoln’s application in perfecting the English language, see Chandler, unpublished reminiscences, Chandler Papers, USAHEC; Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences,” 565–67; WHH, notes on “Lincoln Individuality,” n.d., Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Douglas L. Wilson, Lincoln’s Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words (New York: Vintage, 2006); AL, “Remarks at Opening of Patent Office Fair” [Sanitary Commission Fair], February 22, 1864, CW, 7:197–98; see also AL, “Response to a Serenade,” April 10, 1865, ibid., 8:394.

35. Dispatch from Henry Villard, January 26, 1861, in Henry Villard, Lincoln on the Eve of ’61: A Journalist’s Story, ed. Harold G. Villard and Oswald Garrison Villard (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974), 55; Reminiscence of Henry Ward Beecher, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 249–50; Diary of Charles Wainwright, January 19, 1862, in Charles S. Wainwright, A Diary of Battle: The Personal Journals of Colonel Charles S. Wainwright, 1861–1865, ed. Allan Nevins (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), 10; WHH, “Analysis of the Character of Abraham Lincoln,” [December 12], 1865, William Henry Herndon Papers, HL; George B. McClellan to wife [Mary Ellen McClellan], Washington, D.C., November 17, 1861, in McClellan, The Civil War Papers, 135–36; Francis Donaldson to Jacob Donaldson, March 3, 1864, in William C. Davis, Lincoln’s Men: How President Lincoln Became Father to an Army and a Nation (New York: Free Press, 1999), 133–34; entry of March 27, 1861, Russell, My Diary, 37–38; Nathaniel Hawthorne for Atlantic Monthly, July 1862, in Wilson, Intimate Memories, 465; James A. Garfield to Crete [Lucretia Garfield], Columbus, February 17, 1861, in John Shaw, ed., Crete and James: Personal Letters of Lucretia and James Garfield (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994), 107; James A. Garfield to Burke Aaron Hinsdale, Columbus, February 17, 1861, in Mary L. Hinsdale, ed., Garfield–Hinsdale Letters: Correspondence Between James Abram Garfield and Burke Aaron Hinsdale (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1949), 56–57; Diary of George Templeton Strong, January 29, 1862, 3:204.

36. For AL’s ability to “whistle off” ridicule, see WHH, “Lincoln’s Ambition—selfishness—Envy—Jealousy &c,” n.d. (on letterhead marked “188”), Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Enoch Huggins to Joseph Huggins, Orange Prairie, Ill., July 26, 1858, in Harry E. Pratt, ed., Concerning Mr. Lincoln, in Which Abraham Lincoln Is Pictured as He Appeared to Letter Writers of His Time (Springfield, Ill.: The Abraham Lincoln Association, 1944), 18; AL, “Speech at Springfield, Ill.,” July 17, 1858, CW, 2:506; William H. Crook, “Lincoln as I Knew Him,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, June 1907, 47; John J. Pullen, Comic Relief: The Life and Laughter of Artemus Ward, 1834–1867 (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1983), 4 and 32; “Shaky,” Vanity Fair, June 9, 1860, reproduced in Rufus Rockwell Wilson, Lincoln in Caricature: 165 Posters, Cartoons and Drawings for the Press (Elmira, N.Y.: Primavera Press, 1945), 4, pl. 1; two-faced Lincoln as “Honest old Abe on the Stump, Springfield 1858,” reproduced in ibid., 40–41, pl. 20; Chicago Tribune, December 3, 1863, quoted in Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 327–28, n299.

37. For AL’s sensitivity, see WHH to [Jesse] Weik, Springfield, Ill., January 7, 1886, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, xxviii; Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, December 18, 1862, 1:600–601. AL’s smutty rhyme “The Chronicles of Reuben” is in J. W. Wartmann to WHH, Rockport, Ind., July 21, 1865, HI, 79; Elizabeth Crawford to WHH, January 4, 1866, ibid., 152. For AL’s early public writings, see AL and Mr. Talbott, “First Reply to James Adams,” September 6, 1837, CW, 1:95; AL, “Second Reply to Adams,” October 18, 1837, ibid., 1:105. AL’s touchiness about his 1861 arrival in Washington is evident in AL, “Draft Fragment of Speech for Baltimore Sanitary Fair,” [April 1864], ibid., 7:303; see also Gerald J. Prokopowicz, Did Lincoln Own Slaves? And Other Frequently Asked Questions About Abraham Lincoln (New York: Pantheon, 2008), 78–79; “Movements of Mr. Lincoln,” Vanity Fair, March 9, 1861; Harper’s Weekly, January 31, 1863; AL to Reverdy Johnson, Washington, D.C., July 16, 1862, CW, 5:342–43; AL, “Reply to Emancipation Memorial Presented by Chicago Christians of All Denominations,” September 13, 1862, ibid., 5:421; AL to Carl Schurz, Washington, D.C., November 10 and 24, 1862, ibid., 5:493–95 and 509; Carl Schurz, The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz (New York: McClure, 1907), 2:395–96; Herman Haupt, Reminiscences of General Herman Haupt (Milwaukee: Wright & Joys, 1901), 298. The author found many dozen contemporary accounts of such incidents. For an example of AL’s finely worded nonconfrontation policy, see AL to James M. Cutts Jr., Washington, D.C., October 26, 1863, CW, 6:538.

38. Illinois State Register, November 23, 1839, quoted in Zall, Abe Lincoln Laughing, 4; entry of September 3, 1861, Russell, My Diary, 523; William Thompson Lusk to mother, Meridian Hill, September 6, 1862, and Falmouth, Mass., December 16, 1862, both in William Thompson Lusk, War Letters of William Thompson Lusk, Captain, Assistant Adjutant-General, United States Volunteers, 1861–1863 (New York: Privately published, 1911), 188–89 and 244–45; entry of January 4, 1863, Wainwright, A Diary of Battle, 156; Charles S. Morehead, speech delivered to the Southern Club in Liverpool, England, October 9, 1862, in David Rankin Barbee and Milledge L. Bonham Jr., eds., “Fort Sumter Again,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 28, no. 1 (June 1941): 71; undated entry [January 1862], Adam Gurowski, Diary from March 4, 1861 to November 12, 1862 (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1862), 144.

39. George B. McClellan to wife [Mary Ellen McClellan], November 17, 1861, in McClellan, The Civil War Papers, 135–36; Diary of Salmon P. Chase, September 23, 1863, in Salmon P. Chase, The Salmon P. Chase Papers, ed. John Niven et al. (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1993–1998), 1:452; Edwin M. Stanton to Charles A. Dana, January 24, 1862, Charles A. Dana Papers, LC. See also Charles A. Dana, Recollections of the Civil War with the Leaders at Washington and in the Field in the Sixties (New York: D. Appleton, 1902), 261–62; Benjamin B. French to Pamela French, Washington, D.C., n.d. [early August] 1864, French Papers, LC.

40. For AL’s willingness to have his picture taken, see Mark E. Neely Jr. and Harold Holzer, The Lincoln Family Album (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 60; see also Stephen Hess and Sandy Northrop, Drawn and Quartered: The History of American Political Cartoons (Montgomery, Ala.: Elliott & Clark, 1996), 38 and 45–47; Roger Penn Cuff, “The American Editorial Cartoon—A Critical Historical Sketch,” Journal of Educational Sociology 19, no. 2 (October 1945): 87–96. The New York Herald article, “The Great Crime—Abraham Lincoln’s Place in History,” appeared on April 17, 1865.

41. James E. Combs and Dan Nimmo, The Comedy of Democracy (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996), 15–17, 48–49, 108–9, and 122; Hess and Northrop, Drawn and Quartered, 30; Jon Grinspan, “‘Sorrowfully Amusing’: The Popular Comedy of the Civil War,” Journal of the Civil War Era 1, no. 3 (September 2011): 313–38; William F. Fry, “The Power of Political Humor,” The Journal of Popular Culture 10, no. 1 (Summer 1976): 231; William Shepard Walsh, Abraham Lincoln and the London Punch: Cartoons, Comments and Poems, Published in the London Charivari, During the American Civil War (1861–1865) (New York: Moffat, Yard, 1909); Howard Lessoff, The Civil War with “Punch” (Wendell, N.C.: Broadfoot, 1984); Gary Bunker, From Rail-splitter to Icon: Lincoln’s Images in Illustrated Periodicals, 1860–1865 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 2001).

42. Joseph Medill to AL, Chicago, June 19, 1860, ALP-LC; AL, “Memorandum Concerning the New York Herald,” c. February 28, 1863, CW, 6:120. For more on Bennett, see Robert S. Harper, Lincoln and the Press (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951), 319–24.

43. David Kunzle, “200 Years of the Great American Freedom to Complain,” Art in America 65, no. 2 (March–April 1977): 99–105; H. L. Mencken, A Mencken Chrestomathy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 622. For lampooning Buchanan, see issues of Vanity Fair, November 1860 through March 1861.

44. Diary of Henry J. Raymond, January 22, 1863, in Henry J. Raymond, “Extracts from the Journal of Henry J. Raymond,” Scribner’s Monthly, January 1880, 424; New York Herald, February 19, 1864; Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences,” 567. The wood engraving in Harper’s Weekly of January 3, 1863, was based on Alfred. R. Waud’s drawing, which depicts Uncle Sam rather than Columbia confronting Lincoln: Prints and Photographs Division (DRAW/US-Waud, no. 63), LC. For the New York World episode, see Harper, Lincoln and the Press, 305–8; Lamon, Recollections, 144–49; AL, “Memorandum Concerning Ward H. Lamon and the Antietam Episode,” c. September 12, 1864, CW, 7:548–49; Harper found that the source for the story was fictitious, but Lincoln did not entirely deny the events. For accounts of AL’s rudeness, merriment, and ribald storytelling during that visit, see notation by Stephen Minot Weld, War Diary and Letters of Stephen Minot Weld, 1861–1865 (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1912), 83n; entries of October 1 and 3, 1862, Wainwright, A Diary of Battle, 109–10.

45. For comic publications of the era, see Alice Fahs, The Imagined Civil War: Popular Literature of the North and South, 1861–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 204–5; Grinspan, “Popular Comedy of the Civil War.”

46. James T. Nardin, “Civil War Humor: The War in Vanity Fair,” Civil War History 2, no. 3 (September 1956): 67–85; the antiproclamation song is reprinted on 75. See also Vanity Fair, January 4, 1862; James R. Gilmore, Personal Recollections of Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War (Boston: L. C. Page, 1898), 67; F. B. Carpenter, Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln (New York: Hurd & Houghton, 1866), 150.

47. Browne quoted in C. C. Ruthrauff, “Artemus Ward at Cleveland,” Scribner’s Monthly, October 1878, 791; Melville Landon, “Travelling with Artemus Ward,” The Galaxy, September 1871, 443; Artemus Ward [Charles Farrar Browne], The Complete Works of Artemus Ward (New York: G. W. Dillingham, 1898), 72 and 186. See also Robert E. Abrams, “Charles Farrar Browne (Artemus Ward),” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, XI: American Humorists, 1800–1950, ed. Stanley Trachtenberg (Detroit: Gale, 1982), 1:60–68; John Q. Reed, “Civil War Humor: Artemus Ward,” Civil War History 2, no. 3 (September 1956): 87–101.

48. Reed, “Artemus Ward,” 100–101; Don C. Seitz, Artemus Ward (Charles Farrar Browne): A Biography and Bibliography (New York: Harper Brothers, 1919), 115–16; Vanity Fair, January 4, April 26, and July 5, 1862; Artemus Ward [Charles Farrar Browne], His Book (New York: Carleton, 1862), 34–35.

49. Chase Diary, September 22, 1862, Chase Papers, 1:393. Stanton’s comments are in Seitz, Artemus Ward, 113–14. “Artemus Ward and the President,” New York Herald, February 3, 1863, is quoted in Pullen, Comic Relief, 65–66.

50. Orpheus C. Kerr [Robert Henry Newell], Orpheus C. Kerr Papers: First Series (New York: Blakeman & Mason, 1863), 9; Frederick Seward to mother, March 21, 1861, Seward Papers, UR; Michael Butler, “Robert Henry Newell (Orpheus C. Kerr),” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, XI, 2:350–54 (“graceful door-hinge” on 351–52); Diary of George Templeton Strong, February 17, 1863, 3:300. Among those who mentioned AL’s attraction to Orpheus C. Kerr are George Alfred Townsend, The Life, Crime and Capture of John Wilkes Booth with a Full Sketch of the Conspiracy of which He Was the Leader and the Pursuit, Trial and Execution of His Accomplices (New York: Dick and Fitzgerald, 1865), 58; Reminiscence of David Ross Locke, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 448.

51. Kerr, Orpheus C. Kerr Papers; Butler, “Robert Henry Newell,” 350–51; Ellen Bremner, “Civil War Humor: Orpheus C. Kerr,” Civil War History 2, no. 3 (September 1956): 122–28.

52. The best study of Locke is John M. Harrison, The Man Who Made Nasby, David Ross Locke (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969); Locke’s use of language is discussed on 100. See also [David Ross Locke], “The Return of Vallandigham,” in The Struggles (Social, Financial and Political) of Petroleum V. Nasby (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1888), 124; [David Ross Locke], “Shows Why He Should Not Be Drafted,” in The Nasby Papers (Indianapolis: C. O. Perrine, 1864), 9 (other Nasbyisms can be found on 3–4, 5, and 30); Fahs, Imagined Civil War, 213.

53. Locke, “Masked Traitors,” Bucyrus [Ohio] Journal, August 16, 1861, quoted in Harrison, Man Who Made Nasby, 61. Locke is quoted in Harrison, Man Who Made Nasby, 97 and 100; I have paraphrased Harrison’s commentary, 101. See also Richard Carwardine, “Just Laughter: The Moral Springs of Lincoln’s Humor,” paper delivered at Lincoln Forum, 2009, and Richard Carwardine, Lincoln’s Just Laughter: Humour and Ethics in the Civil War Union (London: The British Library, 2014; www.bl.uk/ecclescentre).

54. Reminiscence of David Ross Locke, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 447–49; Carwardine, Lincoln’s Just Laughter; entry of October 11, 1864, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 239; entry of February 7, 1865, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 2:238; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 150–51; Harrison, Man Who Made Nasby, 112–13; Charles Sumner, Introduction to Locke, Struggles, 14–15. Instances of Lincoln reading Nasby aloud can be found in Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, 105–6.

55. Sumner, Introduction to Locke, Struggles, 13.

56. “SNB” to AL, n.d. [summer 1863], Edwin W. Stanton Papers, LC; A. G. Frick to AL, February 14, 1861, quoted in Harold Holzer, Lincoln, President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 1860–1861 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 327; “What Will Come of Re-Electing Lincoln,” The Old Guard, September 1864, quoted in Frank L. Klement, Lincoln’s Critics: The Copperheads of the North (Shippensburg, Pa.: White Mane, 1999), 200; Pomeroy’s epithet in La Crosse [Wisc.] Democrat, August 24, 1864, quoted in ibid., 135.

57. Klement, Lincoln’s Critics, 136–39; Harrison, Man Who Made Nasby, 86–87; Carwardine, Lincoln’s Just Laughter.

58. Locke, Nasby Papers, 41; Edward Lyulph Stanley to “Kate,” Philadelphia, April 10, 1864, Edward Lyulph Stanley Papers, Cambridge University Library: Royal Commonwealth Society Library, Cambridge, U.K.

59. Horatio Seymour to AL, Albany, August 3 and 7, 1863, ALP-LC; AL to Seymour, August 7, 1863, CW, 6:370; William F. Havemeyer to AL, New York, August 4, 1863, ALP-LC; West Chester [Pa.] Jeffersonian, July 24, 1864, quoted in Ray H. Abrams, “The Jeffersonian, Copperhead Newspaper,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 57, no. 3 (July 1933): 279; Klement, Lincoln’s Critics, 4–15 and 50–51; Jennifer L. Weber, Copperheads: The Rise and Fall of Lincoln’s Opponents in the North (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 9, 52–53, and 77–78. For public concerns about corruption, see Michael Thomas Smith, The Enemy Within: Fears of Corruption in the Civil War North (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2011), 30–33.

60. Joel H. Silbey, A Respectable Minority: The Democratic Party in the Civil War Era, 1860–1868 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), ix–x and 69–70; Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), 67–69, 71–72, and 83–85; Richard Carwardine, Lincoln: A Life of Purpose and Power (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), 167; Weber, Copperheads, 3; Charles H. Coleman, “The Use of the Term ‘Copperhead’ During the Civil War,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 25, no. 2 (September 1938): 263–64; George Partridge to [Henry] Dawes, St. Louis, January 27, 1863, Dawes Papers, LC; entry of August 17, 1863, in Adam Gurowski, Diary from November 18, 1862 to October 18, 1863 (New York: Carleton, 1864), 302.

61. Jane Swisshelm to St. Cloud [Minn.] Democrat, February 9, 1863, in Jane Grey Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist: Letters of Jane Grey Swisshelm, 1858–1865, ed. Arthur J. Larsen (Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1976), 173; Robert Churchill, “Liberty, Conscription, and Delusions of Grandeur: The Sons of Liberty Conspiracy of 1863–64,” Prologue 30, no. 4 (Winter 1998): 297–300; W. Holmes to AL, Du Quoin, Ill., January 22, 1863, ALP-LC; Henry B. Carrington to AL and Edwin M. Stanton, Indianapolis, January 14 and March 19, 1863, both ALP-LC; F. P. Freese to Edwin M. Stanton, Philadelphia, March 23, 1863, Stanton Papers, LC; William S. Rosecrans to AL, St. Louis, June 14 and 22, 1864, ALP-LC; CW, 7:386–87n; entry of June 17, 1864, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 204–8 (“malice” and “puerility” on 207). For a report on plot to overtake prisons, see OR, II, 8:684–89.

62. Weber, Copperheads, 10 and 216–17; Klement, Lincoln’s Critics, 18; Churchill, “Liberty, Conscription, and Delusions of Grandeur,” 297–300; Heintzelman Diary, October 20, 1864, Heintzelman Papers, LC.

63. Letters of John Jackson Kenley, July–August 1863, in author’s possession; Oliver P. Morton to Edwin M. Stanton, Indianapolis, June 25, 1862, ALP-LC; W. R. Halloway to John G. Nicolay, Indianapolis, January 2, 1863, ALP-LC. The Democratic effort in Illinois resulted in prohibiting blacks from settling in the state: see Weber, Copperheads, 48–49. See also R. E. Lee to Jefferson Davis, opposite Williamsport, June 25, 1863, R. E. Lee Letterbook #4, Lee Family Papers, VHS.

64. Lawson, Patriot Fires, 71–72; diary of William B. Pratt quoted in Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin, Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 17–50 and (“war Republicans”) 157; Diary of Charles Mason, 1861–1865, typescript, Remey Family Papers, LC; John C. Gray Jr. to John C. Ropes, Maryland Heights, Md., October 15–20, 1862, in Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., War Letters, 1862–1865, of John Chipman Gray and John Codman Ropes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1927), 6.

65. Locke, Struggles, 92; ministers quoted in Carwardine, Lincoln’s Just Laughter, 8.

66. Mark E. Neely Jr., The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 196–98, 211, and 215; George B. Loring to Gen. B. F. Butler, Salem, Mass., August 6, 1861, in Benjamin F. Bulter, Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler During the Period of the Civil War, ed. Jesse Ames Marshall (N.p.: Privately published, 1917), 1:192; Charles Sumner to Francis Lieber, Boston, September 17, 1861, in Charles Sumner, The Selected Letters of Charles Sumner, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 2:79.

67. Locke, Nasby Papers, 42–43; Locke, Struggles, 48; Carwardine, Lincoln: A Life of Purpose, 255–57; AL, “Message to Congress in Special Session,” July 4, 1861, CW, 4:421–41; AL to Erastus Corning and Others, Washington, D.C., [June 12], 1863, ibid., 6:260–69; AL to James C. Conkling, Washington, D.C., August 26, 1863, ibid., 6:406–10 (quotation on 410). The writ of habeas corpus is protected in U.S. Constitution, article 1, sect. 9.

68. Neely, Fate of Liberty, 12–13 and 27–28; Weber, Copperheads, 65–66; Resolution of Connecticut Assembly, December 2, 1862, ALP-LC; AL, “Proclamation Suspending the Writ of Habeas Corpus,” September 24, 1862, CW, 5:436–37; opinion of Chief Justice Walter H. Lowrie in Hodgson v. Millward, February 1863, quoted in Abrams, “The Jeffersonian,” 275; entry of September 25, 1862, in David Hunter Strother, A Virginia Yankee in the Civil War: The Diaries of David Hunter Strother, ed. Cecil D. Eby Jr. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 118–19; John C. Gray to John C. Ropes, Fort Gaines, Ala., August 21, 1864, in Ford, War Letters, 377; Edward Bates to AL, Washington, D.C., July 5, 1861, ALP-LC; Edward Bates to AL, Washington, D.C., November 21, 1861, ALP-LC; for “lukewarmness,” see Edward Bates to AL, Washington, D.C., May 20, 1863, ALP-LC. 

69. Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, November 12, 1862, and May 17 and 23, 1863, 1:585 and 630–31. On the closing of the Baltimore newspaper, see Joshua M. Bosley and James R. Brewer to AL, Baltimore, October 5, 1864, ALP-LC; Reverdy Johnson to AL, Baltimore, October 6, 1864, ALP-LC; W. Kimmel and Joshua M. Bosley to AL, Washington, D.C., October 8, 1864, ALP-LC; Henry Wilson to AL, Natick, Mass., October 13, 1864 (“the stopage”), ALP-LC. For the Louisianan Sarah Morgan: see entry of July 10, 1862, in her The Civil War Diary of a Southern Woman, ed. Charles East (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 160. The Confederate War Department employee was John B. Jones: see his A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary at the Confederate States Capital, ed. Howard Swiggett (New York: Old Hickory Bookshop, 1935), 1:159.

70. Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, 105–6. The Nasby piece so admired by AL was “On Negro Emigration,” in Locke, Nasby Papers, 4.

71. Amasa Converse to son, [Philadelphia], August 23, 1861, ALP-LC; Amasa Converse to AL, Philadelphia, August 28, 1861, ALP-LC; Edward Lyulph Stanley to “mamma,” New Orleans, May 27, 1864, Stanley Papers, Cambridge University Library; Neely, Fate of Liberty, 32–50; Anonymous [“T. Blank”] to Montgomery Blair, St. Louis, September 25, 1861, ALP-LC; Samuel T. Glover to Montgomery Blair, St. Louis, May 27, 1864, ALP-LC; Jeremiah T. Boyle to AL, Louisville, July 2, 1864, ALP-LC; Rufus K. Williams to AL, Louisville, July 8, 1864, ALP-LC. See also Harper, Lincoln and the Press, 290–302; AL, “Order for Draft of 300,000 Men,” Washington, D.C., May 17, 1864, CW, 7:344. For examples of protests, see editorial, New York World, May 24, 1864, Manton Marble Papers, LC; Sydney H. Gay et al. to AL, May 19, 1864, ALP-LC.

72. Entry of July 10, 1861, Russell, My Diary, 399; Sydney Howard Gay to Adams S. Hill, New York, May 14, 1863, Sydney Howard Gay Family Papers, CU; Joseph Medill to John G. Nicolay, Niagara Falls, N.Y., May 17, [1863], Nicolay Papers, LC; W. Kimmel and Joshua M. Bosley to AL, Washington, D.C., October 8, 1864, ALP-LC; Abrams, “The Jeffersonian,” 270–76; William Russ Jr., “Franklin Weirick: ‘Copperhead’ of Central Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 5, no. 4 (October 1938): 246–56 (quotation on 248–49).

73. AL to John M. Schofield, Washington, D.C., May 27, 1863, CW, 6:234; AL to Charles Drake and Others, Washington, D.C., October 5, 1863, ibid., 6:500–501. For the Richard Carmichael case, see George Vickers to William Price, Chester Town, Md., June 3, 1862, ALP-LC; John A. Dix to Edward M. Stanton, Fort Monroe, June 25, 1862, ALP-LC; George Vickers to AL, Chester Town, Md., June 30, 1862, ALP-LC; AL to John W. Crisfield, Washington, D.C., June 26, 1862, CW, 5:285; see also the excellent paper by Brandon P. Righi, “‘A Power Unknown to Our Laws’: A Study of the Effect of Federal Policies on Border State Unionism in Kent County, Maryland 1861–1865,” senior honors thesis, Washington College. n.d. [c. 2007], www.revcollege.washcoll.edu. For election and other civil violations, see, e.g., Mason Diary, November 2, 1864, Remey Papers, LC; George R. Dennis to Montgomery Blair, Frederick, Md., July 21, 1864, ALP-LC; Augustus W. Bradford to AL, Annapolis, Md., November 3, 1863, ALP-LC; John W. Crisfield to Montgomery Blair, Princess Anne [Co., Md.], November 8, 1863, ALP-LC; Augustus W. Bradford to Thomas G. Pratt et al., Annapolis, Md., November 22, 1863, ALP-LC. The folder in ALP-LC for November 16–21, 1863, contains numerous complaints about the conduct of elections. See also W. B. Campbell et al. to AL, n.d. [c. Oct. 1864], CW, 8:58–63n (AL quoted on 58). For AL replies, see AL to Bradford, November 2, 1863, ibid., 6:556–57 and 557–58n; AL to Blair, November 11, 1863, ibid., 7:9.

74. In Missouri Lincoln revoked Frémont’s proclamation, ignored Schofield’s actions, and questioned the wisdom of Rosecrans, but did not order the latter to reverse his decision. For William Rosecrans’s order—Special Orders No. 61, of March 7, 1864—see William M. Leftwich, Martyrdom in Missouri: A History of Religious Proscription, the Seizure of Churches, and the Persecution of Ministers of the Gospel, in the State of Missouri During the Late Civil War (St. Louis: Southwestern, 1870), 2:64–66; Rev. A. P. Forman to Edward Bates, Hannibal, Mo., March 15, 1864, ALP-LC; AL to John C. Frémont, Washington, D.C., September 2 and 11, 1861, CW, 4:506 and 517–18; AL to Rosecrans, April 4, 1864, ibid., 7:283–84. See also Neely, Fate of Liberty, 32–50; Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 89–97 and 112–27.

75. Mark W. Delahay to AL, n.d. [June–July 1863], ALP-LC; AL to James H. Lane, Executive Mansion, July 17, 1863, CW, 5:334; Albert Castel, “The Jayhawkers and Copperheads of Kansas,” Civil War History 5, no. 3 (September 1959): 283–93; AL to Thomas C. Fletcher, Washington, D.C., February 20, 1865, CW, 8:308.

76. James M. Ashley to AL, Toledo, June 23, 1863, ALP-LC; General Orders No. 38, OR, I, 23, pt. 2:237. For discussion of the Vallandigham case, see Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2:505–8; Frank L. Klement, “Clement L. Vallandigham’s Exile in the Confederacy, May 25–June 17, 1863,” Journal of Southern History 31, no. 2 (May 1965): 149–62; entry of June 17, 1864, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 207–8; AL to John Brough and Samuel P. Heintzelman, Washington, D.C., June 20, 1864, CW, 7:402.

77. Craig D. Tenney, “To Suppress or Not to Suppress: Abraham Lincoln and the Chicago Times,” Civil War History 27, no. 3 (September 1981): 248–59; Stanton’s final order of June 4, 1863, to Burnside, under direction of AL, is on 257n. See also General Orders No. 84, June 1, 1863, OR, I, 23, pt. 2:381; Citizens of Chicago to AL, Chicago, June 3, 1863, OR, I, 23, pt. 2:385; Isaac N. Arnold and Lyman Trumbull to AL, Chicago, June 3, 1863, ALP-LC; N. H. McLean, General Orders No. 91, June 4, 1863, OR, I, 23, pt. 2:386; AL to Edwin Stanton, June 4, 1864, OR, III, 3:252; E. D. Townsend to Burnside, June 4, 1864, OR, III, 3:252; entry of June 3, 1863, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 321–22; Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, 2:507.

78. “Cooking the Hell-Broth,” The Old Guard, June 1864, 140; “Keep on the Track,” Vanity Fair, November 22, 1862; Diary of George Templeton Strong, September 6, 1864, 3:83.

79. Although Locke remained a loyal Republican, he thought AL was too amiable in his prosecution of the war, overly concerned with the defense of Washington, and obsessive in his mistrust of Democratic-leaning generals. He was dismayed by the President’s insensitivity in 1862, when a White House ball was held while the troops suffered in the field, writing an editorial called “The Dance of Death.” See also chapter 5. Neither was he averse to placing the blame for Union failures squarely on the commander in chief, particularly after the debacles at Manassas and Fredericksburg. See Harrison, Man Who Made Nasby, 55–56; Locke’s editorials in Bucyrus [Ohio] Journal and Findlay [Ohio] Jeffersonian are in ibid., 57–58, 87–90, 93–94, and 118. See also “An Interview with the President,” in Locke, Struggles, 94–95; Kerr, Orpheus C. Kerr Papers, 377.

80. AL to Isaac Arnold, Washington, D.C., May 25, 1864, CW, 7:361. Examples of extraordinary actions by earlier presidents include: Washington proclaimed the doctrine of neutrality on his own; Adams sidestepped the Congress to send commissioners to France to end a quasi-war with that country; Jefferson, in theory a strict constructionist, inaugurated war with the Barbary pirates; when France looked like it was going to renege on its debt in 1831, Jackson ordered the Navy to prepare for active service; Polk ordered Zachary Taylor across the Nueces River and precipitated the Mexican War, presenting it to Congress as a fait accompli—see Schaffter and Mathews, Powers of the President, 35–36. See also James G. Randall, Constitutional Problems Under Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1951), 120–21.

81. AL, “Speech to One Hundred Sixty-Fourth Ohio Regiment,” August 18, 1864, CW, 7:504–5; AL, “Response to a Serenade,” October 19, 1864, ibid., 8:52–53; AL to Benjamin Butler, Washington, D.C., August 9, 1864, ibid., 7:487–88; AL, “Address at Sanitary Fair, Baltimore,” April 18, 1864, ibid., 7:301–2; AL to Albert G. Hodges, Washington, D.C., April 4, 1864, ibid., 7:281.

82. Neely, Fate of Liberty, 69–71; Diary of Edward Bates, September 14, 1863, 306–7; Chase Diary, September 14, 1863, Chase Papers, 1:441–42; AL to Erastus Corning and Others, [June 12], 1863, CW, 6:260–69 (quotation on 263). Michael Burlingame’s commentary in Abraham Lincoln, 2:508, is very helpful, as is Neely, Fate of Liberty, 196–99.

83. Erastus Corning to AL, Albany, N.Y., June 30, 1863, ALP-LC.

84. AL, “Response to Serenade,” n.d. [November 10, 1864], CW, 8:100–101; entry of June 1, 1864, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 2:43.

85. Henry Hayward to sister, Dumfries, Va., March 1, 1863, in Ambrose Henry Hayward, Last to Leave the Field: The Life and Letters of First Sergeant Ambrose Henry Hayward, 28th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, ed. Timothy J. Orr (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2011), 132; Peter B. Lee to John G. Nicolay, camp near Murfreesboro, Tenn., March 26, 1863, Nicolay Papers, LC.

86. Horatio Seymour artfully dodged the President’s attempts to engage him in conversation and remained a powerful, credible spokesperson for the Peace Democrats. Saying that he would meet with anyone who acted “within the scope of their Constitutional powers,” he essentially foreclosed the opportunity of an interview. When Fernando Wood, a savvy but slippery opponent, approached Lincoln with plans to negotiate for peace, or to calm domestic nerves through an amnesty, he was met with suspicion. Lincoln also appears to have ignored those who recommended he build bridges by conceding a few points to the Copperheads or by showing more appreciation for the thousands of Democrats who were loyally serving in the Army. See Weber, Copperheads, 10 and 117; Neely, Fate of Liberty, 192–93 and 209–10; Silbey, A Respectable Minority; AL to Horatio Seymour, Washington, D.C., March 23, 1863, CW, 6:145–46; Horatio Seymour to AL, Albany, N.Y., April 14, 1863, ALP-LC; Fernando Wood to AL, New York, September 12, 1862, ALP-LC; Wood to AL, Washington, D.C., April 29, 1864, ALP-LC; Memorandum of John G. Nicolay, December 14, 1863, Nicolay Papers, LC; entry of June 17, 1864, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 208; see also Samuel M. Shaw to Thurlow Weed, Cooperstown, N.Y., February 15, 1863, ALP-LC.

87. Washington C. Cassell to AL, Franklin, Ind., March 4, 1864, ALP-LC; Reverdy Johnson to the Committee on the Arrangements for the Meeting Held in New York on 17 September 1864, copy in The Liberator, October 21, 1864, David Rankin Barbee Papers, GU; entry of March 5, 1863, Taft Diary, LC.

88. John T. Hanks to AL, Canyon Vill[e], Ore., February 25, 1864, ALP-LC (series II).

89. For more on the stance of the New York World during the four years of Lincoln’s presidency, see Harper, Lincoln and the Press, 289–90 and 305–8.

90. The letters Townsend filed with the World in 1865 were collected and published as a book later that year, see Townsend, The Life, Crime and Capture of John Wilkes Booth, 58.

CHAPTER 3. TWO EMANCIPATORS MEET

1. This chapter is an expanded version of Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “Brief Encounter: A New York Cavalryman’s Striking Conversation with Abraham Lincoln,” JALA 30, no. 2 (Summer 2009): 1–24. Lucien Waters’s letter to his brother Lemuel of August 12, 1862, which describes this meeting, can be found in full at the end of this chapter.

2. Lucien P. Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., April 2, 1862, and Waters to Lemuel Waters, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., August 12, 1862, both in Lucien P. Waters Papers, NYHS. Many complained of the heat in the summer of 1862 and drought conditions were recorded in numerous areas around Washington, D.C. The temperature did not climb to the degree Waters felt it did, but did hover above 90 degrees for weeks. See, e.g., John Hay to J. G. Nicolay, Washington, D.C., August 11, 1862, in John Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War in the Diaries and Letters of John Hay, ed. Tyler Dennett (1939; repr., Westport, Conn.: Negro Universities Press, 1972), 43; Clara Barton to Mary Norton, Washington, D.C., July 4, 1862, Mary Norton Papers, DU; Diary of Chauncy Pond Joslin, July 5–August 9, 1862, at www.cpjoslincivilwar.org; Daily National Intelligencer, July 31 and August 7, 1862.

3. Seventh Decennial Census of the United States (1850), Ward 12, New York, NARA; Lucian [sic] P. Waters Certificate of Service, Adjutant General’s Office, March 31, 1917, Civil War Pension Records, RG 94, NARA (Waters is also at times referred to as “Lucius” in these and other records); Waters to the Committee for the Relief of the Contrabands at Port Royal and Elsewhere, Plainfield, N.J., February 21, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS. Waters must have either attended or read about the meeting the American Missionary Association held at the Cooper Institute on February 20, 1862, to jump-start the work with the freedmen, because his letter offering to volunteer is dated the following day. See also Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction (New York: Vintage, 1967), 41.

4. Waters to parents, March 20, 1861, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to the Committee for the Relief of the Contrabands, February 21, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to parents, Port Tobacco, Md., June 18 and July 13, 1862, both Waters Papers, NYHS.

5. Thomas West Smith, The Story of a Cavalry Regiment: “Scott’s 900” Eleventh New York Cavalry, from the St. Lawrence River to the Gulf of Mexico, 1861–1865 (Chicago: Veteran Association of the Regiment, 1897); Henry Murray Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 1862–1865 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1920), 25. The regimental history is at www.civilwar.nps.gov/cwss/regiments.cfm.

6. Waters Certificate of Service, NARA; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 60; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 11–12; Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., May 11, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

7. Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 11 and 15–16; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 19; Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., n.d. [Spring 1862], Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., May 10, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; In February 1863 he was made Acting Battalion Sergeant. Waters’s duties increased in August 1863, when he was given charge of all teams and teamsters as wagon master of the regiment: Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., August 25, 1863, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters Pension Records, NARA.

8. Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 18; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 25; Walt Whitman, “Abraham Lincoln,” no. 45, August 12, 1863, in Walt Whitman, Memoranda During the War and Death of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Roy P. Basler (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1962), 6–7; Joseph Hopkins Twichell quoted in Gerald J. Prokopowicz, Did Lincoln Own Slaves? And Other Frequently Asked Questions About Abraham Lincoln (New York: Pantheon, 2008), 142; Matthew Pinsker, Lincoln’s Sanctuary: Abraham Lincoln and the Soldiers’ Home (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 15 and 50. Pinsker calculated that AL began receiving the escort in late summer 1862, but Waters’s letters indicate that it had already started by June of that year.

9. Pinsker, Lincoln’s Sanctuary, 60; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 25; and F. B. Carpenter, Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln (New York: Hurd & Houghton, 1866), 64–67. On AL’s mock disguise, see chapter 6.

10. Waters to parents, July 13, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 20–21.

11. Waters to parents, July 13, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., October 7, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 22–24, 32, 45, and 70–71; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 82–83.

12. Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 170, 175, and 194–95.

13. Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., June 18, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to parents, July 13, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 23; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 48–49.

14. W. A. Gorman to Henry Wilson, Washington, D.C., December 22, 1861, Henry Wilson Papers, LC; [Joseph K.] Mansfield to wife, Newports News [sic], Va., May 23, 1862, Joseph K. Mansfield Papers, United States Military Academy, West Point, N.Y.; Mansfield to wife, Suffolk, Va., June 15, 1862, Mansfield Papers, U.S. Military Academy.

15. Benjamin Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro (New York: Da Capo, 1962), 70–71 and 78; Statement of James H. Haight, in Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 267; Waters to parents, June 18, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to parents, Chapel Point, Md., November 15, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

16. Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 3–5 and 29–38; Foner, The Fiery Trial, 201–2; Orville Hickman Browning, The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, 1850–1864, ed. Theodore Calvin Pease and James G. Randall (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1925), 1:555.

17. Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., August 5, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters to parents, Chapel Point, Md., December 10, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS. See also Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 48–49; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 23.

18. For a look at the variety of attitudes that motivated Northern soldiers, see Chandra Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery and the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007); Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment, 267; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue, 196–98. The Waters quotations are from his letters to, respectively, parents, August 5, 1862, “Bro. Lemuel,” August 12, 1862, and “Bro. James,” Chapel Point, Md., November 15, 1862, all Waters Papers, NYHS.

19. Waters to parents, July 13, 1862; Waters to parents, August 5, 1862; Waters to parents, November 15, 1862; and Waters to parents, Chapel Point, Md., February 10, 1863, all Waters Papers, NYHS; AL, “Address on Colonization to a Deputation of Negroes,” August 14, 1862, CW, 5:370–75; Waters’s notation on back of [John Brent] to Waters, Washington, D.C., December 6, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

20. Waters to parents, August 5, 1862; Waters to parents, November 15, 1862; Waters to parents, Chapel Point, Md., December 10, 1862; and Waters to parents, February 10, 1863, all Waters Papers, NYHS. For examples of Waters’s later work on behalf of ex-slaves, see Waters, fragment of letter or report on condition of freedmen in Louisiana, July [1864], Waters Papers, NYHS; Report, Camp of 11th N.Y. Vol. Cav., Manning’s Plantation, July 28, 1864, Waters Papers, NYHS.

21. Waters to parents, June 18, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

22. Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., July 21, 1862; Waters to “Bro. Lemuel,” August 12, 1862, both Waters Papers, NYHS.

23. Waters to parents, Camp Relief, Washington, D.C., July 31, 1862; Waters to parents, August 5, 1862; and Waters to “Bro. Lemuel,” August 12, 1862, all Waters Papers, NYHS. Many people described AL’s reluctance to turn away those who wished to speak to him—see, e.g., Joshua Speed to WHH, Louisville, January 12, 1866, HI, 156; John Hay to WHH, Paris, September 5, 1866, ibid., 331; Henry Wilson to WHH, Natick, Mass., May 30, 1867, ibid., 561–62; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 281.

24. An almost identical description of AL perched on the White House steps is found in Reminiscence of Donn Piatt, n.d. [c. 1888], in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 491: “Arriving at the entrance to the White House . . . The President sat down upon the steps of the porch, and continued his study of the protest. I have him photographed on my mind, as he sat there, and a strange picture he presented. His long, slender legs were drawn up until his knees were level with his chin, while his long arms held the paper, which he studied regardless of the crowd before him.” See also the undated statement of John Hanks to WHH, HI, 142; William G. Greene to WHH, Tallula, Ill., November 27, 1865, ibid., 455; Henry Villard, Memoirs of Henry Villard, Journalist and Financier, 1835–1900 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1904), 1:143; Conversation with Hamilton Fish, March 6, 1874, in John G. Nicolay, An Oral History of Abraham Lincoln: John G. Nicolay’s Interviews and Essays, ed. Michael Burlingame (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996), 52; statements of S. P. Kase and Frederick Douglass in Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 509 and 551.

25. Waters to “Bro. Lemuel,” August 12, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

26. Ibid. Waters’s placement of the exclamation points outside the quotation marks after Lincoln’s words seems to indicate that the emphasis was on his reaction, not AL’s tone of voice. See also Donn Piatt, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 495–97.

27. Francis Carpenter, who spent several months with AL living in the White House, was one who excused Lincoln’s rough edges: see his Six Months at the White House, 80–81. For “a very high temper,” see Conversation with S. T. Logan at Springfield, July 6, 1875, in Nicolay, Oral History, 36. Pierce’s quotation is from Edward L. Pierce to WHH, Milton, Mass., September 15, 1889, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC. In a later statement for publication, Pierce cleaned up AL’s language, though it is doubtful that the cleansed word choice would have offended him as the interview apparently did, or caused him to search for a reason for AL’s “temper” (see HI, 684).

28. Conversation with Hon. M. S. Wilkinson, May 23, 1876, in John G. Nicolay Papers, LC; John G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln: A History (New York: Century, 1886–1890), 6:154; Michael Burlingame, The Inner World of Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 207 (“utterly tired out”); Edward Lillie Pierce, Enfranchisement and Citizenship: Addresses and Papers, ed. A. W. Stevens (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1896), 87; Horace Maynard to Andrew Johnson, Washington, D.C., June 7, 1862, in The Papers of Andrew Johnson, ed. Leroy P. Graf and Ralph W. Haskins (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1967–2000), 5:452; Samuel Giles Buckingham, The Life of William A. Buckingham, the War Governor of Connecticut (Springfield, Mass.: W. F. Adams, 1894), 261–62 (the author is grateful to Michael Burlingame for pointing out this source).

29. AL’s most succinct statement of his conflicted views about slavery and the Constitution is found in his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Washington, D.C., April 4, 1864, CW, 7:281–82. The story of AL’s conflict over emancipation is also well told in Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation; Douglas L. Wilson, Lincoln’s Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words (New York: Vintage, 2006), 105–61; Richard J. Carwardine, Lincoln (Harlow, U.K.: Pearson Longman, 2003), 203–20. AL’s concerns about the border states can be found in AL to Orville H. Browning, Washington, D.C., September 22, 1861, CW, 4:532; AL, “Remarks to a Deputation of Western Gentlemen,” August 4, 1862, ibid., 5:356–57. For “I have God on my side,” see Lowell H. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 135.

30. AL, “Speech at Chicago, Ill.,” July 10, 1858, CW, 2:501; AL, “Remarks to a Committee of Reformed Presbyterian Synod,” July 17, 1862, ibid., 5:327; Leonard Swett to WHH, Chicago, January 17, 1866, HI, 162; Joseph Gillespie to WHH, Edwardsville, Ill., December 8, 1866, ibid., 507.

31. Lincoln quoted in Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 77.

32. Gillespie to WHH, December 8, 1866, HI, 507.

33. Wendell Phillips quoted in Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 25–26; Charles Sumner to John Andrew, Washington, D.C., May 20, 1862, in Charles Sumner, The Selected Letters of Charles Sumner, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 2:115; CW, 5:278–79, 327, and 356–57; Horace Greeley, “The Prayer of Twenty Millions,” New York Tribune, August 20, 1862; Elizabeth Todd Grimsley, “Six Months in the White House,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 19, nos. 3–4 (October 1926–January 1927): 60.

34. AL to John C. Frémont, Washington, D.C., September 2, 1861, CW, 4:506; AL, “Proclamation Revoking General Hunter’s Order of Military Emancipation of 9 May 1862,” ibid., 5:222–24; Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 71. For “One old chap,” see Dillard C. Donnohue interview with Jesse W. Weik, February 13, 1887, HI, 602.

35. Horace Maynard to AL, House of Representatives, July 16, 1862, ALP-LC; Joshua Speed to AL, Cin[cinnati], September 1, 1861, ALP-LC; Henry Wilson, History of the Antislavery Measures of the Thirty-Seventh and Thirty-Eighth United-States Congresses, 1861–64 (Boston: Walker, Wise, 1864), 83, 122, and 143; Daily National Intelligencer, July 22, 28, 29, 30, and 31, and August 6 and 11, 1862.

36. Wilson, History of the Antislavery Measures, 79–202; Bruce Tap, “Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War (1861–1865),” in Encyclopedia of the American Civil War, ed. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2000; online at www.civilwarhome.com); Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, July 14, 15, and 21, 1862, 1:558–61; Charles Sumner quoted in entry of June 28, 1862, ibid., 1:558; AL quoted in Burlingame, Inner World, 176.

37. Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, July 14, 1862, 1:558. For a good overview of AL’s concerns over the second Confiscation Act, see Matthew Pinsker, “Lincoln’s Summer of Emancipation,” in Lincoln and Freedom: Slavery, Emancipation and the Thirteenth Amendment, ed. Harold Holzer and Sara Vaughn Gabbard (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007), 79–99. On AL’s pique at Congress, a relevant conversation was recollected by Secretary of the Interior John P. Usher; it concluded with AL exploding, “Then I am to be bullied by Congress am I? I’ll be d——d if I will”: John Nicolay notes, conversation with Hon. J. P. Usher, Washington, D.C., October 8, 1878, Nicolay Papers, LC.

38. Unbound diary notes of Edward Bates, July 15, 1862, Edward Bates Papers, LC; Salmon P. Chase to AL, Washington, D.C., May 16, 1862, ALP-LC; Salmon P. Chase to Benjamin P. Butler, Washington, D.C., June 24, 1862, in Benjamin F. Butler, Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler During the Period of the Civil War, ed. Jesse Ames Marshall (N.p.: Privately published, 1917), 1:633; John Sherman to Gov. [Salmon P.] Chase, Mansfield, Ohio, August 3, 1862, in Salmon P. Chase, The Salmon P. Chase Papers, ed. John Niven et al. (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1993–1998), 3:240–41; Robert Dale Owen to Edwin M. Stanton, July 23, 1862, ALP-LC.

39. Nicolay notes on conversation with Swett, March 14, 1878, Nicolay Papers, LC; Sherman to Chase, August 3, 1862, in Chase Papers, 3:240–41.

40. Owen to Stanton, July 23, 1862, ALP-LC; Waters to “Bro. Lemuel,” August 12, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; AL, “Address to Union Meeting in Washington,” August 6, 1862, CW, 5:359.

41. John L. Scripps to AL, Chicago, September 23, 1861, ALP-LC; George Bancroft to AL, New York, November 15, 1861, ALP-LC; AL to George Bancroft, Washington, D.C., November 18, 1861, ALP-LC.

42. AL on Blondin quoted in “Conversation with Hon. T. Lyle Dickey, Washington,” October 20, 1876, in Burlingame, Oral History, 49. A variant of this story is found in Burlingame, Inner World, 178.

43. Adam Gurowski’s precise counterpoint to the Blondin analogy reads: “O, could I only win confidence in Mr. Lincoln, it would be one of the most cheerful days and events in my life. Perhaps, elephant-like, Mr. Lincoln slowly, cautiously but surely feels his way across a bridge leading over a precipice. Perhaps so; only his slowness is marked with blood and disasters”: Adam Gurowski, Diary from November 18, 1862 to October 18, 1863 (New York: Carleton, 1864), 153.

44. John G. Nicolay, notes on conversation with M. Morrill of Me., September 20, 1878, Nicolay Papers, LC. Another who spoke of AL’s “balancing” was George W. Julian, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 49. See also AL to Zachariah Chandler, November 20, 1863, CW, 7:24, where he writes, “I hope to ‘stand firm’ enough to not go backward, yet not go forward fast enough to wreck the country’s cause.”

45. William E. Channing, Slavery (Boston: James Munroe, 1835); entry of April 27, 1861, in Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War, 12; Sumner to Andrew, in Sumner, Selected Letters, 2:115; Salmon P. Chase to AL, Washington, D.C., May 16, 1862, ALP-LC; Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, July 21, 1862, 1:561–62; Owen to Stanton, July 23, 1862, ALP-LC. Owen, like AL, hoped that compensation would accompany any property seizure.

46. “George” [John G.] Nicolay to Therena [Bates], Washington, D.C., July 13, 1862, Nicolay Papers, LC; Chase Diary, July 21 and 22, 1862, Chase Papers, 1:348–51; Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles: Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, ed. Howard K. Beale (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960), 1:70–71; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 20–21; New York Times, July 17, 1862.

47. Chase Diary, July 21 and 22, 1862, Chase Papers, 1:348–51; Chase to Richard C. Parsons, Washington, D.C., July 20, 1862, 3:231 (“these measures”); Edwin M. Stanton, “The Cabinet on Emancipation,” memo dated July 22, 1862, Edwin M. Stanton Papers, LC; Montgomery Blair to AL, draft letter, Post Office Dept., July 23, 1862, Blair Family Papers, LC; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 20–22. For a good summary of the evolution and timing of the proclamation, see Foner, The Fiery Trial, 206–47.

48. Conversation with Leonard Swett, March 14, 1878, in Burlingame, Oral History, 58–59; AL quoted in Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 281. In the original, “public opinion baths” is emphasized by Carpenter. See also AL, “Speech at Peoria, Ill.,” October 16, 1854, reported in Peoria Journal, October 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, and 28, 1854, CW, 2:256; AL, “First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas, Ottawa, Ill.,” August 21, 1858, ibid., 3:28; Bates Notebook, page marked “1862” in Notebook for 1863–66, Edward Bates Papers, LC.

49. Entry of July 8, 1864, Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War, 206–7; John Hay to WHH, Paris, September 5, 1866, HI, 331; Henry Wilson to WHH, Natick, Mass., May 30, 1867, ibid., 561–62.

50. Adam Gurowski, Diary 1863–’64–’65 (Washington, D.C.: Morrison, 1866), December 6, 1863, 40; entry of February 26, 1863, in Edward Bates, The Diary of Edward Bates, 1859–1866, ed. Howard K. Beale (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1933), 279–80; Bates Notebook, page marked “1862” in Notebook for 1863–66, Bates Papers, LC; Donn Piatt, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 482; Mary Mann to S. P. Chase, Concord, Mass., April 26, 1862, in Chase Papers, 3:185. For examples of grudging admiration for Gurowski, see entry of August 9, 1864, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 2:100; P. H. Watson [assistant secretary of war] to Count A. Gurowski, Washington, D.C., March 22, 1863, Adam Gurowski Papers, LC; Henry Wilson to Count [Gurowski], Washington, D.C., July 17, 1863, Gurowski Papers, LC.

51. David Herbert Donald, “Sixteenth President Wrote His Own Book on Leadership,” in Lincoln in the Times: The Life of Abraham Lincoln as Originally Reported in the New York Times, ed. David Herbert Donald and Harold Holzer (New York: St. Martin’s, 2005), 5–6. For a discussion of AL’s frequently manipulative political style, see LaWanda Cox, “Lincoln and Black Freedom,” in The Historian’s Lincoln: Pseudohistory, Psychohistory, and History, ed. Gabor S. Boritt (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 175–96.

52. AL to Cuthbert Bullitt, Washington, D.C., July 28, 1862, CW, 5:344–46; Reminiscence of George S. Boutwell, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 124–25.

53. For a discussion of AL’s reply to Horace Greeley, see Wilson, Lincoln’s Sword, 143–61. Once he hit upon it, AL used the public letter format to good effect on a number of occasions: see, e.g., AL to Erastus Corning and Others, Washington, D.C., [June 12], 1863, CW, 6:260–69.

54. Edward L. Pierce quoted in Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction, 35. AL’s writings on colonization and amalgamation are extensive. Among the most important are “Eulogy on Henry Clay,” July 6, 1852, CW, 2:127–32; “Outline for a Speech to the Colonization Society,” January 4, 1855 [?], ibid., 2:298–99; “Speech at Springfield, Ill.,” June 26, 1857, ibid., 2:403–9; “First Debate with Douglas,” August 21, 1858, ibid., 3:14–30; “Speech at Columbus, Ohio,” September 16, 1859, ibid., 3:401–25; “Appeal to Border State Representatives to Favor Compensated Emancipation,” July 12, 1862, ibid., 5:317–19; “Address on Colonization to a Deputation of Negroes,” August 14, 1862, ibid., 5:370–75; “Annual Message to Congress,” December 1, 1862, ibid., 5:518–37; see also Reminiscence of Cassius M. Clay, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 297. Lengthy discussions of AL’s complex beliefs about colonization are in Foner, The Fiery Trial; Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2:382–96. See also Paul J. Scheips, “Lincoln and the Chiriqui Colonization Project,” Journal of Negro History 37 (July 1952): 418–53; Michael Vorenberg, “Abraham Lincoln and the Politics of Black Colonization,” JALA 14, no. 2 (Summer 1993): 22–45.

55. AL, “Address on Colonization to a Deputation of Negroes,” August 14, 1862, CW, 5:370–75; Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, 2:382–96.

56. Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, 2:382–96. Lerone Bennett Jr.’s discussion of colonization, though highly politicized, cites well-documented testimony for AL’s sincere promotion of the idea: Lerone Bennett Jr., Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln’s White Dream (Chicago: Johnson Publishing, 2000), 381–87 and 456–60. A good discussion of the debate among historians over the politics of this meeting is in Phillip Shaw Paludan, “Lincoln and Colonization: Policy or Propaganda?” JALA 25, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 23–37. The quotations are from, respectively, Chase Diary, August 15, 1862, Chase Papers, 1:362; Foner, The Fiery Trial, 225; and Harper’s Weekly, September 6, 1862.

57. Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment; Waters, notation on back of [John Brent] to Waters, December 6, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters, fragment of letter or report, July [1864], quotation note added on July 18, [1864], Waters Papers, NYHS.

58. Foner, The Fiery Trial, 258–61.

59. Bennett, Forced into Glory, 54 and 103–6; [David Ross Locke], The Nasby Papers (Indianapolis: C. O. Perrine, 1864), 31. See also Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 37, 80, and 159; Quarles, Lincoln and the Negro, 16. For AL’s delight in Petroleum V. Nasby see, e.g., entry of October 11, 1864, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 239; Leonard Swett to WHH, Chicago (revised letter), January 17, 1866, in Herndon and Weik, Herndon’s Lincoln, 45n. See also chapter 2.

60. AL, “Speech at Ottawa, Ill.,” August 21, 1858, CW, 3:20 and 27; AL, “Speech at Carlinsville, Ill.,” August 31, 1858, ibid., 3:77; AL, “Speech at Clinton, Ill.,” September 2, 1858, ibid., 3:81; AL, “Speech at Paris, Ill.,” September 7, 1858, ibid., 3:91; AL, “Speech at Edwardsville, Ill.,” September 11, 1858, ibid., 3:94; AL, “Speech at Council Bluffs, Iowa,” August 13, 1859, ibid., 3:396; AL, “Speech at Clinton, Ill.,” October 14, 1859, ibid., 3:487; AL, “Speech at Hartford, Conn.,” March 5, 1860, ibid., 4:4–5. At Council Bluffs, AL used the same phrase Waters recorded, stating that he intended to speak “about the ‘eternal Negro.’”

61. See sources in nn. 26–27, above; see also Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 80 and 104; Leonard Swett to WHH, Chicago, August 30, 1887, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; WHH to [Jesse] Weik, Spfyd, Ill., October 22, 1887, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates That Defined America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 113; Phillip Shaw Paludan, “Greeley, Colonization, and a ‘Deputation of Negroes’: Three Considerations on Lincoln and Race,” in Lincoln Emancipated: The President and the Politics of Race, ed. Brian R. Dirck (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2007), 29–30; Bennett, Forced into Glory, 96–97, citing Carl Sandburg and Paul Angle.

62. Jabari Asim, The N Word: Who Can Say It, Who Shouldn’t and Why (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007), 10–11; Hosea Easton quoted in Randall Kennedy, Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word (New York: Pantheon, 2002), 5; Seward quoted in New York Tribune, March 7, 1854.

63. AL quoted in Paludan, “Greeley, Colonization,” 31; Benjamin Wade to wife, December 29, 1851, Benjamin Wade Papers, LC. Other antislavery men who employed the word “nigger” now and again were John Hay, in entry of April 25, 1861, Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War, 11; Benjamin French, in his letter to Frank [Francis O. French], Washington, D.C., April 14, 1861, Benjamin B. French Family Papers, LC; entry from September 5, 1863, in Gurowski, Diary from November 18, 1862, 314. Even Lucien Waters sometimes used it, though in quotation marks: see Waters to “Bro. James,” November 15, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

64. See n. 27.

65. AL had a field day with Douglas’s tale of the crocodile and the Negro, using it in many addresses; one example is his speech at Hartford, Conn., March 5, 1860, CW, 4:4. The mockery of the New England Democrat is in ibid., 4:7.

66. AL to Albert G. Hodges, Washington, D.C., April 4, 1864, CW, 7:281–82.

67. For Lee’s complex racial attitudes, see Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters (New York: Viking, 2007), chapters 8, 9, and 16. See also Hans L. Trefousse, “Ben Wade and the Negro,” Ohio Historical Quarterly 68, no. 2 (April 1959): 161–76.

68. WHH interview with Joshua F. Speed, n.d. [1865–1866], HI, 477.

69. Waters to “Bro. Lemuel,” August 12, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS.

70. For the anxious discussion of troop numbers see, e.g., August Belmont to Thurlow Weed, Newport, July 20, 1862, in Thurlow Weed Barnes, The Life of Thurlow Weed Including His Autobiography and a Memoir (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1883–1884), 2:420–22; AL’s concern about the size of his force and slow Union enlistments is mentioned in Earl Schenck Miers, ed., Lincoln Day by Day: A Chronology (Washington, D.C.: Lincoln Sesquicentennial Commission, 1960), entry for August 8, 1862, 3:132; “War Department,” Daily National Intelligencer, August 5, 1862; “An Important Order,” Daily National Intelligencer, August 9, 1862; Waters to parents, July 21, 1862, Waters Papers, NYHS; AL to Edwin Stanton, Washington, D.C., July 22, 1862, Stanton Papers, LC; Reminiscence of Joshua B. Fry, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 392–93; Waters Certificate of Service, RG 94, NARA.

71. James Oakes, The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 229–45; Foner, The Fiery Trial, 291–98.

72. Eleventh New York Volunteer Cavalry Regimental History, www.civilwar.nps.gov/cwss/regiments.cfm; Calvert, Reminiscences of a Boy in Blue; Smith, Story of a Cavalry Regiment; Waters to parents, August 25, 1863, in Lucien P. Waters, Pension File, RG 94, NARA; Waters to father and mother, Baton Rouge, La., November 13, 1864, Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters’s report of condition of freedmen in Louisiana, fragment, n.d. [1864], Waters Papers, NYHS; Waters Certificate of Service, RG 94, NARA; Application for pension by Mary G. Waters, testimony of Sarah B. Bertholf, September 17, 1918, Pension File, RG 94, NARA.

73. Waters almost certainly means canaille, defined in the 1862 edition of Noah Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language as “the lowest class of people; the rabble; the vulgar.”

CHAPTER 4. OF FATHERS AND SONS

1. An excellent short biography of Ross is found in the introduction to John Ross, The Papers of Chief John Ross, ed. Gary E. Moulton (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985). For a longer study, see Gary E. Moulton, John Ross, Cherokee Chief (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1978). See also Ely Parker to sister, November 21, 1863, in Laurence M. Hauptman, The Iroquois in the Civil War: From Battlefield to Reservation (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1993), 54 and 56.

2. Robert V. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 216.

3. Moulton, Introduction to Ross Papers, 1:6–10; Kenny A. Franks, Stand Watie and the Agony of the Cherokee Nation (Memphis: Memphis State University Press, 1979), 91–94.

4. Moulton, John Ross, 155 and 159; rival notions of Cherokee nationhood are discussed in Troy Smith, “Nations Colliding: The Civil War Comes to Indian Territory,” Civil War History 59, no. 3 (September 2013): 279–319; James M. Bell to Caroline Bell, Skullyville, C.N., May 16, 1863, quoted in Cherokee Cavaliers: Forty Years of Cherokee History as Told in the Correspondence of the Ridge-Watie-Boudinot Family, ed. Edward Everett Dale and Gaston Litton (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1939), 123.

5. Moulton, Introduction to Ross Papers, 1:9–10.

6. John Ross to Mary B. Ross, Washington, D.C., May 1, 1860, in Ross Papers, 2:441–42; John Ross to Henry M. Rector, Tahlequah, C.N., February 22, 1861, ibid., 2:465; William Seward quoted in Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 1:417.

7. John Ross to J. S. Dunham, Tahlequah, C.N., February 1, 1861, in Ross Papers, 2:458; Ross to J. R. Kannady, Park Hill, C.N., May 17, 1861, ibid., 2:468–69; Ross, Proclamation, Park Hill, C.N., May 17, 1861, ibid., 2: 469–70. See also Edward Clark to Jefferson Davis, Austin, May 15, 1861, OR, IV, 1:322–25; James E. Harrison, James Bourland, and Charles A. Hamilton to Edward Clark, n.d. [c. May 15, 1861], ibid., IV, 1:322–25.

8. John Ross to AL, Lawrenceville, N.J., September 16, 1862, ALP-LC; David A. Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” in The Historian’s Lincoln: Pseudohistory, Psychohistory, and History, ed. Gabor S. Boritt (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 149–50; Theda Perdue, “The Civil War in Indian Territory,” in American Indians and the Civil War, ed. Robert K. Sutton and John A. Latschar (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 2013), 92; AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 3, 1861, CW, 5:46.

9. Perdue, “Civil War in Indian Territory,” 88–93; Prucha, The Great Father, 1:415–19; Moulton, John Ross, 167–68.

10. Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979), 129–30; Robert Lipscomb Duncan, Reluctant General: The Life and Times of Albert Pike (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1961), 172–74; John Ross to John B. Ogden, Park Hill, C.N., February 28, 1861, in Ross Papers, 2:466.

11. Moulton, John Ross, 170–73 (Ross quoted on 172–73); F[ielding] Johnson to William P. Dole, Delaware Agency, Kans., October 11, 1861, ALP-LC; George A. Cutler to William P. Dole, Topeka, October 21, 1861, ALP-LC; Prucha, The Great Father, 1:419; John Ross, Annual Message, Tahlequah, C.N., October 9, 1861, in Ross Papers, 2:493; the CSA treaty can be found in OR, IV, 1:669–87.

12. Harry Lemley, ed., “Letters of Henry M. Rector and J. P. Kannaday to John Ross of the Cherokee Nation,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 42, no. 3 (Autumn 1964): 328; Wiley Britton, “Union and Confederate Indians in the Civil War,” in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, ed. Robert Underwood Johnson and Charles Clough Buell (New York: Century, 1887–1888), 1:335–36; Muriel H. Wright, “Colonel Cooper’s Civil War Report on the Battle of Round Mountain,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 39, no. 4 (Winter 1961–1962): 352–97; Moulton, John Ross, 173–74; John Ross to Jefferson Davis, Park Hill, C.N., May 10, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:512–13.

13. David Hunter to Lorenzo Thomas, Leavenworth, Kans., November 27, 1861, ALP-LC; Diary of Samuel R. Curtis, January 19, 1862, Samuel R. Curtis Papers, ILPL; Minutes of War Board, March 21, 1862, Edwin M. Stanton Papers, LC. Only one case of scalping by Indian soldiers was officially confirmed: see Britton, “Union and Confederate Indians,” 1:336. See also Perdue, “Civil War in Indian Territory,” 96; AL to Edwin M. Stanton, January 31, 1862, CW, 5:115–16; AL to David Hunter and James Lane, February 10, 1862, ibid., 5:131; AL to Henry W. Halleck, April 4, 1862, ibid., 5:180; Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 150–53 (Lane quoted on 152).

14. Prucha, The Great Father, 1:424–26; S. C. Gwynne, Empire of the Summer Moon: Quanah Parker and the Rise and Fall of the Comanches, the Most Powerful Indian Tribe in American History (New York: Scribner, 2010), 211; Coffin quoted in Perdue, “Civil War in Indian Territory,” 97; Col. William F. Cloud to Cherokee Nation, Park Hill, C.N., August 3, 1862, ALP-LC.

15. James G. Blunt to AL, Fort Scott, August 13, 1862, ALP-LC; Mark W. Delahay to AL, Leavenworth City, Kans., August 21, 1862, ALP-LC; John Ross to AL, September 16, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:516–18.

16. Diary of Salmon P. Chase, August 3, 1862, in Salmon P. Chase, The Salmon P. Chase Papers, ed. John Niven et al. (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1993–1998), 1:357.

17. For AL’s struggle over the Emancipation Proclamation, see chapter 3. See also AL to Horace Greeley, August 22, 1862, CW, 5:388–89; Edward S. Corwin, Total War and the Constitution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), 16–17.

18. John Ross to AL, September 16, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:516–18; AL to Ross, September 25, 1862, CW, 5:439.

19. Ross to William P. Dole, Washington, D.C., October 13, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:519–20; Ross to Edwin M. Stanton, Philadelphia, November 8, 1862, ibid., 2:520–21; William P. Dole, “Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, November 27, 1861,” in Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior for the Year 1861 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1861), 10; Caleb B. Smith to AL, September 29, 1862, ALP-LC; AL to Samuel R. Curtis, October 10, 1862, CW, 5:456; Curtis to AL, St. Louis, October 10, 1862, OR, I, 13:723.

20. White Catcher et al. to John Ross, Head Quarters Blunt’s Division, December 2, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:522–23; Huckleberry Downing et al. to Ross, Post Neosho, Mo., January 8, 1863, in ibid., 2:527–29. For an assessment of AL’s slow reaction to Ross’s predicament, see Introduction of Richard W. Etulain, ed., Lincoln Looks West: From the Mississippi to the Pacific (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010), 31–32.

21. Jane Swisshelm to St. Cloud [Minn.] Democrat, Washington, D.C., March 26, 1864, in Jane Grey Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist: Letters of Jane Grey Swisshelm, 1858–1865, ed. Arthur J. Larsen (Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1976), 270.

22. Mrs. H. R. Schoolcraft to MTL, Washington, D.C., April 6, 1861, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft Papers, LC: entry of April 30, 1861, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 14; entry of February 28, 1863, Horatio Nelson Taft Diary, LC; William P. Dole to AL, July 8, 1864, ALP-LC; Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun to wife, [Washington, D.C.], March 10, [1865], in Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun, Impressions of Lincoln and the Civil War: A Foreigner’s Account, trans. General Aldebert de Chambrun (New York: Random House, 1952), 40–43.

23. Texts of early 1850s treaties with the Plains Indians in Charles J. Kappler, ed., Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904), 2:594–96, 598–602, and 608–14; Ernest Wallace and E. Adamson Hoebel, The Comanches: Lords of the South Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 305–6; Edmund Jefferson Danziger Jr., Indians and Bureaucrats: Administering the Reservation Policy During the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974), 24–37.

24. For photographs of Indians at the White House, see Peter B. Kunhardt Jr., Philip B. Kunhardt III, and Peter W. Kunhardt, P. T. Barnum: America’s Greatest Showman (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), 178–79; Washington Daily Morning Chronicle, March 28, 1863, CW, 6:152–53n; B[enjamin] B. French to Frank [Francis O. French], Washington, D.C., March 27, 1863, Benjamin B. French Family Papers, LC; Diary of Benjamin French, March 28, 1863, French Papers, LC; “Our Indian Relations,” Daily National Intelligencer, undated clipping in French Papers, LC. For an embellished recollection, see Albert Rhodes, “A Reminiscence of Abraham Lincoln,” St. Nicholas Magazine, November 1876, 8–10.

25. Kunhardt, Kunhardt, and Kunhardt, P. T. Barnum, 176; “‘Big Injuns’ at the White House,” Lawrence [Kans.] Republican, April 9, 1863, reprinted from the Missouri Democrat, in Herbert Mitgang, ed., Lincoln as They Saw Him (New York: Rinehart, 1956), 338–39; Daily National Intelligencer, undated clipping in French Papers, LC; Rhodes, “A Reminiscence,” 8–10; Washington Daily Morning Chronicle, March 28, 1863, CW, 6:152n.

26. AL, “Speech to Indians,” March 27, 1863, CW, 6:151–52; Washington Daily Morning Chronicle, March 28, 1863, ibid., 6:152n; “‘Big Injuns’ at the White House,” Mitgang, Lincoln as They Saw Him, 338–39; Rhodes, “A Reminiscence,” 10.

27. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (New York: Bantam, 1972), 69–70; Gwynne, Empire of the Summer Moon, 218. The medals can be seen in photographs in Kunhardt, Kunhardt, and Kunhardt, P. T. Barnum, 178–79; see also Boston Gazette, April 23, 1863, in Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), 10; [John] George [Nicolay] to Terena [Bates], Washington, D.C., April 9, 1863, John G. Nicolay Papers, LC; Diary of Fanny Seward, March 28, 1863, William H. Seward Papers, UR; “‘Big Injuns’ at the White House,” Mitgang, Lincoln as They Saw Him, 339.

28. Fred Kaplan, Lincoln: The Biography of a Writer (New York: Harper Perennial, 2010), 343–44; P. T. Barnum, Struggles and Triumphs, or, Forty Years’ Recollections (Hartford: J. B. Burr, 1869), 573–78.

29. For Indian receptions/shows similar to the March 1863 event, see, e.g., Marquis de Chambrun to wife, March 10, [1865], in Impressions of Lincoln and the Civil War, 40–43; John Nicolay, “Indian Tales,” Miscellaneous Notes, Nicolay Papers, LC; John G. Nicolay, “Hole-in-the-Day,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, January 26, 1863, 186–91 (quotations on 187 and 191); Louis Agassiz to Edwin M. Stanton, Washington, D.C., January 20, 1865, Edwin M. Stanton Papers, LC; John Hay to George [Nicolay], August 11 and 29, 1862, typescripts, Tyler Dennett Papers, LC. Michael Burlingame transcribes the text somewhat differently in At Lincoln’s Side: John Hay’s Civil War Correspondence and Selected Writings (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000), 25.

30. AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 1, 1862, CW, 5:527; AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 8, 1863, ibid., 7:47–48; Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 247–48 and 251; see also Daniel Walker Howe, The Political Culture of the American Whigs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 274; David Hackett Fischer and James C. Kelly, Bound Away: Virginia and the Westward Movement (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), 70; John Quincy Adams is quoted in Lynn Hudson Parsons, “‘A Perpetual Harrow upon My Feelings’: John Quincy Adams and the American Indian,” New England Quarterly 46, no. 3 (September 1973): 339; Henry Clay, Address to the Colonization Society of Kentucky, [Washington, D.C.], Daily National Intelligencer, January 12, 1830.

31. AL, “Communication to the People of Sangamo County,” March 2, 1832, CW, 1:8; AL, “Speech at Worcester, Mass.,” September 12, 1848, ibid., 2:4; AL, “Second Lecture on Discoveries and Inventions,” [February 11, 1859], ibid., 3:358 and 360; AL, “Fragment of a Tariff Discussion,” [December 1, 1847], ibid., 1:412 (emphasis is AL’s); Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 11–39. Examples of AL’s promotion of upward mobility include AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 3, 1861, CW, 5:52–53; AL, “Speech to One Hundred Sixty-Sixth Ohio Regiment,” August 22, 1864, ibid., 7:512.

32. AL, “Speech in the House of Representatives Against the War with Mexico,” January 12, 1848, CW, 1:431–41; AL, “Speech at Worcester, Mass.,” September 12, 1848, ibid., 2:4; AL to Joshua Speed, August 24, 1855, ibid., 2:323; AL, “Speech at New Haven,” March 6, 1860, ibid., 4:24–25; “AL and Stephen Douglas, Debate at Alton, Ill.,” October 15, 1858, ibid., 3:301; Dorothy Ross, “Lincoln and Ethics of Emancipation: Universalism, Nationalism, Exceptionalism,” Journal of American History 96, no. 2 (September 2009): 390–92; Gabor S. Boritt, “Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream,” in The Historian’s Lincoln, 91–94 and 99.

33. Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 2–5, 9–10, and 13; George E. Tinker, Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), 4–9 and 12–16; Robert J. Conley, The Cherokee Nation: A History (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005), 7; Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. and trans. Harvey C. Mansfield and Delba Winthrop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 314.

34. AL, “Address at the Cooper Institute,” New York, February 27, 1860, CW, 3:550.

35. Fischer, Bound Away, 126; Richard F. Nation, At Home in the Hoosier Hills: Agriculture, Politics, and Religion in Southern Indiana, 1810–1870 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 8–13.

36. Scott Berg speculates that the Indians were Shawnee who had recently lost tribal members at white hands and were following their custom of replacing them with white hostages: see Berg, 38 Nooses: Lincoln, Little Crow, and the Beginning of the Frontier’s End (New York: Pantheon, 2012), xi. Louis A. Warren did the pioneering research on the Lincoln ancestry from court, county, and church records. When the author rechecked about two-thirds of the sources cited by Warren, all checked out; see Louis A. Warren, “Abraham Lincoln, Senior, Grandfather of the President,” Filson Club History Quarterly 5, no. 3 (July 1931): 148–49; AL to Jesse Lincoln, Springfield, Ill., April 1, 1854, CW, 2:217; AL, “Autobiography for Jesse W. Fell, Springfield, Ill.,” December 20, 1859, ibid., 3:511; Louis Austin Warren, Lincoln’s Parentage and Childhood: A History of the Kentucky Lincolns Supported by Documentary Evidence (New York: Century, 1926), 62–68; Louis A. Warren, Lincoln’s Youth: Indiana Years Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830 (New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts, 1959), 32–33; William E. Bartelt, “There I Grew Up”: Remembering Abraham Lincoln’s Indiana Youth (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 2008), 6; Jean H. Baker, Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 65.

37. Herman Melville, The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade, ed. Hershel Parker (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), 126–27.

38. Warren, “Abraham Lincoln, Senior,” 137–44; William E. Barton, The Lincolns in Their Old Kentucky Home: An Address Delivered Before the Filson Club, Louisville, Kentucky, December 4, 1922 (Berea, Ky.: Berea College Press, 1923), 17–18. On the Quaker heritage, see AL, “Autobiography for Fell,” CW, 3:511; AL, “Autobiography Written for John L. Scripps,” n.d. [June 1860], ibid., 4:61; A. H. Chapman, statement for WHH, September 8, 1865, HI, 95. An examination of records in Berks County shows that when AL’s great-grandfather wed Anne Boone (a cousin of the frontiersman Daniel Boone), she was censured by the local Friends meeting for marrying outside the Quaker community, indicating the Lincolns were not part of the Society of Friends. Mordecai Lincoln House, Nomination for National Register of Historic Places, August 8, 1988, link available through “Mordecai Lincoln House,” www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordecai_Lincoln_House. For the Mordecai Lincoln house in Kentucky, see www.parks.ky.gov/parks/recreationparks/lincoln-homes.

39. AL, “Autobiography for Scripps,” CW, 4:61–62; AL, “Communication to the People of Sangamo County,” March 2, 1832, ibid.,1:8; AL, “Eulogy on Henry Clay,” July 6, 1852, ibid., 2:124; Warren, Lincoln’s Parentage, 164–65; Roy P. Basler, introduction to John Locke Scripps, Life of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Roy P. Basler and Lloyd A. Dunlap (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961), 31n; WHH interview with Nathaniel Grigsby, Gentryville, Ind., September 12, 1865, HI, 111; WHH interview with William Wood, September 15, 1865, ibid., 123; WHH interview with Elizabeth Crawford, September 16, 1865, ibid., 126; John Y. Simon, House Divided: Lincoln and His Father (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Louis A. Warren Lincoln Library and Museum, 1987), 5–6.

40. Boritt, “Economics of the American Dream,” 93–94; Nation, Home in the Hoosier Hills, 8–11, 82–83, and 86; Minute Book of Little Pigeon Creek Baptist Church, 1816–1840, Spencer County, Indiana, ILPL; WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, Chicago, June 13, 1865, HI, 37; WHH interview with Grigsby, September 12, 1865, ibid., 111; WHH interview with David Turnham, Elizabeth [now Dale], Ind., September 15, 1865, ibid., 121.

41. Nation, Home in the Hoosier Hills, 24, 29–30, and 78–86; Arthur E. Morgan, interview with Dr. LeGrand, n.d., Arthur E. Morgan Papers, LC; Arthur E. Morgan, “New Light on Lincoln’s Boyhood,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1920, 208 and 212–13; WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, June 13, 1865, HI, 37; WHH interview with Grigsby, September 12, 1865, ibid., 111.

42. Michael Burlingame contends that the rough treatment AL received at the hands of his father caused him to sympathize with the plight of slaves: see “‘I Used to Be a Slave’: The Origins of Lincoln’s Hatred of Slavery,” in Michael Burlingame, The Inner World of Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 20–56; for alternative views, see WHH interview with John Hanks, Decatur, Ill., May 25, 1865, HI, 5. On patterns of fatherhood, see Nation, Home in the Hoosier Hills, 32–36; Stephen M. Frank, Life with Father: Parenthood and Masculinity in the Nineteenth-Century North (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 9–15 and 140–46; Bernard Wishy, The Child and the Republic: The Dawn of Modern American Child Nurture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968), 11–14; Philip Greven, The Protestant Temperament: Patterns of Child-Rearing, Religious Experience and the Self in Early America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977), 32–43 and 339–41; Robert L. Griswold, Fatherhood in America: A History (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 11–14. For AL feeling that he was not in bondage, see his “Speech at Indianapolis,” September 19, 1859, CW, 3:468. For AL’s disinclination to work and tendency to interrupt, see WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, June 13, 1865, HI, 39; WHH interview with Nathaniel Grigsby, Lincoln Farm, September 14, 1865, ibid., 118; WHH interview with Anna Caroline Gentry, Rockport, Ind., September 17, 1865, ibid., 131; see also Replies to Queries to Dr. LeGrand, n.d., Morgan Papers, LC; Morgan, “New Light on Lincoln’s Boyhood,” 213–16; AL to Jesse W. Fell, Springfield, Ill., December 20, 1859, CW, 3:511. By “cipherin,” AL meant arithmetic: see AL to Fell, December 20, 1859, ibid., 3:511; Leonard Swett, “Mr. Lincoln’s Story of His Own Life,” in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 458. Pictures of a cupboard fashioned by Thomas Lincoln and a spice cabinet supposedly by AL are in Bartelt, “There I Grew Up,” 147 and 189.

43. For lecturing his father on financial affairs and lack of support, see AL to Thomas Lincoln and John D. Johnston, Washington, D.C., December 24, 1848, CW, 2:15–16; Simon, “Divided House,” 12–14. Letters requesting AL to come to his father’s bedside and expressing Thomas Lincoln’s affection are Augustus H. Chapman to AL, Charleston, Ill., May 24, 1849, and John D. Johnston to AL, Char[leston, Ill.], May 25, 1849, both ALP-LC; the terse reply is AL to John D. Johnston, Springfield, Ill., January 12, 1851, CW, 2:96–97.

44. Anthony F. C. Wallace, “Prelude to Disaster: The Course of Indian-White Relations Which Led to the Black Hawk War of 1832,” introduction to Ellen M. Whitney, ed., The Black Hawk War, 1831–1832 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1970–1978), 1:3–4 and 10–21; Treaty with the Sauk and Fox, 1804, in Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:74 and 76.

45. Black Hawk, The Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk Embracing the Tradition of His Nation (Cincinnati: J. B. Patterson, 1831), 89. The credibility of Black Hawk’s autobiography has been questioned, but Donald Jackson believes it largely authentic, though containing some overly elaborate translations: see Donald Jackson, ed., Black Hawk: An Autobiography (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964), 24–30. See also Memorandum of Talks Between Edmund P. Gaines and the Sauk, [Rock Island, June 4, 5, and 7, 1831], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:28.

46. Wallace, “Prelude to Disaster,” 27–30 and 39–45; George A. McCall to father, Rock Island, June 16, 1831, in George A. McCall, Letters from the Frontier: Written During a Period of Thirty Years’ Service in the Army of the United States (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1868), 225–26; George Y. Cutler to Stephen B. Munn, Hancock County, Ill., June 9, 1831, in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:37–38.

47. Citizens of Rock River to John Reynolds, April 30, 1831, in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:3; Horatio Newhall to brother [Isaac Newhall], fragment, September 18, 1831, Horatio Newhall Papers, ILPL; Horatio Newhall to brother [Isaac Newhall], Galena, Ill., April 29, 1832, Newhall Papers, ILPL; George A. McCall to father, Steamer Winnebago, July 5, 1831, in McCall, Letters from the Frontier, 240–41; John Reynolds to William Clark, Belleville, May 26, 1831, in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:13. For Black Hawk’s repeated statement of his peaceful intentions, see Felix St. Vrain to William Clark, St. Louis, May 28, 1831, in ibid., 2:21; Edmund P. Gaines to [?], Rock Island, June 20, 1831, in ibid., 2:63.

48. John R. Herndon to WHH, Quincy, May 28, 1865, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; William H. Herndon and Jesse W. Weik, Herndon’s Lincoln, ed. Douglas L. Wilson and Rodney O. Davis (Galesburg, Ill.: Knox College Lincoln Studies Center, 2006), 70; WHH interview with Royal Clary [Roil A. Clary], [October 1866], HI, 371. In “Lincoln in the Black Hawk War,” Bulletin of the Abraham Lincoln Association 54 (December 1938): 4, Harry E. Pratt gives the date of AL’s muster as April 19, 1832; however, the official muster roll shows it was April 21: see Whitney, Black Hawk War, 1:176.

49. William Cullen Bryant and an unidentified soldier quoted in Dr. Wayne C. Temple, Lincoln’s Arms, Dress and Military Duty During and After the Black Hawk War (Springfield: State of Illinois Military and Naval Department, 1981), 10–11; Asher Edgerton to brother, Quincy, Ill., May 28, 1832, Asher Edgerton Correspondence, ILPL; Report of William Orr to John Y. Sawyer, n.p., [c. June 21, 1832], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:641; Benjamin F. Irwin to WHH, September 22, 1866, HI, 353.

50. For AL’s pride in his captaincy, see AL to Fell, December 20, 1859, CW, 3:512. For his ability at sports and idolization, see Irwin to WHH, September 22, 1866, HI, 353. For questions about the vote and AL’s disciplinary problems, see David M. Pantier to WHH, Petersburg, Ill., July 21, 1865, ibid., 78. See also Patrick J. Jung, The Black Hawk War of 1832 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 79–80; Cecil Eby, “That Disgraceful Affair”: The Black Hawk War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973), 17–18 (Zachary Taylor quoted on 17); Herndon and Weik, Herndon’s Lincoln, 70–71; Ida M. Tarbell, The Life of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Macmillan, 1920), 1:76–77. Eby rightly notes that many of the disparaging memoirs of AL as captain came after the Civil War and were gathered by a pro-Southern antiquarian. Because of the number and consistency of the remarks, however, Eby believed they must be considered seriously; see also J. Snyder to Frank Stevens, April 1, 1916, Frank Stevens Collection, ILPL. For general lack of discipline, see Report of Orr to Sawyer, [c. July 1, 1832], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:727–28.

51. Wilson and Davis, Herndon’s Lincoln, 73; Robert Anderson to E[lihu] B. Washburne, Tours, France, May 10, 1870, photostat, ILPL; CW, 1:10n; George M. Harrison to WHH, n.d. [c. 1865], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:1327n.

52. AL, “Speech at Bath, Ill.,” August 16, 1858, CW, 1:543; AL, “Speech in House of Representatives,” July 27, 1848, ibid., 1:509–10; Jung, Black Hawk War, 108–9 and 129; Report of Orr to Sawyer, [c. July 1, 1832], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:724.

53. Zachary Taylor to Quartermaster General Thomas Sidney Jesup, December 4, 1832, quoted in the introduction to Jackson, Black Hawk, 23; Noah Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences of Lincoln,” Scribner’s Monthly, February 1878, 563; Jung, Black Hawk War, 88–89. AL’s presence after the engagement at Stillman’s Run has sometimes been disputed; for others corroborating AL’s recollection, see Asher Edgerton to brother, May 28, 1832, Edgerton Correspondence, ILPL; Report of Orr to Sawyer, [c. July 1, 1832], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:724–25; George W. Harrison to WHH, n.d. [c. late summer 1866], HI, 328; see also Scott D. Dyar, “Stillman’s Run: Militia’s Foulest Hour,” Military History 22, no. 1 (March 2006): 38–44.

54. Wallace, “Prelude to Disaster,” 2–3, 10–11, and 51; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849 and 1866 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 36; Lewis Cass to Winfield Scott, Detroit, September 4, 1832, Lewis Cass Correspondence, ILPL; Beverley W. Bond Jr., The Civilization of the Old Northwest: A Study of Political, Social, and Economic Development, 1788–1812 (New York: Macmillan, 1934), 245–47; Eby, “That Disgraceful Affair,” 23; Report of Orr to Sawyer, [c. July 1, 1832], in Whitney, Black Hawk War, 2:727.

55. Introduction to Jackson, Black Hawk, 1–3 and 7–15; Black Hawk, The Life, 154–55; Eby, “That Disgraceful Affair,” 267 and (Black Hawk quote) 277. James Westhall Ford’s triple portrait, Wabokieshiek (Known as The Prophet), Black Hawk and His Son Nasheaskuk, was one of three pictures he painted in 1833 in Richmond; Black Hawk is depicted in the contemporary European dress President Andrew Jackson forced him to wear.

56. AL, “Speech in House of Representatives,” July 27, 1848, CW, 1:509–10; AL, “Speech at Bath, Ill.,” August 16, 1858, ibid., 1:543; John Ross to Henry Meigs, Washington, D.C., January 26 and 27, 1864, in Ross Papers, 2:554–55.

57. Stephen R. Riggs, Tah'-koo Wah-Kań or The Gospel Among the Dakotas (Boston: Congregational Publishing Society, 1869); Bishop Henry Whipple, “My Life Among the Indians,” North American Review 150, no. 401 (April 1890): 432; William Welsh, Journal of the Rev. S. D. Hinman, Missionary to the Santee Sioux Indians and Taopi (Philadelphia: McCalla & Stavely, 1869), x and 40; Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 96–98; Prucha, The Great Father, 1:438–39; John G. Nicolay, “The Sioux War,” Continental Monthly, February 1863, 195–97; George A. S. Crooker to AL, St. Paul, October 7, 1862, ALP-LC; treaty texts in Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:594–96 and 781–85.

58. [Robert I. Holcombe], “A Sioux Story of War: Chief Big Eagle’s Story of the Sioux Outbreak of 1862,” Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society 6 (1894): 384–86 and 388. Two translators present at the time Big Eagle gave this interview reported him to be frank and nonpolemical. See also Thomas J. Galbraith to Clark W. Thompson, January 27, 1863, in Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 13, 1863 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1864), 266–301; Hank H. Cox, Lincoln and the Sioux Uprising of 1862 (Nashville: Cumberland House, 2005), 162–63; Tinker, Missionary Conquest, 102–3 and 108–10; Joseph R. Brown to [Henry B.] Whipple, Fort Abercrombie, January 26, 1864, in Joseph R. Brown and Samuel P. Hinman, Missionary Paper by the Bishop Seabury Mission, Number Thirty: Letters on the Indian System (Faribault, Minn.: Central Republican Book & Job Office, 1864), 6–9.

59. “A Sioux Story of War,” 384–85; Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 102; Galbraith quoted in Mark Diedrich, “Chief Hole-in-the-Day and the 1862 Chippewa Disturbance: A Reappraisal,” Minnesota History 50, no. 5 (Spring 1987): 195 (see also 198–200); George E. H. Day to AL, St. Anthony, Minn., January 1, 1862, ALP-LC.

60. Janet Youngholm, “Violence and the Dakota War of 1862,” in Sutton and Latschar, American Indians and the Civil War, 41–42 (Bishop Whipple to AL, March 6, 1862, quoted on 42); Hinman, Journal, x; George A. S. Crooker to AL, St. Paul, October 7, 1862, ALP-LC; John Hay to “dear sir” [John G. Nicolay], Washington, D.C., August 29, 1862, typescript, Dennett Papers, LC. A slightly different reading of the text is in Burlingame, At Lincoln’s Side, 25.

61. Whipple, “My Life Among the Indians,” 432; AL to Whipple, Washington, D.C., March 27, 1862, in Prucha, The Great Father, 1:440 and 470; Diedrich, “Chief Hole-in-the-Day,” 197–98; “A Sioux Story of War,” 386–87 and 388–90; Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 102–3; Crooker to AL, October 7, 1862, ALP-LC.

62. Good overviews of the uprising are found in Prucha, The Great Father, 1:440–44; Youngholm, “Violence and the Dakota War,” 35–36; Cox, Lincoln and the Sioux, 51–53; Robert M. Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue: The United States Army and the Indian, 1848–1865 (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 264–72; Vanity Fair, September 13, 1862.

63. Cox, Lincoln and the Sioux, 51–53; Nicolay, “The Sioux War,” 201–2; AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 1, 1862, CW, 5:525; Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 154–55; a longer version of Nichols’s assessment is in his Lincoln and the Indians: Civil War Policy and Politics (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1978), 65–93. For friendly chiefs’ attempts to rescue white captives, see Wabashaw to [Henry] Sibley, and Maya-wakan to Sibley, both September 14, 1862; Ma-za-ku-ta-ma-ne to Sibley, Red Iron’s Village, September 15, 1862; Tatanka Najin (Standing Buffalo) to Sibley, September 19, 1862; Ma-za-ku-ta-ma-ne, Taopee, and Wake-Wan-Wa to Sibley, Red Iron’s Village, September 24, 1862, all in Isaac V. D. Heard, History of the Sioux War and Massacres of 1862 and 1863 (New York: Harper Brothers, 1865), 163–65.

64. Thaddeus Williams to AL, St. Paul, November 22, 1862, and Jane Swisshelm, St. Cloud [Minn.] Democrat, November 13, 1862, both quoted in Berg, 38 Nooses, 209 (see also 217–18); George A. S. Crooker to William H. Seward, St. Paul, October 8, 1862, ALP-LC; Salmon P. Chase to AL, n.d. [December 1862], ALP-LC; Protestant Episcopal Church to AL, November 20, 1862, ALP-LC; H[enry] B. Whipple, Missionary Paper by the Bishop Seabury Mission, Number Twenty-Four: An Appeal for the Red Man (Faribault, Minn.: Central Republican Book & Job Office, 1863), 2–8 (quotation on 2–3); Henry B. Whipple to cousin [Henry Halleck], Faribault, Minn., December 19, 1862, James W. Eldridge Collection, HL.

65. Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 154; John Nicolay to John Hay, Fort Ripley, September 1, 1862, Nicolay Papers, LC; Nicolay, “Hole-in-the-Day,” 189–90; Elmo Richardson and Alan W. Farley, John Palmer Usher: Lincoln’s Secretary of the Interior (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1960), 20–21; Usher’s report in Berg, 38 Nooses, 260–61; Diedrich, “Chief Hole-in-the-Day,” 201. Pope’s attitude toward Native Americans is addressed in Richard N. Ellis, General Pope and U.S. Indian Policy (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970), 7–11.

66. Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 155–57; William P. Dole to Caleb B. Smith, Office of Indian Affairs, November 10, 1862, ALP-LC; AL to John Pope, telegram, November 10, 1862, CW, 5:493; Pope to AL, telegram, St. Paul, November 24, 1862, ALP-LC; Jane L. Williamson to Stephen R. Riggs, Travers des Sioux, November 14, 1862, ALP-LC; AL to Joseph Holt, Washington, D.C., December 1, 1862, CW, 5:537–38; Holt to AL, Judge Advocate General’s office, December 1, 1862, ALP-LC; AL to the Senate, December 11, 1862, CW, 5:551; Henry H. Sibley to AL, telegram, St. Paul, December 15, 1862, ALP-LC.

67. Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 157–58 (Lincoln quoted on 158); Thomas S. Williamson to AL, Washington, D.C., April 27, 1864, ALP-LC; John Peck and M. N. Adams to AL, Winnebago City, Minn., April 30, 1864, ALP-LC; AL, “Order for Discharge of Big Eagle,” Washington, D.C., November 19, 1864, CW, 8:116; Big Eagle quoted in “Big Eagle’s Story,” 399.

68. Joseph R. Brown to [Henry B.] Whipple, Fort Abercrombie, January 26, 1864, and Samuel D. Hinman to [Henry B.] Whipple, Fort Thompson, January 15, 1864, both in Brown and Hinman, Missionary Paper Number Thirty, 9 and 15–17; Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 112–24; entry of October 14, 1862, in Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles: Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, ed. Howard K. Beale (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960), 1:171; Testimony of S. C. Hayes, September 2, 1865, Joint Special Committee, Senate Report No. 156, 39th Cong., 2nd sess.; Hinman, Journal, 5; Robert W. Furnas to William P. Dole, December 19, 1864, Office of Indian Affairs, Letters Received, Winnebago Agency, RG 75, NARA; St. Paul Union, November 22, 1863, quoted in Youngholm, “Violence and the Dakota War,” 44; Sibley quoted in ibid., 43 (see also 46–47).

69. Samuel D. Hinman to [Henry B.] Whipple, Fort Thompson, January 15, 1864, in Brown and Hinman, Missionary Paper Number Thirty, 15–17; Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 123–30; Hinman, Journal, 5, 9, 15, and, for quotations, 30 and 34.

70. Diedrich, “Chief Hole-in-the-Day,” 200–201; Thomas Galbraith to Clark Thompson, January 27, 1863, in Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1863; William P. Dole to Ely S. Parker, March 12, 1862, in Harry Kelsey, “William P. Dole and Mr. Lincoln’s Indian Policy,” Journal of the West 10, no. 3 (July 1971): 486.

71. Laurence M. Hauptman, Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1995), x (see also 145–61); Hauptman, The Iroquois, 18–19; John Ross to Edwin M. Stanton, Philadelphia, November 8, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:520–21; James G. Blunt, Notes on Civil War Operations, Washington, D.C., April 3, 1866, in “General Blunt’s Account of His Civil War Experiences,” Kansas Historical Quarterly 1, no. 3 (May 1932): 222–23; Detroit Free Press, May 14, 1861, quoted in Eric Hemenway and Sammye Meadows, “Soldiers in the Shadows: Company K, 1st Michigan Sharpshooters,” in Sutton and Latschar, American Indians and the Civil War, 53.

72. William P. Dole to Ely S. Parker, March 12, 1862, quoted in Kelsey, “William P. Dole and Mr. Lincoln’s Indian Policy,” 486; Hauptman, Between Two Fires, 126–45. For the Pamunkey Indians, see Brendan Wolfe, “Indians in Virginia,” at www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Indians_in_Virginia. See also Hemenway and Meadows, “Soldiers in the Shadows,” 55–63 (Lt. William H. Randall quoted on 60); Wiley Britton, The Union Indian Brigade in the Civil War (Kansas City, Mo.: Franklin Hudson, 1922), 10–11; Russell Horton, “Unwanted in a White Man’s War: The Civil War Service of the Green Bay Tribes,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 88, no. 2 (Winter 2004–2005): 21–22; Hauptman, The Iroquois, 59–62.

73. Blunt, “General Blunt’s Account,” 224; Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, November 16, 1864 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1865), 43; Hemenway and Meadows, “Soldiers in the Shadows,” 61; Hauptman, The Iroquois, 67–80, 151; Horton, “Unwanted in a White Man’s War,” 24–26; Britton, “Union and Confederate Indians,” 1:336; Elisha Stockwell Jr., Private Elisha Stockwell Jr. Sees the Civil War, ed. Byron R. Abernathy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985), 74–75 and 79–80; Nicolay, “Chief Hole-in-the-Day,” 188.

74. John Ross to AL, September 16, 1862, in Ross Papers, 2:516–18; Ross to William P. Dole, Philadelphia, April 2, 1863, in ibid., 2:534–35; Hauptman, Between Two Fires, 92 and 131–33; Hemenway and Meadows, “Soldiers in the Shadows,” 50–52 (Gaminoodhich quoted on 52); Jo Ann P. Schedler, “Wisconsin American Indians in the Civil War,” in Sutton and Latschar, American Indians and the Civil War, 71–73.

75. Hoseca X Maria, Ke-Had-a-Wah, Buffalo Hump, Te-Nah, Geo. Washington, and Jim Pockmark to John Jumper, Wichita Agency, December 15, 1861, in Annie Heloise Abel, The American Indian as Participant in the Civil War (Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark, 1919), 64–65; Hauptman, Between Two Fires, 87–89 and 102; Smith, “Nations Colliding,” 279–82; Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 129–30.

76. Jefferson Davis to Howell Cobb, March 12, 1861, at www.avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_m031261.asp; Hauptman, Between Two Fires, 79 and 87–88; Britton, “Union and Confederate Indians,” 1:336; Albert Pike to Jefferson Davis, September 20, 1862, OR, I, 13:820–21 and 823. See also Moty Kanard et al. to Jefferson Davis, Creek Nation, August 17, 1863; Stand Watie to S. S. Scott, C.N., August 8, 1863; Stand Watie to Governor of Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations, C.N., August 9, 1863; E. Kirby-Smith to Stand Watie, September 8, 1863, all OR, I, 22, pt. 2: 999–1000 and 1104–8; Jefferson Davis to Watie, February 22, 1864, OR, I, 34, pt. 3:824–25; Franks, Stand Watie, 141–55 and 158.

77. James M. Bell to Caroline Bell, Boggy Deport, September 2, 1863, in Dale and Litton, Cherokee Cavaliers, 136–37; W[illia]m Steele to S[amuel] Cooper, Doaksville, C.N., December 19, 1863, OR, I, 22, pt. 2:1100–1101; Steele to E. Kirby Smith, June 24, 1863, OR, I, pt. 2: 884.

78. Franks, Stand Watie, 139, 145–46, 155–58, and 174–77; Stand Watie to Governor of Creek Nation, C.N., August 9, 1863, OR, I, 22, pt. 2: 1105–6; Bruce S. Allardice and Lawrence Lee Hewitt, eds., Kentuckians in Gray: Confederate Generals and Field Officers of the Bluegrass State (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008), 101; Hauptman, Between Two Fires, 103 and 108.

79. David G. Taylor, “Thomas Ewing, Jr., and the Origins of the Kansas Pacific Railway Company,” Kansas Historical Quarterly 42, no. 2 (Summer 1976): 155; Republican National Platform, Chicago, 1860, in Tribune Almanac for the Years 1838–1868, Inclusive (New York: New York Tribune, 1868), 30–31; Edgar Conkling to AL, Cincinnati, November 14, 1861, ALP-LC; Samuel Hallett & Co. to AL, New York, May 7, 1863 (“the productive wealth”), ALP-LC; AL, “Speech to Germans at Cincinnati,” February 12, 1861, CW, 4:202–3; AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 1, 1862 , ibid., 5:526; AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 8, 1863, ibid., 7:46–48.

80. Taylor, “Thomas Ewing, Jr.,” 155–60; Anna Heloise Abel, “Indian Reservations in Kansas and the Extinguishment of Their Title,” Transactions of the Kansas State Historical Society 8 (1903–1904): 88–90; Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 25.

81. Taylor, “Thomas Ewing, Jr.,” 161–63; Abel, “Indian Reservations in Kansas,” 89–90; S. N. Simpson to Caleb B. Smith, Lawrence, Kans., April 8, 1861, Thomas Ewing Family Papers, LC; J. W. Wright to AL, Washington, D.C., May 29, 1861, Ewing Papers, LC; R. G. Corwin to [Thomas] Ewing Jr., Delaware Mission, July 11, 1861, Ewing Papers, LC; Archibald Williams to AL, Leavenworth, Kans., July 2, 1861, ALP-LC; H. Craig Miner and William E. Unrau, The End of Indian Kansas: A Study of Cultural Revolution, 1854–1871 (Lawrence: Regent’s Press of Kansas, 1978), 29–31.

82. Thomas Ewing Jr. to Orville H. Browning, draft, Leavenworth, Kans., July 1, 1861; H. G. Faut to Thomas Ewing Sr., Washington, D.C., July 10, 1861; Fielding Johnson to H. B. Branch, Delaware Agency, July 10, 1861; A. C. Wilder to [Thomas] Ewing Jr., Washington, D.C., July 16 and 18, 1861; Thomas Ewing Jr. to father [Thomas Ewing Sr.], Leavenworth, Kans., September 12, 1861, all Ewing Papers, LC. See also AL, “Order for Issue of Bonds for Use of Delaware Indians,” June 10, 1861, CW, 4:400–402; AL, “Designation of William P. Dole to Present Treaty to the Delaware Indians,” Washington, D.C., August 7, 1861, ibid., 4:476–77; Taylor, “Thomas Ewing, Jr.,” 163; Paul Wallace Gates, Fifty Million Acres: Conflicts over Kansas Land Policy, 1854–1890 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1954), 118–20.

83. Ronald D. Smith, Thomas Ewing, Jr.: Frontier Lawyer and Civil War General (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008), 130–31; Mark Delahay to [Thomas Ewing], n.d. [October 1861], Ewing Papers, LC; Thomas Ewing Jr. to Ellen [Ewing Sherman], Lawrence, Kans., September 4, 1861, Ewing Papers, LC; Thomas Ewing Jr. to father [Thomas Ewing], Leavenworth, Kans., September 12, 1861, Ewing Papers, LC; Miner and Unrau, The End of Indian Kansas, 34–35.

84. Richardson and Farley, John Palmer Usher, 50–51; Taylor, “Thomas Ewing, Jr.,” 166–67; Thomas Ewing Jr. to Genl. J. Stone, Leavenworth, Kans., December 27, 1861, Ewing Papers, LC; Gates, Fifty Million Acres, 121–22 and 139.

85. The 1861 treaty is in Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:814–24. See also Taylor, “Thomas Ewing, Jr.,” 167–77; Miner and Unrau, The End of Indian Kansas, 34–38; John Ross to James Steele, Washington, D.C., June 8, 1864, in Ross Papers, 2:586; Petition to the Senate and House of Representatives, Washington, D.C., February 18, 1865, in ibid., 2:624–27.

86. Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 164; AL, “Speech to Germans at Cincinnati,” February 12, 1861, CW, 4:202; AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 8, 1863, ibid., 7:46–48; AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 6, 1864, ibid., 8:146; Gates, Fifty Million Acres, 7–47; Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men, 28–33; White, Railroaded, xvii, 17–26.

87. H. B. Branch to Gen. F[rank] P. Blair, St. Joseph, Mo., December 6, 1862, Blair Family Papers, LC; Abel, “Indian Reservations in Kansas,” 100–109; White, Railroaded, 25. The Potawatomi, Ottawa, and Kickapoo treaties are in Kappler, Laws and Treaties, 2:824–28, 830–33, and 835–39. See also Miner and Unrau, The End of Indian Kansas, 65–78; Alfred R. Elder to AL, Olympia, December 18, 1862, ALP-LC; James Short to AL, January 17, 1864, ALP-LC; Anson G. Henry to Col. Wallace, Olympia, October 24, 1861, ALP-LC; Anson G. Henry to William P. Dole, October 28, 1861, ALP-LC; New Mexico Territory Legislature to AL, Santa Fe, January 23, 1863, ALP-LC; Noah Brooks, “Superintendent of Indian Affairs in Northern California,” September 26, 1863, in Lincoln Observed: The Civil War Dispatches of Noah Brooks, ed. Michael Burlingame (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 62–63; Reminiscence of John Conness, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 567–68.

88. For detailed discussions of the Indian system, see Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats; Nichols, Lincoln and the Indians, 5–24. On the patronage system and patterns of corruption, see Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Era of Good Stealings (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 16–18, 20, and 22–23. On the low caliber of administration appointees, see Prucha, The Great Father, 1:467; Samuel D. Hinman to [Henry B.] Whipple, Fort Thompson, January 15, 1864, in Brown and Hinman, Missionary Paper Number Thirty, 15–17; Whipple, “My Life Among the Indians,” 433.

89. Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 14–16; Richardson and Farley, John Palmer Usher, 18 and 48–51; Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, November 26, 1862 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1863), 11–12; Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1864, 3–8; AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 1, 1862, CW, 5:525 and 526.

90. Robert E. Lee to Mary Custis Lee, Fort Brown, Tex., January 24, 1857, Lee Papers, DU; Samuel R. Curtis to Henry Halleck, Fort Leavenworth, Kans., January 12, 1865, OR, I, 48, pt. 1:502–3; Ellis, General Pope and U.S. Indian Policy, 33–42; Pope to Henry Sibley, September 28, 1862, quoted in Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 106; Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue, 215–18.

91. George A. McCall, Report to the Secretary of War, Santa Fe, July 15, 1850, in Letters from the Frontier, 512–17; Carleton quoted in Condition of the Indian Tribes: Report of the Joint Special Committee Appointed Under Joint Resolution, March 3, 1865 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1867), 134; Prucha, The Great Father, 1:447–52.

92. Prucha, The Great Father, 1:452–57; Utley, Frontiersmen in Blue, 237–47; James Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999), 269–70.

93. Brigham Dwaine Madsen, Encounter with the Northwestern Shoshoni at Bear River in 1863: Battle or Massacre? (Ogden, Utah: Weber State College Press, 1984), 3–25; a Native American interpretation of the event, containing some inaccuracies, is found in Mae Timbimboo Parry, edited by Robert K. Sutton, “The Bear River Massacre,” in Sutton and Latschar, American Indians and the Civil War, 112–31.

94. Stan Hoig, The Sand Creek Massacre (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 51–93; John G. Nicolay to William P. Dole, Washington, D.C., November 10, 1863, copy in scrapbook, Nicolay Papers, LC; John Evans to Edwin M. Stanton (with endorsement by AL), Washington, D.C., December 14, 1863, ALP-LC; Testimony of Gov. John Evans, March 15, 1865, Maj. Gen. Samuel R. Curtis to Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck, August 8, 1864, and Halleck to Curtis, September 3, 1864, all in “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” in Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War at the Second Session Thirty-Eighth Congress (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1865), 3:32–43, 62–63, and 66.

95. Gwynne, Empire of the Summer Moon, 220; Testimony of Lt. Cramer, July 27, 1865, in Condition of the Indian Tribes, 74. Cramer’s testimony quotes Chivington more circumspectly than later descriptions, including Gwynne’s. Etualin, Lincoln Looks West, 43, says AL appointed Evans because he was a Methodist. However, AL was no lover of Methodists and his real motive was to anchor Colorado for the Republicans. See also Danziger, Indians and Bureaucrats, 39–45; Testimony of Maj. Scott Anthony, March 14, 1865, in “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” 16–29.

96. Captain O. H. P. Baxter to William B. Thom, Pueblo, February 11, 1910, in “Battle of Sand Creek,” New York Times, June 3, 1915; Maj. E. W. Wynkoop to “sir,” Fort Lyon, Col. Terr., January 15, 1865, Testimony of Lt. James Cannon, January 16, 1865, and Rocky Mountain News editorial, n.d., all in “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” 81–84, 88–89, and 56–59; Diary of John Dailey, November 29, 1864, quoted on Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site Web site, www.nps.gov/sand/historyculture; Silas S. Soule to Ned [Wynkoop], Fort Lyon, Colo., December 14, 1864, Sand Creek Web site; Joe A. Cramer to Major [Edward Wynkoop], Fort Lyon, Colo., December 19, 1864, Sand Creek Web site. For Chivington quote, see Gwynne, Empire of the Summer Moon, 221. See also John Nicolay to William P. Dole, November 10, 1863, Nicolay Papers, LC. The National Park Service estimates Indian deaths at around 200, while eyewitness figures range from 70 to 137; Chivington lost 24 men. A discussion of the statistics is at www.en/wikipededia.org/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre.

97. The casual procedures of the investigation have caused some to question its utility, but the recent rediscovery of diaries and letters written at the time reaffirm the validity of most accounts. For thoughtful, though somewhat outdated, discussions of the Joint Committee’s investigation, see Raymond G. Carey, “The Puzzle of Sand Creek,” Colorado Magazine 41, no. 4 (Fall 1964): 279–98; Michael A. Sievers, “Sands of Sand Creek Historiography,” Colorado Magazine 49, no. 2 (Spring 1972): 116–42. The contemporary documents are found on the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site Web site, www.nps.gov/sand/historyculture. Questions have also arisen about the underlying causes of the brutality. Some have speculated that it resulted from callousness built from the years of the Civil War. But those studying the actions closely have found that similar atrocities were not practiced by the Union Army against white Southerners off the battlefield. Violence of the kind seen at Sand Creek, it seems, was as ethnically motivated by the white tribe as the most ferocious acts of the Native Americans: see Mark E. Neely Jr., The Civil War and the Limits of Destruction (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 140–50; and Mark Grimsley, “‘Rebels’ and ‘Redskins’: U.S. Military Conduct Toward White Southerners and Native Americans in Comparative Perspective,” in Civilians in the Path of War, ed. Mark Grimsley and Clifford J. Rogers (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 137–62. For transcripts of the investigation, see Condition of the Indian Tribes. Wade is quoted in “Massacre of Cheyenne Indians,” v. See also “Gen. McCook and the Sand Creek Massacre,” Ohio Statesman, August 22, 1865.

98. No response by AL to the Sand Creek massacre was found in any archive. Anson G. Henry to wife, Washington, D.C., March 13, 1865, Anson Henry Papers, ILPL; Black Kettle quoted in Hoig, Sand Creek Massacre, 174. For a historiographical discussion of the lingering memory of the massacre, see Ari Kelman, A Misplaced Massacre: Struggling over the Memory of Sand Creek (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013).

99. AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 1, 1862, CW, 5:526; AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 8, 1863, ibid., 7:48; AL, “Annual Address to Congress,” December 6, 1864, ibid., 8:146–47; AL to William Windom, n.p., March 30, 1864, ibid., 7:275; Whipple, “My Life Among the Indians,” 438. Whipple gives several slightly different accounts of the meetings with AL and Stanton in his Lights and Shadows of a Long Episcopate: Being Reminiscences and Recollections of the Right Reverend Henry Benjamin Whipple, DD., LL.D., Bishop of Minnesota (New York: Macmillan, 1899), 136–37 and 144; and Missionary Paper Number Twenty-Four, 8, in which he quotes administration officials as saying, “‘Bishop, every word you say of this Indian system is true; the nation knows it. It is useless; you will not be heard. Your faith is only like that of the man that stood on the bank of the river waiting for the water to run by, that he might cross over dry shod.’” See also Jane Swisshelm to Will[iam B. Mitchell], Washington, D.C., March 19, 1863, in Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist, 191–93; Nichols, “Lincoln and the Indians,” 163–65. For an apologist view, see Hans L. Trefousse, “Commentary on Nichols,” in Boritt, The Historian’s Lincoln, 170–74. For a discussion of how AL spent time on trivial issues, see chapter 3 of this book, as well as Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “‘The Grand Old Duke of York’: How Abraham Lincoln Lost the Confidence of His Military Command,” forthcoming.

100. Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1861, 11; Hinman, Journal, January 19, 1869, 29–30; Henry Dawes, “The Indian,” speech, n.d. [c. 1868], Henry Dawes Papers, LC.

101. Lewis Downing to John Ross and Evan Jones, C.N., n.d. [c. October 18, 1864]; John Ross to AL, Philadelphia, November 7, 1864; John Ross to Mary B. Ross, Washington, D.C., February 28, 1865, all in Ross Papers, 2:612–14 and 614–15. See also Perdue, “Civil War in Indian Territory,” 104–6.

102. Elliott West, “Conclusion,” in Sutton and Latschar, American Indians and the Civil War, 180–84; Jeffery S. King, “‘Do Not Execute Chief Pocatello’: President Lincoln Acts to Save the Shoshoni Chief,” Utah Historical Quarterly 53, no. 3 (Summer 1985): 237–47. The Congressional Globe is filled with Indian debates in addition to the discussions in Condition of the Indian Tribes: see, e.g., Senate Debate, 38th Cong., 1st sess., June 10–11, 1864, 2846–51.

103. Among those addressing this aspect of AL’s leadership are James MacGregor Burns, Presidential Government: The Crucible of Leadership (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 37–45; David Herbert Donald, “Introduction: Sixteenth President Wrote His Own Book on Leadership,” in Lincoln in the Times: The Life of Abraham Lincoln as Originally Reported in the New York Times, ed. David Herbert Donald and Harold Holzer (New York: St. Martin’s, 2005), 4–5. The quotations are from AL, “Speech at Cincinnati—Omitted Portion,” September 17, 1859, CW, 9:44.

CHAPTER 5. HELL-CATS

1. Isabella Beecher Hooker to John Hooker, December 2, 1862, quoted in Barbara A. White, The Beecher Sisters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 91–93; Annie Fields, “Days with Mrs. Stowe,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1896, 145–46. For AL not listening closely, see Noah Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time, ed. Herbert Mitgang (New York: Rinehart, 1958), 69.

2. Harriet Beecher Stowe to Duchess of Argyll, Andover, July 31, [1862], in Annie Fields, ed., Life and Letters of Harriet Beecher Stowe (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1897), 271–72; Harriet Beecher Stowe, “Prayer,” The Independent, August 28, 1862, in Joan D. Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 303 [incorrectly cited in that volume’s notes]; AL to Horace Greeley, August 22, 1862, CW, 5:388.

3. Harriet Beecher Stowe to Calvin Stowe, November 16, 1862, in Barbara A. White, Visits with Lincoln: Abolitionists Meet the President at the White House (Lanham, Md.: Lexington, 2011), 44; Harriet Beecher Stowe to Henry Ward Beecher, November 2, 1862, in Hedrick, Stowe, 305; Harriet Beecher Stowe to [James Thomas] Fields, Hartford, November 13, 1862, James T. Fields Papers, HL.

4. Later biographies state that Stowe’s brother Charles accompanied the party, and a biography written by Charles and his son Lyman fifty years after the fact claimed that AL greeted the gifted author with the words “So you’re the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war! Sit down, please,” see Charles Edward Stowe and Lyman Beecher Stowe, Harriet Beecher Stowe: The Story of Her Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 203. This has become a standard quip of Lincoln lore and there is even a statue of the meeting at the Lincoln Financial Sculpture Walk in Hartford, Conn., but documents from the time show it to have been unlikely. Isabella Beecher Hooker makes it clear that Wilson was only briefly present, and that otherwise the women were alone; and the fact that AL did not recognize Stowe makes such an opening remark implausible. Isabella Beecher Hooker to John Hooker, December 2, 1862, in White, Beecher Sisters, 93. F. Lauriston Bullard’s “Abraham Lincoln and Harriet Beecher Stowe,” Lincoln Herald, 49 (June 1946): 11–14, also contains material inconsistent with the documentary evidence. Barbara A. White did the spade work uncovering these discrepancies—see White, Visits with Lincoln, 49 and 59n; and also Daniel R. Vollaro, “Lincoln, Stowe, and the ‘Little Woman/Great War’ Story: The Making, and Breaking, of a Great American Anecdote,” JALA 30, no. 1 (Winter 2009): 18–34.

5. Isabella Beecher Hooker to John Hooker, December 2, 1862, in White, Beecher Sisters, 93; Fields, “Days with Mrs. Stowe,” 145–46; Harriet Beecher Stowe to [James Thomas] Fields, Washington, D.C., November 27, 1862, James T. Fields Papers, HL; Isabella Beecher Hooker to John [Hooker], November 20, [1862], in White, Visits with Lincoln, 44; Hatty Stowe to Eliza [Stowe], Washington, D.C., December 3, 1862, Beecher-Stowe Family Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU.

6. For biographical information on Swisshelm, see Sylvia D. Hoffert, Jane Grey Swisshelm: An Unconventional Life, 1815–1884 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); a shorter discussion is in the introduction to Jane Grey Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist: Letters of Jane Grey Swisshelm, 1858–1865, ed. Arthur J. Larsen (Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1976), 1–28. Descriptions of Swisshelm can be found in entry of February 21, 1863, Horatio Nelson Taft Diary, LC; “Pen Portraits on the Floor of the House,” Chicago Tribune, December 23, 1863, in Hoffert, Swisshelm, 103. For Swisshelm’s retorts, see Jane Grey Swisshelm, Half a Century (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg, 1880), 114.

7. Hoffert, Swisshelm, 104–6; “Pen Portraits on the Floor of the House,” in ibid., 103; Swisshelm, Half a Century, 234.

8. Jane Swisshelm to Will[iam] A. Mitchell, Washington, D.C., February 9 and 14, 1863, in Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist, 173 and 180; Swisshelm, Half a Century, 236.

9. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Matilda Joslyn Gage, and Ida Husted Harper, eds., History of Woman Suffrage (Rochester, N.Y.: Susan B. Anthony and New York: National American Woman Suffrage Association, 1887–1922), 2:41; Anna Dickinson to William Lloyd Garrison, Phila[delphia], March 16, 1862, Anna Dickinson Papers, LC; William Lloyd Garrison to Anna Dickinson, Boston, March 22, 1862, Dickinson Papers, LC; Anna Dickinson to Susan E. Dickinson, Boston, April 28, 1862, Dickinson Papers, LC. For Dickinson’s early years and work as a lecturer, see J. Matthew Gallman, America’s Joan of Arc: The Life of Anna Elizabeth Dickinson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 17–35; Melanie Susan Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 1854–1924 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 24–25.

10. Gallman, America’s Joan of Arc, 31; Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, undated clipping, and “A Lady Stump-Speaker,” both in Dickinson’s scrapbook, Dickinson Papers, LC; Diary of Nathan Daniels, January 17, 1864, Nathan Daniels Diaries, LC; White, Visits with Lincoln, 85; Mary Elizabeth Massey, Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966), 154; Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 27–29; Nina Silber, Daughters of the Union: Northern Women Fight the Civil War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005), 145; J. W. Batterson to Republican State Central Committee, Hartford, April 15, 1863, Dickinson Papers, LC. A dated look at the impact of Dickinson’s lecturing is in James Harvey Young, “Anna Elizabeth Dickinson and the Civil War: For and Against Lincoln,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 31, no. 1 (June 1944): 59–80.

11. “The National Crisis,” March 6, 1862, and Anna Dickinson to sister, Boston, May 27, 1862, both Dickinson Papers, LC; William D. Kelley, Anna E. Dickinson, and Frederick Douglass, Addresses of Hon. W. D. Kelley, Miss Anna E. Dickinson, and Mr. Frederick Douglass at a Mass Meeting Held at National Hall, Philadelphia, 6 July 1863 for the Promotion of Colored Enlistments (Philadelphia: Commission for United States Colored Troops, 1863).

12. White, Visits with Lincoln, 86–88 and 95n; description of speech in Diary of Nathan Daniels, January 19, 1864, Daniels Diaries, LC; AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 8, 1863, CW, 7:36–53; “The Perils of the Hour,” copy in Dickinson Papers, LC; Young, “Dickinson and the Civil War,” 69; Henry Dawes to “my own priceless beauty” [Electra Dawes], Washington, D.C., January 17, 1864, Henry Dawes Papers, LC.

13. Young, “Dickinson and the Civil War,” 69–70; Gallman, America’s Joan of Arc, 37; Giraud Chester, Embattled Maiden: The Life of Anna Dickinson (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1951), 76–77; Daily National Republican, January 18, 1864: Charles D. Warner to Anna Dickinson, Hartford, January 19, 1864, Dickinson Papers, LC.

14. Gallman, America’s Joan of Arc, 39; Chester, Embattled Maiden, 80; Boston Daily Courier, April 28, 1864, clipping in Dickinson Papers, LC.

15. William D. Kelley to [James] McKim, Washington, D.C., May 1, 1864, and James McKim to [William Lloyd] Garrison, Philadelphia, May 3, 1864, both Anti-Slavery Collection, Boston Public Library, Boston, Mass. For Dickinson’s excitable nature, see Anne Gilbert to Anna Dickinson, Oxford, January 7, 1861, Dickinson Papers, LC; William D. Kelley to Anna Dickinson, Washington, D.C., July 24, 1864, Dickinson Papers, LC; Chester, Embattled Maiden, 80–81; White, Visits with Lincoln, 89–90. For a discussion of similar male encounters with AL, see chapter 2.

16. Clara Barton to Henry Wilson, Washington, D.C., September 29 and December 19, 1865, Clara Barton Papers, LC; Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Clara Barton, Professional Angel (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1987), 73 and 76; Clara Barton to Captain Denny, n.d. [1861–1862], Barton Papers, LC.

17. Barton’s wartime work is discussed in Pryor, Clara Barton, 73–137; a longer treatment is in Stephen B. Oates, A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1994). See also entry of May 24, 1865 (“I am told”), Taft Diary, Taft Papers, LC; Clara Barton’s statement about her motivation to help others was made at a conference c. 1886, cited in Percy H. Epler, The Life of Clara Barton (New York: Macmillan, 1915), 32.

18. Clara Barton to Thad[deus] W. Meighan, Hilton Head, S.C., June 24, 1863, Barton Papers, LC; Clara Barton to Ladies Relief Committee of Worcester, Mass., December 16, 1861, Clara Barton Papers, American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.; Barton to Stephen Barton Jr., North Oxford, March 1, 1862, Barton Papers, LC; Barton to Frances D. Gage, copy in Barton Journal, May 1, 1864, Barton Papers, LC.

19. Description of Barton in Alvin C. Voris to wife, Petersburg, Va., August 26, 1864, typescript, Alvin Coe Voris Papers, VHS. Barton’s clothing is described in Clara [Barton] to Amelia Barton, Hilton Head, S.C., September 17, 1863, Clara Barton Papers, HL. See also Clara Barton Diary, February 27 and March 2, 1865, Barton Papers, LC.

20. Clara Barton Petition to AL, n.d. [February 1865]; W. G. Washburn to AL, Washington, D.C., February 28, 1865; [Ethan Allen] Hitchcock to Clara Barton, Washington, D.C., February 28, 1865; H[enry] Wilson to AL, Washington, D.C., February 28, 1865, all Barton Papers, LC. For Wilson’s consultations with Barton, see Barton to Wilson, January 28, 1863, and March 9 and October 29, 1865, Barton Papers, LC; Barton Diary, January 29 and February 26, 1865, Barton Papers, LC. Barton’s work with missing men is described in Pryor, Clara Barton, 134–46; Oates, Woman of Valor, 300–369; see also Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 211–49.

21. For a description of Barton’s string of rejections, see Barton Diary, February 26 through March 4, 1865, Barton Papers, LC; the quotation is from the entry of February 27.

22. AL’s endorsement, “As it is a matter pertaining to prisoners Gen. Hitchcock is authorized to do as he thinks fit in this matter of Miss Barton,” is in Ethan Allen Hitchcock to Clara Barton, February 28, 1865, Barton Papers, LC. A promoter of Barton’s work in the early twentieth century quoted another note from AL that gave clearer backing, but the document has never been found and that author’s work is unreliable in many other ways: see AL, “To the Friends of Missing Persons,” n.d., CW, 8:423; Corra Bacon-Foster, Clara Barton, Humanitarian (Washington, D.C.: Columbia Historical Society, 1918), 19. Roy P. Basler apparently believed AL held productive interviews with both Barton and Swisshelm. However, their papers make it clear the President did not meet them officially: see Basler, “Lincoln, Blacks, and Women,” in The Public and the Private Lincoln, ed. Cullom Davis et al. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979), 45.

23. Edward Bates to Miss [Anna] Carroll, September 21, 1861, and Anna Ella Carroll, request for reimbursement, Misc. Doc. 58 (HR, 45th Cong., 2nd sess.), in Sarah Ellen Blackwell, A Military Genius: Life of Anna Ella Carroll of Maryland (Washington, D.C.: Judd & Detweiler, 1891), 41–42 and 125; Anna Ella Carroll, “The War Powers of the General Government” (Washington, D.C.: Henry Polkinhorn, 1861); Anna Ella Carroll to AL, n.p., August 14, 1862, ALP-LC; AL to Anna E. Carroll, August 19, 1862, CW, 5:381; Janet L. Coryell, Neither Heroine nor Fool: Anna Ella Carroll of Maryland (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1990), 57 and 79–80. Documents relating to the promise of government funds are in Blackwell, A Military Genius; see also Basler, “Lincoln, Blacks, and Women,” 45–47.

24. Mrs. A. H. [Jane Currie] Hoge, The Boys in Blue; or Heroes of the “Rank and File” (New York: E. B. Treat, 1867), 83; Mary A. Livermore, My Story of the War (Hartford: A. D. Worthington, 1889), 554–60; Julia Ward Howe, “The Civil War,” unpublished manuscript, January 24, 1906, Howe Family Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU.

25. Gail Hamilton (Mary Abigail Dodge) to mother, Meriden, Conn., March 20, 1861, in Gail Hamilton, Gail Hamilton’s Life in Letters, ed. H. Augusta Dodge (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1901), 1:315; Cordelia A. P. Harvey, “A Wisconsin Woman’s Picture of President Lincoln,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 1, no. 3 (March 1918): 233–55. AL’s awkward interactions with women are also discussed in Michael Burlingame, The Inner World of Abraham Lincoln (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 126–33.

26. Reminiscence of William D. Kelley, n.d. [c. 1888], in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 284–85.

27. Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825–1880 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 3–18 and 52; Richard J. Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 32; Jo Freeman, A Room at a Time: How Women Entered Party Politics (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 28; Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 1–2; Bruce Dorsey, Reforming Men and Women: Gender in the Antebellum City (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002), 32–33.

28. Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 10–12; Elizabeth Varon, “Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too,” Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (September 1995): 495–503; Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics, 33–34.

29. Rebecca Edwards, Angels in the Machinery: Gender in American Party Politics from the Civil War to the Progressive Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 16, 18, and 28; H. Preston James, “Political Pageantry in the Campaign of 1860 in Illinois,” Abraham Lincoln Quarterly 4, no. 7 (September 1947): 313–47.

30. Douglas L. Wilson, Honor’s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 213–15; John Nicolay, interview with S[tephen] T. Logan, Springfield, Ill., July 6, 1875, in John G. Nicolay, An Oral History of Abraham Lincoln: John G. Nicolay’s Interviews and Essays, ed. Michael Burlingame (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996), 39; Mary Todd to Mercy Ann Levering, Springfield, Ill., December [15?], 1840, in Justin G. Turner and Linda Levitt Turner, eds., Mary Todd Lincoln: Her Life and Letters (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 21; Henry Clay quoted in Edwards, Angels in the Machinery, 14.

31. Massey, Bonnet Brigades, 17–24; Lydia Maria Child to Sarah Shaw, Wayland, August 3, 1856, in Lydia Maria Child, Selected Letters, 1817–1880, ed. Milton Meltzer and Patricia G. Holland (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982), 290.

32. Silber, Daughters of the Union, 45; Coryell, Neither Heroine nor Fool, xiii–xiv; “Isola” quoted in Lori D. Ginzberg, “‘Moral Suasion Is Moral Balderdash’: Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s,” Journal of American History 73, no. 3 (December 1986): 601.

33. Isabella Beecher Hooker to John Hooker, November 25, 1862, quoted in White, Beecher Sisters, 93; Sarah Smith (Martyn) quoted in Ginzberg, “‘Moral Suasion Is Moral Balderdash,’” 608.

34. Henry Ward Beecher, “Women’s Influence in Politics: Address Delivered at the Cooper Institute, New York, 2 February 1860” (Boston: R. F. Wallcut, 1860).

35. Diary entry of February 11, 1861, in Caroline Healey Dall, Daughter of Boston: The Extraordinary Diary of a Nineteenth-Century Woman, ed. Helen R. Deese (Boston: Beacon Press, 2005), 302; Julia Ward Howe to Charles Sumner, [Philadelphia], February 23, 1864, Howe Family Papers, Houghton Library, HU; Geneva [N.Y.] Gazette, March 1, 1864, quoted in Mary Elizabeth Massey, Women in the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 153–54; [David Ross Locke], “The Struggles of a Conservative with the Woman Question,” in The Struggles (Social, Financial and Political) of Petroleum V. Nasby (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1888), 660–86; Artemus Ward [Charles Farrar Browne], His Book (New York: Carleton, 1862), 49–53 and 119–22; Vanity Fair, May 30, 1863, 85–86.

36. An example of denying strong-mindedness is in Rhoda E. White to AL, New York, December 15, 1860, ALP-LC; see also MTL to James Gordon Bennett, October 4, 1862, in Turner and Turner, Life and Letters, 138.

37. AL to Andrew McCallen, Springfield, Ill., June 19, 1858, CW, 2:469; he reiterates this sentiment in a letter to Henry Wilson, Springfield, Ill., September 1, 1860, ibid., 4:109.

38. AL to Editor of the Sangamo Journal, New Salem, Ill., June 13, 1836, CW, 1:48; for a variety of commentary on this remark, see Basler, “Lincoln, Blacks, and Women,” 41; Richard N. Current, The Lincoln Nobody Knows (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958), 33; Gerald J. Prokopowicz, Did Lincoln Own Slaves? And Other Frequently Asked Questions About Abraham Lincoln (New York: Pantheon, 2008), 181.

39. Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 71; Earl Schenck Miers, ed., Lincoln Day by Day (Washington, D.C.: Lincoln Sesquicentennial Commission, 1960), 2:186; AL, “Speech at Springfield,” July 17, 1858, CW, 2:520; WHH to Jesse Weik, Springfield, Ill., February 11, 1887, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; “An Unpublished Letter from Lincoln’s Law Partner,” The Independent, April 4, 1895. AL’s secretary John Nicolay confirmed that he never heard AL support women’s rights: see memo in Nicolay’s hand to Mr. Gilder, n.d., John G. Nicolay Papers, LC.

40. Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 102–3; Miers, Day by Day, 2:20–21, 53, and 98. There are numerous examples of AL taking the part of women suffering from deprivation caused by war: see, e.g., AL to James F. Simmons, May 21, 1862, CW, 5:228; AL to Montgomery Blair, July 24, 1863, ibid., 6:346; AL to John D. Defrees, November 12, 1863, ibid., 7:12; see also AL to Charles Sumner, May 19, 1864, ibid., 9:243.

41. No contemporary description exists for Nancy Hanks Lincoln (sometimes called Nancy Sparrow, a name used after her mother began living with Henry Sparrow). For recollections see, e.g., WHH interviews with John Hanks, Decatur, Ill., May 25, 1865, and n.d. [1865–1866], HI, 5 and 37; WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, Chicago, June 13, 1865, ibid., 454; for the relative quote, see WHH interview with Nathaniel Grigsby, Gentryville, Ind., September 12, 1865, ibid., 113.

42. AL, quoted in WHH to Ward Hill Lamon, March 6, 1870 (“a brilliant woman”), Ward Hill Lamon Papers, HL; AL to Mrs. Orville Browning, April 1, 1838 (“weather-beaten”), CW, 1:118. There is a possibility that AL was describing his stepmother in this latter passage, but another description of his mother also mentions dental problems: see James K. Rardin to Jesse Weik, Chicago, March 9, 1888, HI, 652. Lloyd Ostendorf’s 1963 imagining of Nancy Hanks Lincoln can be found at www.nps.gov/albi/learn/historyculture/nancy-hanks-lincoln; Dennis Hanks, a cousin on her side, does indeed show a marked likeness to the sixteenth president. On Nancy Lincoln’s death, see Nathaniel Grigsby to WHH, Gentryville, Ind., September 4, 1865, and A. H. Chapman, Statement, c. September 8, 1865, HI, 93 and 97–98.

43. Louis A. Warren, Lincoln’s Youth: Indiana Years Seven to Twenty-One, 1816–1830 (New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts, 1959), 9–10; WHH interview with Elizabeth Crawford, September 16, 1865, HI, 126; WHH interview with John Hanks, n.d. [1865–1866], ibid., 456; John Hanks to Jesse Weik, Linkville, Ore., June 12, 1887, ibid., 615.

44. William E. Bartelt, “There I Grew Up”: Remembering Abraham Lincoln’s Indiana Youth (Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 2008), 36; Grigsby to WHH, September 12, 1865, HI, 114; WHH interview with Nathaniel Grigsby, Silas Richardson, Nancy Richardson, and John Romine, Lincoln Farm, September 14, 1865, ibid., 118; WHH interview with Crawford, September 16, 1865, ibid., 127; WHH interview with Green Taylor, September 16, 1865, ibid., 130; Samuel Kercheval to Jesse Weik, Rockport, December 2, 1887, ibid., 645. See also Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 295.

45. WHH to Jesse Weik, Springfield, Ill., October 8, 1881, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Warren, Lincoln’s Youth, 60–66; WHH interview with Sarah Bush Lincoln, September 8, 1865, HI, 106–9; Harriet Chapman to WHH, Charleston, Ill., December 17, 1865, ibid., 144; WHH interview with Crawford, September 16, 1865, ibid., 126; Bartelt, “There I Grew Up,” 64. Another photograph of Sarah Bush Johnston Lincoln was identified in 2003 in the Stephenson County Historical Society, Freeport, Ill.

46. AL to John D. Johnston, Springfield, Ill., November 25, 1851, CW, 2:113; John J. Hall to AL, October 18, 1864, ALP-LC; Harriet Chapman to AL, Charleston, Ill., January 17, 1865, ALP-LC; WHH interview with Sarah Bush Lincoln, September 8, 1865, HI, 106–9.

47. The trauma of childhood loss is examined in Sigmund Freud, “Mourning and Melancholia” (1917), in James Strachey, ed., The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (London: Hogarth, 1957), 14 and 239–58; George H. Pollack, “Mourning and Adaptation,” International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 42 (1961); Alicia F. Lieberman, “Separation in Infancy and Early Childhood: Contributions of Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis,” and Janice L. Krupnick and Frederic Solomon, “Death of a Parent or Sibling During Childhood,” both in Jonathan Bloom-Feshbach and Sally Bloom-Feshbach, eds., The Psychology of Separation and Loss (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1987), 345–65; John Bowlby, The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds (London: Tavistock, 1979); Alicia F. Lieberman et al., eds., Losing a Parent to Death in the Early Years: Guidelines for the Treatment of Traumatic Bereavement in Infancy and Early Childhood (Washington, D.C.: Zero to Three, 2003). They postulate that such loss can cause a boy to cling to and yet try to dominate the surviving parent or suffer a sharp fear of dependence. During mourning, young children may reproach themselves, believing they contributed to the death, and guilty feelings may arise from this. There may be rage or despair in the face of abandonment and those who internalize these feelings may later suffer depression, feelings of inadequacy, or physical illness, sometimes masked by an outer shell of equanimity.

48. AL to Fanny McCullough, December 23, 1862, CW, 6:16–17; William Knox, “Mortality,” online at www.poets.org; AL to Andrew Johnston, Tremont, April 18, 1846, CW, 1:377–79; Lawrence Weldon, notes for speech, August 1, 1865, HI, 88. AL’s depression is discussed in Burlingame, Inner World, 92–122; Joshua Wolf Shenk, Lincoln’s Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005).

49. WHH’s description of the conversation about Nancy Hanks’s legitimacy is in Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 12–13. See also David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 20 and 603n; Prokopowicz, Did Lincoln Own Slaves?, 6–8; Richard N. Collins to WHH, Cincinnati, August 19, 1867, HI, 198–99; Alfred M. Brown to Jesse Weik, [Elizabethtown, Ky.], March 23, 1887, ibid., 567; Dennis Hanks to WHH, Charleston, Ill., February 10, 1866, ibid., 612; Henry C. Whitney to WHH, Chicago, August 29, 1887, ibid., 635.

50. Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 110; conversation with O. H. Browning, Springfield, Ill., June 17, 1875, and with William Butler, Springfield, Ill., June 13, 1875, in Nicolay, An Oral History of Abraham Lincoln, 1–7 and 18–19; Anson Henry to wife, Washington, D.C., February 8, 1865, Anson Henry Papers, ILPL. On avoiding girls, see WHH interview with N. W. Branson, Petersburg, Ill., August 3, 1865, HI, 91; WHH interview with Anna Caroline Gentry, Rockport, Ill., September 17, 1865, ibid., 131. “Too frivolous” from statement of John Hanks in Burlingame, Inner World, 123.

51. Burlingame, Inner World, 123–24; Mrs. Samuel Chowning quoted in John Y. Simon, House Divided: Lincoln and His Father (Fort Wayne, Ind.: Louis A. Warren Lincoln Library and Museum, 1987); AL, “Speech in Illinois Legislature, Concerning Apportionment,” [January 9, 1841?], CW, 1:228; Reminiscence of Samuel R. Weed, c. 1882, in Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), 460. For more on AL’s self-deprecation, see chapter 2.

52. Statement of Abner Ellis, January 23, 1866, HI, 170; Henry Clay Whitney, Life on the Circuit with Lincoln (Boston: Estes & Lauriat, 1892), 37; WHH interview with Elizabeth Todd Edwards, n.d. [1865–1866], HI, 443; Mary Owens Vineyard to WHH, Weston, Mo., May 23 and July 22, 1866, ibid., 256 and 262.

53. WHH, “Analysis of the Character of Abraham Lincoln,” December 26, 1865, William Henry Herndon Papers, HL; Replies to Queries by Dr. Le Grand, n.d., Arthur E. Morgan Papers LC; see also Arthur E. Morgan, “New Light on Lincoln’s Boyhood,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1920, 216; Henry Villard, “Recollections of Lincoln,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1904, 165–74.

54. AL to Mary Owens, Springfield, Ill., May 7 and August 16, 1837, CW, 1:78–79 and 95; AL to Mrs. Orville H. Browning, April 1, 1838, ibid., 1:117–19; WHH interview with John Lightfoot, September 13, 1887, HI, 639; Sarah Rickard Barret to WHH, Connors, Kans., August 3, 1888, ibid., 663–64. See also Fred Kaplan, Lincoln: The Biography of a Writer (New York: Harper Perennial, 2010), 39; Current, The Lincoln Nobody Knows, 41; Catherine Clinton, Mrs. Lincoln: A Life (New York: Harper, 2009), 42.

55. A sensitive discussion of AL’s relation with Anne Rutledge is in Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 106–7 and 114–26 (Robert Rutledge quoted on 118); see also Donald, Lincoln, 55–57; Sarah Rutledge Saunders to Mary Saunders, enclosure in J. R. Saunders to Mary Saunders, Sisquoc, Calif., May 14, 1914, ILPL. In his afterword to C. A. Tripp, The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Lewis Gannett (New York: Free Press, 2005), 236–37, Michael Burlingame argues strongly against Tripp’s skepticism about the romance, as well as the questions raised in Lewis Gannett, “‘Overwhelming Evidence’ of a Lincoln–Ann Rutledge Romance?: Reexamining Rutledge Family Reminiscences,” JALA 26, no. 1 (Winter 2005): 28–41.

56. Tripp, Intimate World, is a lengthy psychological assessment of AL’s purported homosexuality; Jean Baker proposes in the introduction he was bisexual, xxii; for AL’s friendship with Derickson, see 2–17. Matthew Pinsker believes that the stories about Derickson, though based on fact, were inflated by gossip: see Pinsker, Lincoln’s Sanctuary: Abraham Lincoln and the Soldiers’ Home (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 84–87. See also Current, The Lincoln Nobody Knows, 32. “What stuff!” is from Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, November 16, 1862, Levi Woodbury Papers, LC.

57. Statement of Abner Ellis, January 23, 1866, HI, 171; WHH interview with David Davis, September 20, [1866], ibid., 350; WHH interview with Joshua Speed, January 5, 1889, ibid., 719; Burlingame, “Afterword,” in Tripp, Intimate World, 229–30; WHH to Jesse Weik, Springfield, Ill., December 10, 1885, and January 23, 1890, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 127–29.

58. On changing concepts of manliness, see Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 5–8 and 16–18; Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York: Free Press, 1996), 18, 22–23, and 33; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 295; WHH interview with Dennis F. Hanks, June 13, 1865 (source for Thomas Lincoln’s whipping a bully), HI, 37; A. H. Chapman Statement, ante September 8, 1865, ibid., 96.

59. Charles E. Rosenberg, “Sexuality, Class and Role in 19th-Century America,” American Quarterly 25, no. 2 (May 1973): 137–39 and 143–45; Kimmel, Manhood in America, 25–28, 39–45, 52, and 60; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 296–98; Stephen M. Frank, Life with Father: Parenthood and Masculinity in the Nineteenth-Century American North (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 3–4.

60. WHH to Jesse Weik, December 10, 1885, and “Notes on Lincoln and Mary Todd,” n.d. [post-1880], both Herndon-Weik Collection, LC [incorrectly transcribed in The Hidden Lincoln: From the Letters and Papers of William H. Herndon, ed. Emanuel Hertz (New York: Blue Ribbon, 1940), 111–12]; Jean H. Baker, Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 37; WHH interview with Edwards, [c. 1865–1866], HI, 443.

61. James Conkling quoted in Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 219–20; WHH interview with Edwards, [c. 1865–1866], HI, 443. My interpretation of the Todd-Lincoln relationship is largely drawn from Wilson’s account, 215–31, which painstakingly examines the fragmented evidence.

62. AL to John T. Stuart, Springfield, Ill., January 20 and 23, 1841, CW, 1:228 and 229; Joshua Speed to WHH, Louisville, November 30, 1866, HI, 430; WHH interview with Edwards, [c. 1865–1866], ibid., 443; WHH interview with Joshua Speed, [c. 1865–1866], ibid., 475. See also Jane D. Bell to Ann Bell, January 27, 1841, in Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 237.

63. AL to Joshua F. Speed, Springfield, Ill., March 24, 1843, CW, 1:319; see also AL to Samuel D. Marshall, Springfield, Ill., November 11, 1842, ibid., 1:303. For Speed’s similar doubts about marriage, see AL to Joshua F. Speed, Springfield, Ill., October 5, 1842, ibid., 1:305; Wilson, Honor’s Voice, 233–64, 284–86, and 291, offers an insightful account of the marriage; a sympathetic treatment is in Daniel Mark Epstein, The Lincolns: Portrait of a Marriage (New York: Ballantine, 2008); a more critical view is in Michael Burlingame, “Honest Abe, Dishonest Mary,” Bulletin of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Lincoln Fellowship of Wisconsin 50 (April 1994).

64. MTL to AL, New York, November 2, [1862], in Turner and Turner, Life and Letters, 139–40; MTL to Mary Jane Welles, near Chicago, July 11, 1865, ibid., 257. For AL’s correspondence with his wife, see the letters of April 16, June 12, and July 2, 1848, CW, 1:465, 477, and 495; excerpt, [Exeter, N.H.], n.d. [March 4, 1860], ibid., 3:555; letters of June 9, August 8, and September 21, 22, and 24, 1863, ibid., 6:256, 371–72, 471, 474, and 478; letter of April 28, 1864, ibid., 7:320; telegrams of December 21, 1864, and April 2, 1865, ibid., 8:174 and 382. See also WHH to [Joseph Smith] Fowler, Springfield, Ill., October 30, 1888, Ethan Allen Hitchcock Papers, LC. For “as a business,” see AL to Mrs. M. J. Green, Springfield, Ill., September 22, 1860, CW, 4:118. Ideas about the marriage bond also gleaned from the interview with Damián Szifrón in Larry Rohter, “The Making of ‘Wild Tales’ an Oscar Nominee,” New York Times, February 15, 2015.

65. Douglas L. Wilson, “William H. Herndon and Mary Todd Lincoln,” JALA 22, no. 2 (Summer 2001); WHH interview with James Gourley, HI, 452–53. The baby carriage incident is in Katherine Helm, The True Story of Mary, Wife of Lincoln (New York: Harper Brothers, 1928), 113. For a who-struck-whom recitation of the Lincolns’ home life, with a pro-AL emphasis, see Burlingame, “The Lincolns’ Marriage,” in Inner World, 268–355; for more sympathetic accounts of MTL’s trials with AL, see Clinton, Mrs. Lincoln, 74, 105, and 125; Emily Todd Helm, “Mary Todd Lincoln: Reminiscences and Letters of the Wife of President Lincoln,” McClure’s Magazine, September 1898, 479; David Donald, “Herndon and Mrs. Lincoln,” in Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 50–56. The WHH quotation is in Wilson, “William H. Herndon and Mary Todd Lincoln.”

66. Clinton, Mrs. Lincoln, 74 and 105; Katheryn Kish Sklar, “Victorian Women and Domestic Life: Mary Todd Lincoln, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Harriet Beecher Stowe,” in Davis, The Public and the Private Lincoln, 30–34; WHH to Fowler, October 30, 1888, Hitchcock Papers, LC; Whitney, Life on the Circuit, 97; Mark E. Neely Jr., The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 32–33; AL to MTL, April 16 and June 12, 1848, CW, 1:465–66 and 477–78; Henry C. Bowen, “Recollection of Abraham Lincoln,” in William Hayes Ward, ed., Abraham Lincoln: Tributes from His Associates, Reminiscences of Soldiers, Statesmen and Citizens (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1895), 32.

67. Elizabeth Todd Edwards to Julia [Edwards], Andover, February 10, [1861], Elizabeth Todd Edwards Correspondence, LC; Herman Kreismann to Charles Ray, Washington, D.C., January 16, 1861, Charles H. Ray Papers, HL; for a closer look at the pre-inauguration period, see chapter 6.

68. Diary of William Howard Russell, March 28 and 30, 1861, in William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 41–42 and quotation on 54. For criticism, see Lydia Maria Child to [Sarah Blake Sturgis], Wayland, November 24, 1861, Lydia Maria Child Correspondence, LC; Benjamin B. French to Pamela [French], Washington, D.C., December 24, 1861, Benjamin B. French Family Papers, LC. The often quoted quip “flub dubs . . .” is sometimes put in italics, but those do not appear in the original manuscript. For example, see the entry of December 16, 1861, in Benjamin Brown French, Witness to the Young Republic: A Yankee’s Journal, 1828–1870, ed. Donald B. Cole and John J. McDonough (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1989), 382.

69. Examples of MTL’s many freelance political letters are MTL to David Davis, New York, January 17, 1861 [sic; likely 1862]; MTL to Simon Cameron, March 29, [1861]; MTL to Montgomery Meigs, October 4, 1861; MTL to Edwin D. Morgan, New York, November 13, 1862; MTL to Charles Sumner, November 20, 1864; and MTL to Simon Draper, January 26, 1865, all in Turner and Turner, Life and Letters, 74, 83, 107–8, 142, 191, and 199. See also Margaret Leech, Reveille in Washington, 1860–1865 (New York: Harper Brothers, 1941), 290; entry of September 27, 1861, Taft Diary, LC. The Wikoff affair is discussed in Epstein, The Lincolns, 339–42 and 353–56; Henry M. Smith to Eds. [Chicago] Tribune, n.d. [November 1861], Ray Papers, HL. AL’s papers show no response to his wife’s efforts to influence affairs, and no action taken, although some historians have projected that he chastised or stopped confiding in MTL: Turner and Turner, Life and Letters, 183.

70. Diary of Benjamin B. French, September 7 and December 18, 1861, French Papers, LC; French to Pamela [French], Washington, D.C., December 24, 1861, French Papers, LC; George Bancroft to wife, Washington, D.C., December 12 and 15, 1861, George Bancroft Papers, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.; John Sedgwick to sister, n.p. [Headquarters Sixth Army Corps], April 12, 1863, in John Sedgwick, Correspondence of John Sedgwick, Major-General, ed. Henry D. Sedgwick (New York: Printed for Carl and Ellen Battille Stoeckel by De Vinne Press, 1902–1903), 2:90; see also Maria Lydig Daly Diary, July 14, 1863, in Diary of a Union Lady, ed. Harold Earl Hammond (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1962), 248. For an example of the insinuations against MTL, see entry of September 11, 1862, in The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed. Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas (New York: Macmillan, 1952), 3:255; entry of November 3, 1861, Russell, My Diary, 322. The contemporary accounts of MTL used for this chapter reveal a three-to-one favorable impression of her.

71. Kathleen L. Endres, “The Women’s Press in the Civil War: A Portrait of Patriotism, Propaganda, and Prodding,” Civil War History 30, no. 1 (March 1984): 36. For Hermann and the Tom Thumb receptions, see George B. McClellan to wife [Mary Ellen McClellan], [Washington, D.C.], November 21, [1861], in George B. McClellan, The Civil War Papers of George B. McClellan: Selected Correspondence, 1860–1865, ed. Stephen W. Sears (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1989), 137; Diary of Benjamin B. French, November 24, 1861, French Papers, LC; Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, February 13, 1863, Woodbury Papers, LC; Leech, Reveille in Washington, 297; Henry Dawes to Ella [Dawes], January 29, 1862, Dawes Papers, LC; unidentified newspaper clipping, February 5, 1862 (“A dancing-party”), enclosed in Henry Dawes to Ella Dawes, February 13, 1862, Dawes Papers, LC; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, February 22, 1862, 216–17.

72. Description of Willie Lincoln’s illness and death in Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005), 415–23; Rebecca R. J. Pomeroy to Mary [?], Indiana Hospital, Washington, D.C., March 27, 1862, typescript, Rebecca R. J. Pomeroy Letters, Schlesinger Library, HU; Anson G. Henry to wife, Washington, D.C., May 8, 1865, Henry Papers, ILPL; MTL to Mrs. [Julia] Sprigg, Washington, D.C., May 29, 1862, Mary Todd Lincoln Papers, LC. For details of AL’s poor military interventions in the spring of 1862, see Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “‘The Grand Old Duke of York’: How Abraham Lincoln Lost the Confidence of His Military Command,” forthcoming.

73. For MTL’s possible use of morphine, see WHH to Fowler, Springfield, Ill., October 30, 1888, Hitchcock Papers, LC; Wilson, “Herndon and Mary Todd Lincoln”; “Diary” of Emily Todd Helm, n.d. [various entries c. post-October 1863], in Helm, True Story of Mary, 224–27, quotations on 224–25; see also 201–3. For “I do not believe,” see Julia Taft Bayne, Tad Lincoln’s Father (Boston: Little, Brown, 1931), 205.

74. “Diary” of Emily Todd Helm, n.d., in Helm, True Story of Mary, 222; Rebecca R. J. Pomeroy to Mary [?], March 27, 1862, Pomeroy Letters, Schlesinger Library, HU; Frederick Law Olmsted to Henry Whitney Bellows, Washington, D.C., September 21, 1862, in Frederick Law Olmsted, The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted, ed. Charles E. Beveridge et al. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977–2015), 4:426; Isabella Beecher Hooker to John Hooker, December 2, 1862, quoted in White, Beecher Sisters, 93; entry of June 5, 1863, in Adam Gurowski, Diary from November 18, 1862 to October 18, 1863 (New York: Carleton, 1864), 241–42; Charles W. Reed’s drawing of Lincoln’s Midnight Thinky, MSS Collection, Manuscript Reading Room, LC.

75. Turner and Turner, Life and Letters, 41; John Hay to John G. Nicolay, April 5, 1862, in Burlingame, Inner World, 326n; Charles A. Dana, “Reminiscences of Men and Events of the Civil War: I. From the ‘Tribune’ to the War Department,” McClure’s Magazine, November 1897, 21–22; S. D. Cox to [Manton] Marble, House of Representatives, May 20, 1864, Manton Marble Papers, LC. For the episode at the military review, see John S. Barnes, “With Lincoln from Washington to Richmond in 1865,” Appleton’s Magazine, May 1907, 517–19 and 523–24; Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace: From Appomattox to Mount McGregor: A Personal Memoir (Hartford: S. S. Scranton, 1887), 356–65; Julia Dent Grant, The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant (Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant), ed. John Y. Simon (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988), 146–47. Henry Adams described Badeau as alcoholic, “vicious, narrow . . . and vindictive” and Grant also ultimately dismissed him; The Education of Henry Adams (Washington, D.C.: Privately published, 1907), 229.

76. Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Gerrit Smith, New York, May 6, 1863 [sic; 1864], Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Pinsker, Lincoln’s Sanctuary, 12 and 131; Clinton, Mrs. Lincoln, 219 and 223; Mark E. Neely Jr. and R. Gerald McMurtry, The Insanity File: The Case of Mary Todd Lincoln (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986), 3–5. AL’s financial methods are detailed in Harry E. Pratt, The Personal Finances of Abraham Lincoln (Springfield, Ill.: The Abraham Lincoln Association, 1943); Epstein, The Lincolns, 382. For accusations of stealing and further aberrations, see Burlingame, “Honest Abraham, Dishonest Mary.”

77. Turner and Turner, Life and Letters; Baker, Mary Todd Lincoln, 240; Thomas F. Schwartz and Kim M. Bauer, eds., “Unpublished Mary Todd Lincoln,” JALA 17, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 1–21.

78. William O. Stoddard, Inside the White House in War Times: Memories and Reports of Lincoln’s Secretary, ed. Michael Burlingame (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 185; Henry Wilson to AL, Washington, D.C., February 28, 1865, Barton Papers, LC; W. G. Washburn to AL, February 28, 1865, Barton Papers, LC; Julia Ward Howe, “The Civil War,” January 24, 1906, Howe Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Hoge, Boys in Blue, 82 and 235; Gallman, America’s Joan of Arc, 39; Seward quoted in John Hay to J. G. Nicolay, Washington, D.C., September 24, 1864, in John Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War in the Diaries and Letters of John Hay, ed. Tyler Dennett (1939; repr., Westport, Conn.: Negro Universities Press, 1972), 207–8; statement of James A. Briggs in Belleville [Ill.] Advocate, June 8, 1866, quoted in Burlingame, “Afterword,” in Tripp, Intimate World, 229.

79. Anna Ella Carroll to AL, April 15, 1862, Anna Ellen Carroll Papers, Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, Md.; Lydia Sayer Hasbrouck to AL, Middletown, N.Y., March 8, 1861, ALP-LC; Lydia Maria Child, “Mrs. L. Maria Child to the President of the United States,” National Anti-Slavery Standard, September 6, 1862, quoted in Lyde Cullen Sizer, The Political Work of Northern Women Writers and the Civil War, 1850–1872 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 104; Mary A. Livermore to AL, Chicago, October 11, 1863, ALP-LC; Mrs. A. H. Hoge and Mrs. D. P. Livermore to AL, Chicago, October 21, 1863, ALP-LC; Isaac Arnold to AL, Chicago, October 21, 1863, ALP-LC. For more on AL’s dislike of criticism, see Pryor, “‘The Grand Old Duke of York.’”

80. Women’s wartime situation in Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 84–86, 90–91, and 113; Lois Bryan Adams for Detroit Advertiser and New York Tribune, January 2, 1865, in Lois Bryan Adams, Letter from Washington, 1863–1865, ed. Evelyn Leasher (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 224–25. For women asking the impossible, see Diary of August Laugel, January 7, 1865, in Fehrenbacher and Fehrenbacher, Recollected Words, 294. For evidence of AL treating women kindly, see American and Commercial Advertiser, March 23, 1865, in Charles M. Segal, ed., Conversations with Lincoln (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1961), 377; AL to Montgomery Blair, July 24, 1863, CW, 6:346; for claims that he universally did so, see Stoddard, Inside the White House, 186; Helen Nicolay in Burlingame, Inner World, 126 and 130–31; AL, “Memo on Gabriel R. Paul,” August 23, 1862, CW, 5:390–91.

81. On flirtatious advances, see Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, December 7, 1862, Woodbury Papers, LC; Burlingame, “Afterword,” in Tripp, Intimate World, 229–30. Jane Speed quotation in her letter to AL, Louisville, October 26, 1864, ALP-LC.

82. Seward quoted in Donn Piatt, Memories of the Men Who Saved the Union (New York: Belford, Clarke, 1887), 37.

83. Electra Dawes to husband [Henry L. Dawes], North Adams, Mass., December 8, 1861, Dawes Papers, LC; A. Y. Ellis to WHH, December 6, 1866, typescript, David Rankin Barbee Papers, GU; Neely, Last Best Hope, 149; Diary of Virginia Woodbury Fox, December 12, 1861, Woodbury Papers, LC; Maunsell B. Field, Memories of Many Men and of Some Women (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1874), 312.

84. White, Visits with Lincoln, 14; W. T. Sherman to Lorenzo Thomas, Louisville, October 22, 1861, in William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman (New York: D. Appleton, 1875), 1:204–5; Ellen Ewing Sherman to AL, Lancaster, Ohio, January 9, 1862, ALP-LC; Ellen Ewing Sherman to brother [Thomas Ewing Jr.], Lancaster, Ohio, December 30, 1861, Thomas Ewing Family Papers, LC; Michael Fellman, “Lincoln and Sherman,” in Gabor Boritt, ed., Lincoln’s Generals (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 135–38; Ellen Ewing Sherman to “Cump” [William T. Sherman], Washington, D.C., January 29 and February 4, 1862, both William Tecumseh Sherman Family Papers, University of Notre Dame Archives, Notre Dame, Ind. Another example of such a petition is in Catharine M. Dix to AL, New York, December 18, [1864], ALP-LC.

85. Frank P. Blair to “dear judge” [Montgomery Blair], September 6, 1861, Blair Family Papers, LC; Francis P. Blair Sr. to Jessie Benton Frémont, Silver Spring, Md., August 13, 1861, ALP-LC; White, Visits with Lincoln, 2–7; AL to John C. Frémont, September 2, 1861, CW, 4:506.

86. Jesse B. Frémont to President [AL], September 10 and 12, 1861, both ALP-LC; entry of December 9, 1863, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 123; John G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln: A History (New York: Century, 1886–1890), 4:415; Jessie Benton Frémont, “Great Events: The Lincoln Interview,” c. 1891, in The Letters of Jessie Benton Frémont, ed. Pamela Herr and Mary Lee Spence (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 264–69.

87. White, Visits with Lincoln, 9–13; AL to John C. Frémont, September 11, 1861, CW, 4:517–18; AL to Mrs. John C. Frémont, September 12, 1861, ibid., 4:519; AL to Orville H. Browning, September 22, 1861, ibid., 4:531–33; entry of December 9, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 123; Francis P. Blair’s version of the story is in Blair to Elizabeth Blair Lee, September 17–18, 1861, quoted in Pamela Herr, Jesse Benton Frémont: A Biography (New York: Franklin Watts, 1987), 340–41.

88. Entry of December 9, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 123; Jesse Frémont to President [AL], September 10, 1861, ALP-LC; White, Visits with Lincoln, 9–12. After the September 1861 meeting, Jesse Frémont continued to exert her influence on Republican politics. Although she occasionally attended White House levees, she still saw AL as a “dictator,” of “sly, slimy nature,” and spread rumors of the Blairs’ alcoholism and their intrigues—to some extent true—in Missouri. For his part, AL tolerated the inconsistent John Frémont for a while, then marginalized him. The President accepted Frémont’s resignation when the general objected to the command of John Pope, and AL declined to reinstate Frémont: see Jesse B. Frémont to Thomas Starr King, December 29, 1861, and October 16, [1863], in Letters of Jessie Benton Frémont, 303–4 and 356; Jesse B. Frémont to [George Washington] Julian, Wheeling [W. Va.], May 25, 1862, Joshua R. Giddings and George W. Julian Papers, LC.

89. Eliza Leslie, The Behavior Book: A Manual for Ladies (Philadelphia: Willis P. Hazard, 1853), 197.

90. Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 170; Dorothea Dix to Annie Heath, Washington, D.C., April 20, 1861, Dorothea Lynde Dix Papers, Houghton Library, HU; Lillie B. Chace to “friend” [Anna Dickinson], Cherry Lawn, June 17, 1861, Dickinson Papers, LC; Clara Barton to Fanny Childs, Washington, D.C., January 7, 1862, Barton Papers, LC.

91. Entry of February 20, 1862, Dall, Daughter of Boston, 214; Lucy Larcom quoted in Judith Harper, ed., Women During the Civil War: An Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2004), 235. For female soldiers, see DeAnne Blanton and Lauren M. Cook, They Fought Like Demons: Women Soldiers in the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2002). Van Lew’s activities are described in Elizabeth R. Varon, Southern Lady, Yankee Spy: The True Story of Elizabeth Van Lew, A Union Agent in the Heart of the Confederacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Van Lew’s rather disjointed diary appears in her A Yankee Spy in Richmond: The Civil War Diary of “Crazy Bet” Van Lew, ed. David D. Ryan (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1996).

92. Elizabeth [Blackwell] to Barbara [Bodichon], June 5, 1861, Elizabeth Blackwell Correspondence, CU; Silber, Daughters of the Union, 176–77; William Quentin Maxwell, Lincoln’s Fifth Wheel: The Political History of the United States Sanitary Commission (New York: Longmans, Green, 1956), 2–8 (AL quoted on 8); Winfield Scott to “the loyal women of America,” Washington, D.C., October 1, 1861 (with endorsement by AL of September 30, 1861), in New York Tribune, October 7, 1861, 7.

93. Entry of April 19, 1861, Hay, Inside the White House, 3; Simon Cameron, Circular on Dix’s role, n.d. [April 23, 1861], Dix Papers, Houghton Library, HU; AL, “Order Regarding Miss Dix” (in another hand, but signed and dated by AL), July 26, 1861, Dix Papers, Houghton Library, HU; Emily Blackwell to Barbara [Bodichon], New York, June 1 and 11, 1861, Blackwell Correspondence, CU; William A. Hammond, Surgeon General’s Circulars No. 7 and 8, July 14, 1862, copy in Dix Papers, Houghton Library, HU; Swisshelm quoted in Cornelia Hancock to Sarah [?], City Point, Va., July 7, 1864, in Cornelia Hancock, South After Gettysburg: Letters of Cornelia Hancock from the Army of the Potomac, 1863–1868, ed. Henrietta Stratton Jaquette (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1956), 131; Diary of George Templeton Strong, August 2, 1861, 3:173–74; Frederick Law Olmsted, Report on the Demoralization of Volunteers, September 5, 1861, in Olmsted, Papers of Olmsted, 4:153–54; Thomas J. Brown, Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 278–86, 310–11, and 315–20.

94. Judith Ann Giesberg, Civil War Sisterhood: The U.S. Sanitary Commission and Women’s Politics in Transition (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2000), 43–50; AL to Medical Director at Winchester, Va., March 30, 1862, CW, 9:127–28; Georgeanna Woolsey, 1864, quoted in Letters of a Family During the War for the Union, 1861–1865, ed. Georgeanna Woolsey Bacon (N.p.: Privately published, c. 1899), 1:142.

95. AL to Mary Walker, January 16, 1864, Walker Papers, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y., quoted in Elizabeth D. Leonard, Yankee Women: Gender Battles in the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), 130; see also 112–14 and 129. This letter to Walker is not contained in CW.

96. Frederick Law Olmsted to Henry Whitney Bellow, Washington, D.C., September 25, 1861, in Olmsted, Papers of Olmsted, 4:202–3; Olmsted to Henry Whitney Bellow, USS Ocean Queen, May 7, 1862, ibid., 4:322; Olmsted to Henry Whitney Bellow, White House [Plantation], Va., June 2, 1862, ibid., 4:353; Olmsted to John Foster Jenkins, Floating Hospital, May 25 and 29, [1862], ibid., 4:363–64 and (“untiring industry”) 322. For Bickerdyke, see the draft of a memoir, written after 1893, in Mary Ann Bickerdyke Papers, LC.

97. Francis Bacon to Georgeanna Woolsey, [St. Louis], July 6, 1863, in Bacon, Letters of a Family, 2:522–23.

98. Orpheus C. Kerr [Robert Henry Newell], October 6, 1861, Orpheus C. Kerr Papers: First Series (New York: Blakeman & Mason, 1863), 110.

99. Jane E. Schultz, “Seldom Thanked, Never Praised and Scarcely Recognized: Gender and Racism in Civil War Hospitals,” Civil War History 48, no. 3 (September 2002): 220–36; Kate Clifford Larson, Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero (New York: Ballantine, 2004), 196, 223–24, and 368n; Rosa Belle Holt, “A Heroine in Ebony,” Chautauquan 23 (July 1896): 459–62; Tubman interview in Boston Commonwealth, July 1863, quoted in Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 141; Silber, Daughters of the Union, 167; Margaret Washington, Sojourner Truth’s America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 316–20.

100. Randall Stewart, “‘Pestiferous Gail Hamilton,’ James T. Fields, and the Hawthornes,” New England Quarterly 17, no. 3 (September 1944): 418; Mary Abigail Dodge (Gail Hamilton) to Mr. Wood, Great Falls, N.H., September 6 and October 25, 1862, both Mary Abigail Dodge Papers, UVa; Gail Hamilton, “A Call to My Country-Women,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1863, 345–49; Gail Hamilton, “Tracts for Our Time: Courage!” Congregationalist, January 27, 1862 [sic; 1863]; Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 121.

101. Leonard, Yankee Women, 60–75 and 101–3; Edwin M. Stanton directive [concerning Wittenmyer], Washington, D.C., July 25, 1862, photostat, Annie Wittenmyer Letters, LC; AL, “Order Concerning Mrs. Annie Wittenmyer,” October 20, 1864, CW, 8:54; Dr. James Dunn to wife, printed in Pittsburgh Christian Union, July 4, 1896, Barton Papers, LC.

102. Dorothea Dix to William Rathbone, November 28, [1861], and Dorothea Dix to Annie [Heath], Washington, D.C., March 16, 1863, both Dix Papers, Houghton Library, HU; Dix to Cameron, January 12, 1862, in Brown, Dix, 305; Silber, Daughters of the Union, 160–61, 192–93, and 203, Barton quoted on 201.

103. “Woman’s Rights Convention,” unidentified clipping, February 7–8, 1861, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin, Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 162–67; Hoge, Boys in Blue, 333; Giesberg, Civil War Sisterhood, 126–28. For Barton’s politicization, see Pryor, Clara Barton, 120–22.

104. Samuel F. Du Pont to H. W. Davis, October 25, 1862, in Samuel Francis Du Pont, Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from His Civil War Letters, ed. John D. Hayes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969), 2:253n; Diary of George Templeton Strong, October 23, 1861, and April 25, 1863, 3:188 and 314–15; Rebecca R. J. Pomeroy to Mary [?], March 27, 1862, Pomeroy Letters, Schlesinger Library, HU; AL to Dorothea Dix, Washington, D.C., May 4, 1862, CW, 9:132. AL’s passing off benevolent women to others is ubiquitous, but see, e.g., Jane Swisshelm to Will[iam] A. Mitchell, Washington, D.C., February 9 and 14, 1863, in Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist, 173 and 180; AL to Ethan A[llen] Hitchcock, n.p., March 13, 1865, CW, 9:283.

105. Chicago Sanitary Commission to AL, October 11, 1863, ALP-LC; Mary A. Livermore to AL, Chicago, October 11 and 21, 1863, ALP-LC; Isaac Arnold to AL, Chicago, October 21, 1863, ALP-LC; Mrs. A. H. Hoge and Mrs. D. P. Livermore to AL, Chicago, November 26, 1863, ALP-LC. Instead of thanking the women for their magnificent effort, AL thanked a man who had donated a gold watch to the fair: see AL to James H. Hoes, December 17, 1863, CW, 7:75. See also AL to Edward Everett, November 20, 1863, ibid., 7:24; AL, “Reply to Philadelphia Delegation,” [Washington, D.C.], January 24, 1864, ibid., 8:236; Address of Edward Everett, Gettysburg, Pa., November 19, 1863, at voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/everett-gettysburg-address-speech-text; Millard Fillmore, Address at Opening of Christian Commission Fair, Buffalo, February 22, 1864, Millard Fillmore Papers, ed. Frank H. Severance (Buffalo: Buffalo Historical Society, 1907), 2:89–90; Lois Bryan Adams, “Opening of the Great Fair at the Patent Office,” Washington, D.C., February 23, 1864, Letter from Washington, 84; AL, “Remarks at Opening of Patent Office Fair,” February 22, 1864, CW, 7:197–98.

106. AL, “Remarks at Closing of Sanitary Fair,” March 18, 1864, CW, 7:253–54; AL, “Address at Sanitary Fair, Baltimore,” April 18, 1864, ibid., 7:301. See also AL to Mrs. Sarah B. Meconkey, May 9, 1864, ibid., 7:333.

107. Pryor, Clara Barton, 56–61; Gallman, America’s Joan of Arc, 17; Hoffert, Swisshelm, 81–83; Jane Swisshelm to editor, St. Cloud [Minn.] Democrat, Washington, D.C., November 13, 1865, in Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist, 307–8.

108. AL to Montgomery Blair, July 24, 1863, CW, 6:346; AL to Joseph J. Reynolds, January 20, 1865, ibid., 8:228–29; AL to Edwin M. Stanton, n.p., July 27, 1864, ibid., 7:466–67; J. Andrews Harris to AL, Philadelphia, January 23, 1865, ALP-LC; Neely, Last Best Hope, 148–50; Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 119.

109. Benjamin B. French to brother [Henry F. French], Washington, D.C., June 19, 1864, French Papers, LC; Washington Star, June 20, 1864.

110. The Women’s National Loyal League was known by various names, including the Union Loyal League and National Women’s Loyal League. The term used here is the one used by Stanton and Anthony. Mary Ellen French to Pamela French, Washington, D.C., June 6, 1864, French Papers, LC; Gustafson, Women and Republicans, 26; Susan B. Anthony to Amelia Bloomer, New York, April 10, 1863, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Susan B. Anthony to Amy Kirby Post, New York, April 13, 1863, in Ann D. Gordon, ed., The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997–2013), 1:481; Susan B. Anthony to Samuel May Jr., New York, September 21, 1863, ibid., 1:500. For “an object equal,” see Ryan, Women in Public, 152–53.

111. For Stanton and Anthony’s background with the abolitionist movement, see Lori D. Ginzberg, Elizabeth Cady Stanton: An American Life (New York: Hill & Wang, 2009), 26–27, 36–41, 46–47, 77, and 93–94; Sue Davis, The Political Thought of Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Women’s Rights and the American Political Tradition (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 6–7 and 119–21; see also Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 849 and 853; Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics, 34; Elizabeth Buffum Chace, Anti-Slavery Reminiscences (Central Falls, R.I.: E.L. Freeman & Son, 1891), 46–47; Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 30–31; Boston Daily Courier, April 28, 1864.

112. For a nuanced discussion of the interplay of Stanton’s liberal and republican philosophies, see Davis, Political Thought, 13–21; Jeanne Munn Bracken, ed., Women in the American Revolution (Boston: History Compass, 2009); Cokie Roberts, Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation (New York: William Morrow, 2004). See also AL, “Speech at Chicago,” July 10, 1858, CW, 2:500; Frederick Douglass, Oration in Memory of AL, April 14, 1876, at www.usf.edu/lit2go/184/a-lincoln-anthology; WHH to Jesse Weik, Springfield, Ill., January 27, 1888, Herndon-Weik Collection, LC; WHH to Weik, fragment, n.d. [c. 1888], Herndon-Weik Collection, LC. AL’s attitude toward freedmen and Native Americans is explored in chapters 3 and 4.

113. Handbill for Women’s National Loyal League, n.d. [1864], copy in Dickinson Papers, LC; “Call for Meeting of the Loyal Women of the North,” in Stanton, Anthony, Gage, and Harper, eds., History of Woman Suffrage, 2:53n.

114. Susan B. Anthony to Wendell Phillips, Seneca Falls, N.Y., April 29, 1861, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Susan B. Anthony to Mrs. [Martha Coffin] Wright, Rochester, N.Y., May 28, 1861, typescript, Sophia Smith Collection, HL; Martha Coffin Wright to Susan B. Anthony, Philadelphia, March 31, 1862, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU.

115. Ryan, Women in Public, 152–53; Massey, Bonnet Brigades, 164–65; “The Strong Woman’s League,” Vanity Fair, May 30, 1863; Proceedings of Meeting of Loyal Women of the Republic, New York, May 14, 1863, 7.

116. “Anniversary of the Women’s National League,” National Anti-Slavery Standard, May 28, 1864; Massey, Bonnet Brigades, 165–66; E[lizabeth] Cady Stanton to Caroline H. Dall, New York, May 7, 1864, in “Mrs. E. Cady Stanton to Mrs. Dall,” The Liberator, June 3, 1864, clipping in Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 110.

117. Michael C. C. Adams, Fighting for Defeat: Union Military Failure in the East, 1861–1865 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 108. For activities of the Strong Band, see Diary of Nathan Daniels, March 15 and June 6–8, 1864, Daniels Diaries, LC; David E. Long, The Jewel of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln’s Re-election and the End of Slavery (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1994), 1–20. AL is quoted in entry of December 10, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 125; see also Bruce Tap, Over Lincoln’s Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).

118. Lydia Maria Child to Gerrit Smith, Wayland, July 23, 1864, in Child, Selected Letters, 445; for “forever pottering,” see Lydia Maria Child to Charles Sumner, Wayland, July 31, 1864, Lydia Maria Child Correspondence, LC. The tenor of AL’s meeting with Sojourner Truth has been the subject of some debate. Truth commented that AL treated her with kindness, even though she recorded—through a white transcriber—his remarks about being compelled to emancipation by the deeds of the South. Truth was accompanied by Lucy Colman, a staunch feminist and abolitionist, who later claimed they had been kept waiting and treated with disdain. Several historians have seized on this as proof of AL’s unsympathetic view of African Americans, and his reluctance to liberate them. At the time, however, Colman wrote a letter in which she gave a softer view of the meeting, stating that it was highly awkward, but that AL greeted them cordially. In this letter Colman praised the candor of his remarks regarding emancipation: see Testimony of Sojourner Truth, October 29, 1864, in Segal, Conversations with Lincoln, 345–47; Lucy Colman to Editor, National Anti-Slavery Standard, November 26, 1864, quoted in Washington, Sojourner Truth’s America, 313; Lucy N. Colman, Reminiscences (Buffalo: H. L. Green, 1891), 65–66. Discussion of the meeting is found in Washington, Sojourner Truth’s America, 311–16; White, Visits with Lincoln, 113–27; Nell Irvin Painter, Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996), 200–207; Carlton Mabee, “Sojourner Truth and President Lincoln,” New England Quarterly 61, no. 4 (December 1988): 519–29.

119. Frances D. Gage to Clara Barton, St. Louis, May 7, 1864, private collection; Josephine S. Griffings to AL, Burlington, Iowa, September 24, 1864, ALP-LC; Holt, “A Heroine in Ebony,” 223–24; Larson, Bound for the Promised Land, 368n.

120. “Mrs. E. Cady Stanton to Mrs. Dall,” Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Gerrit Smith, New York, May 6 and June 2, [1864], and Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Wendell Phillips, New York, June 6, 1864, all Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU. See also Susan B. Anthony to Charles Sumner, New York, March 16, 1864, in Gordon, Selected Papers of Stanton and Anthony, 1:513.

121. Elizabeth Cady Stanton to “Nellie” [Ellen Dwight Eaton], n.d. [September 9, 1860], Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Speech to “Wide Awakes,” September 10, 1860, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Jane Swisshelm to editor, St. Cloud [Minn.] Democrat, Washington, D.C., March 26 and September 28, 1864, in Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist, 272–74; William D. Kelley to “my dear child” [Anna Dickinson], West Philad[elphia], July 24, 1864, Dickinson Papers, LC; Anna E. Dickinson to “dear friend” [Elizabeth Cady Stanton], Philadelphia, July 12, 1864, Ida Husted Harper Collection, HL; Gail Hamilton (Mary Abigail Dodge) to [?] (possibly diary entry), March 6 and 17, 1863, in Hamilton, Life in Letters, 1:342–44; diary of Charles Mason, July 24, 1864, Remey Family Papers, LC.

122. “Mrs. E. Cady Stanton to Mrs. Dall,” Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; E[lizabeth] Cady Stanton to Caroline Wells Dall, New York, c. April 14, 1864, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; New Haven Courier, reprinted in Boston Courier, September 1, 1864.

123. Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Jesse Benton Frémont, New York, n.d. [May 4, 1864]; Elizabeth Cady Stanton to William Lloyd Garrison, New York, April 22, 1864; Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Wendell Phillips, New York, May 6, 1864; Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Gerrit Smith, New York, June 2, [1864]; Susan B. Anthony to Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Rochester, N.Y., June 3, 1864, all Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU.

124. Letters to and from Theodore Tilton and Horace Greeley, September 1864, Theodore Tilton Papers, NYHS; the three quotations are taken from, respectively, William A. Buckingham to Horace Greeley, Norwich, [Conn.], September 3, 1864; Joseph A. Gilmore to Theodore Tilton, Concord, September 5, 1864; John A. Andrews to Horace Greeley, Boston, September 3, 1864. See also Long, Jewel of Liberty, 193–94; Charles Sumner to Lydia Maria Child, Boston, August 7, 1864, Selected Letters of Charles Sumner, 2:249; Lillie B. Chace to Anna [Dickinson], Valley Falls, September 19, 1864, Dickinson Papers, LC.

125. Harriet Beecher Stowe to “dear friend” [Annie Fields], n.p., November 29, 1864, Fields Papers, HL; Harriet Beecher Stowe, “Abraham Lincoln,” Littell’s Living Age, February 6, 1864, in Herbert Mitgang, ed., Lincoln as They Saw Him (New York: Rinehart, 1956), 376–78; Caroline H. Dall to Editor, National Anti-Slavery Standard, May 7, 1864; Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 32–33; Jane Swisshelm to editor, St. Cloud [Minn.] Democrat, Washington, D.C., October 22, 1864, in Swisshelm, Crusader and Feminist, 277–78; Theodore Tilton to Annie [Dickinson], New York, July 13, 1864, Dickinson Papers, LC; Gerrit Smith to E[lizabeth] Cady Stanton, Peterboro, August 20, 1864, Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU.

126. Lydia Maria Child to Eliza Scudder, Wayland, November 14, 1864, Child Correspondence, LC; Gustafson, Women and the Republican Party, 32–33; Elizabeth Cady Stanton to “friend” [Wendell Phillips], [New York], [November 6, 1864], Stanton and Anthony Papers, Schlesinger Library, HU; Wendell Phillips to Elizabeth Cady Stanton, November 10, [1864], in Gordon, Selected Papers of Stanton and Anthony, 1:533.

127. Clara Barton to Will [Childs], Washington, D.C., April 25, 1861, Barton Papers, LC; Barton, undated lecture notes, [c. 1865–1867], Barton Papers, LC; Barton Diary, March 2–8, 1865, Barton Papers, LC.

128. AL, “Second Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1865, CW, 8:332–33 (a nice overview of the Second Inaugural is in Harold Holzer, “Multiple Threads to Bind Up a Divided Nation,” Wall Street Journal, February 28, 2015); Sizer, Political Work of Northern Women Writers, 163; Silber, Daughters of the Union, 203.

CHAPTER 6. THE HOLLOW CROWN

1. Margaret Green Calhoun to Patr[ick] Calhoun, n.d. [c. 1885], copy, Duff Green Papers, SHC-UNC, attests that when Green met AL he was wearing the same clothes and carrying the stick he is shown with in Mathew Brady’s photograph; the letter also describes Green’s friendship with General George Shepley, the provost marshal who gave him the pass. Porter wrote several versions of this encounter, the most believable of which was in his “Journal of Occurrences During the War of the Rebellion,” n.d. [c. 1865], David D. Porter Family Papers, LC. As time went on, Porter embellished the story: see “Lincoln at Richmond: Admiral Porter Recalls Some Striking Scenes,” New York Tribune, January 18, 1885; David D. Porter, “President Lincoln’s Entry into Richmond After the Evacuation of That Place by the Confederates,” Belford’s Magazine, September–October 1890, 585–96 and 649–58. Porter claimed the more exaggerated versions were based on facts recorded at the time: see ibid., and Porter to I. T. Headley, Annapolis, Md., October 16, 186[5], letterpress copy, Porter Papers, LC.

2. Porter, “Journal of Occurrences,” n.d. [c. 1865], Porter Papers, LC; Ben E. Green, notes for response to Porter’s Tribune article, c. 1885, Green Papers, SHC-UNC; Ben E. Green, “Buchanan, Lincoln, and Duff Green,” The Century Magazine, June 1889, 317–18; Mark A. Lause, A Secret Society History of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011), 93; “Duff Green,” American National Biography, online at anb.org.

3. Fletcher Green, “Duff Green, Industrial Promoter,” Journal of Southern History 2, no. 1 (February 1936): 29–30; Fletcher M. Green, “Duff Green, Militant Journalist of the Old School,” American Historical Review 52, no. 2 (January 1947): 250–52; Lause, A Secret Society History, 123.

4. Green, “Militant Journalist,” 250–52; Margaret Green Calhoun to Patr[ick] Calhoun, n.d. [c. 1885], Green Papers, SHC-UNC.

5. Green, “Duff Green, Industrial Promoter,” 30–35, quotation on 30–31.

6. Ibid., 34–37; Green to Lucretia Green, November 8, 1859, quoted in ibid., 37; William G. Thomas, The Iron Way: Railroads, the Civil War, and the Making of Modern America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), 200–201.

7. Porter, “President Lincoln’s Entry into Richmond,” 655; Duff Green, Facts and Suggestions, Biographical, Historical, Financial and Political (New York: Richardson, 1866), 232; Margaret Green Calhoun to Patr[ick] Calhoun, n.d. [c. 1885], Green Papers, SHC-UNC; John A. Campbell to Ben E. Green, Baltimore, April 7, 1885, Green Papers, SHC-UNC; William H. Crook, “Lincoln’s Last Day,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, September 1907, 522. Porter was trying to justify his earlier reminiscences, which had been criticized for their extravagant embroidery; Green was hoping to rally sympathy for treating the South with leniency; Crook’s account was written forty-two years after the fact and it is not altogether clear that he was actually at the meeting; and Campbell has been accused of a series of traitorous activities, and for misrepresenting his own role in the days after Richmond’s fall. A few of the many examples of AL colorfully losing his temper are: Horace White to Joseph Medill, Washington, D.C., March 3, 1862, Charles H. Ray Papers, HL; Horace White to Charles H. Ray, Washington, D.C., March 3, 1862, Ray Papers, HL; Herman Haupt, Reminiscences of General Herman Haupt (Milwaukee: Wright & Joys, 1901), 298.

8. There are many accounts of the war’s final weeks, but most are questionable, written long after the events. Among the most credible is George T. Dudley, “Lincoln in Richmond: True Version of the War President’s Famous Visit,” National Tribune [Washington, D.C.], October 1, 1896, 1–2; Dudley, a member of Lincoln’s party, took care not to embellish the story. Also useful are Green, Facts and Suggestions, 232; Porter, “Lincoln’s Entry into Richmond,” 653–54; John S. Barnes, “With Lincoln from Washington to Richmond in 1865,” Appleton’s Magazine, May 1907, 515–24. For AL’s buoyancy, see entry of March 27, 1865, in Marsena Rudolph Patrick, Inside Lincoln’s Army: The Diary of Marsena Rudolph Patrick, Provost Marshal General, Army of the Potomac, ed. David S. Sparks (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1964), 483; J. R. Hamilton to William Swinton, City Point, Va., March 28, 1865, VHS; MTL to Abram Wakeman, Washington, D.C., April 4, 1865, in Justin G. Turner and Linda Levitt Turner, eds., Mary Todd Lincoln: Her Life and Letters (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 212–13.

9. Ulysses S. Grant to AL, City Point, Va., March 20, 1865, ALP-LC; Edwin M. Stanton to AL, telegram, Washington, D.C., April 3, 1865, ALP-LC; “The President’s Visit to Richmond,” New York Times, April 4, 1865.

10. Entry of April 3, 1865, in Michael Bedout Chesson and Leslie Jean Roberts, eds., Exile in Richmond: The Confederate Journal of Henri Garidel (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2001), 367–68; Arthur R. Henry, “Report on the Fall of Richmond Filed with the New York Tribune, April 3, 1865,” VHS. The report was published in the New York Tribune, April 5, 1865, 1. Emmie Sublett to Emile, Waverly Place, April 27, 1865, Emmie Sublett Correspondence, MoC; Lelian M. Cook Diary, April [3], 1865, in Richmond News Leader, April 3, 1935; Fannie Taylor Dickinson Diary, April 4, 1865, typescript, VHS; Susan M. Hoge to “dear friend” [Elizabeth H. Howard], Richmond, October 28, [1865], Hoge Family Papers, VHS; Alfred Paul to Drouyn de Lhuys, Richmond, April 11, 1865, in Warren F. Spencer, “A French View of the Fall of Richmond: Alfred Paul’s Report to Drouyn de Lhuys, April 11, 1865,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 73, no. 2 (April 1965): 181–82.

11. Constance Cary to mother and brother, [Richmond], April 4, 1865, in Constance Cary Harrison, Refugitta of Richmond: The Wartime Recollections, Grave and Gay, of Constance Cary Harrison, ed. Nathaniel Cheairs Hughes Jr. and S. Kittrell Rushing (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2011), 155; Emma Mordecai to Edward [Mordecai], Richmond, April 5, 1865, Mordecai Family Correspondence, MoC; entry of April 3, 1865, in John B. Jones, A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary at the Confederate States Capital, ed. Howard Swiggett (New York: Old Hickory Bookshop, 1935), 2:647–49; Diary of Levi Graybill, April 3, 1865, Levi S. Graybill Papers, HL.

12. Constance Cary to mother and brother, April 4, 1865, in Harrison, Refugitta, 158; Edward M. Boykin, The Falling Flag: Evacuation of Richmond, Retreat and Surrender at Appomattox (New York: E. J. Hale, 1874), 12–13. An excellent overview of Richmond’s fall is in Nelson Lankford, Richmond Burning: The Last Days of the Confederate Capital (New York: Viking, 2002).

13. The author is extremely grateful to Park Ranger Mike Gorman of Richmond National Battlefield Park for sharing his interpretive notes and his exhaustive research on AL’s visit to Richmond. Most of the accounts of this visit are impressionistic and contradictory, and Gorman’s work has established the best information to date (many accounts have AL arriving at Rockett’s Landing, rather than aground on a sandbar, for example). Charles Coffin’s report for the Boston Journal, April 10, 1865, and his review of the day’s events in Coffin to Thomas Nast, Boston, July 19, 1866, copy in Gorman notes, along with Dudley, “Lincoln in Richmond,” are the most accurate sources. See also Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun to wife, [Washington, D.C.], April 10, [1865], in Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun, Impressions of Lincoln and the Civil War: A Foreigner’s Account, trans. General Aldebert de Chambrun (New York: Random House, 1952), 74; USS Malvern Logbook, April 4, 1865, NARA (copy in Gorman notes).

14. “To Richmond and Back: Why, How, What,” New York Tribune, April 10, 1865; Charles Coffin, “Late Scenes in Richmond,” Atlantic Monthly, June 1865, 755; Henry, “Report of Fall of Richmond” for Porter, “Journal of Occurrences,” n.d. [c. 1865], Porter Papers, LC; Gorman notes; Alexander H. Newton, Out of the Briars: An Autobiography and Sketch of the Twenty-Ninth Regiment Connecticut Volunteers, excerpted in Donald Yacovone, ed., Freedom’s Journey: African American Voices of the Civil War (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 2004), 376–77; George A. Bruce, diary notes, April 4, 1865, enclosed in Bruce to John Nicolay, January 1, 1887, John G. Nicolay Papers, LC.

15. Dudley, “Lincoln in Richmond”; Godfrey Weitzel, Richmond Occupied: Entry of the United States Forces into Richmond, Va., April 3, 1865, Calling Together of the Virginia Legislature and Revocation of the Same, ed. Louis H. Manarin (Richmond: Richmond Civil War Centennial Committee, 1965), 52–56; Lelian M. Cook Diary, April 4, 1865, Richmond News Leader, April 3, 1935; entry of April 4, 1865, in Jones, A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary, 2:469–70; Thomas Thatcher Graves, “The Occupation,” in Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence Clough Buell, eds., Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (New York: Century, 1887–1888), 4:726–28; Deckbook, USS Malvern, April 4, 1865, Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1894–1922), I, 12:176, Constance Cary to Burton Harrison, [Richmond], [c. April 5–6, 1865], in Harrison, Refugitta, 161; Bruce, diary notes, April 4, 1865, enclosed in Bruce to Nicolay, January 1, 1887, Nicolay Papers, LC.

16. Mary Custis Lee to Louisa [Snowden], Richmond, April 16, [1865], Society of Lees of Virginia Collection, Kate Waller Barrett Branch, Alexandria Public Library, Alexandria, Va.; [Judith White Brockenbrough McGuire], Diary of a Southern Refugee, During the War, by a Lady of Virginia (New York: E. J. Hale, 1867), 350; Emma Mordecai to Edward [Mordecai], Richmond, April 5, 1865, Mordecai Correspondence, MoC; Constance Cary to Burton Harrison, [Richmond], [c. April 5–6, 1865], in Harrison, Refugitta, 161; entry of April 4, 1865, in Chesson and Roberts, Exile in Richmond, 370; Emmie Sublett to Emilie, April 29, 1865, Sublett Correspondence, MoC.

17. Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun to wife, April 10, [1865], in de Chambrun, Impressions, 75 and 77; Diary of Levi Graybill, April 3, 1865, Graybill Papers, HL; Dickinson Diary, April 5, 1865, VHS.

18. Entries of April 4–6, 1865, in Jones, A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary, 2:469–72; entries of April 4, 5, and 7, 1865, Diary of Clara Shafer, UVa; Noah Brooks, “The President at Richmond,” April 6, 1865, in Michael Burlingame, ed., Lincoln Observed: Civil War Dispatches of Noah Brooks (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998), 180–81.

19. Charles Sumner to Salmon P. Chase, Washington, D.C., April 10, 1865, in Charles Sumner, The Selected Letters of Charles Sumner, ed. Beverly Wilson Palmer (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990), 2:282; Charles Sumner to the Duchess of Argyll, April 24, 1865, ibid., 2:295; Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun, “Personal Recollections of Mr. Lincoln,” Scribner’s Magazine, January 1893, 32–33.

20. “Agnes” [?] to Mrs. Roger Pryor, Richmond, April 5, 1865, in Mrs. Roger A. Pryor [Sara Agnes Rice], Reminiscences of Peace and War (New York: Macmillan, 1905), 357; entry of April 6, 1865, in Chesson and Roberts, Exile in Richmond, 372–73; Christopher Q. Tompkins, “The Occupation of Richmond, April 1865: The Memorandum of Events of Colonel Christopher Q. Tompkins,” ed. William M. E. Rachal, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 73, no. 2 (April 1965): 194 and 195–96.

21. Entry of April 6, 1865, in Chesson and Roberts, Exile in Richmond, 372–73; Tompkins, “Memorandum,” 194; entry of April 6, 1865, in McGuire, Diary of a Southern Refugee, 350; Dickinson Diary, April 4, 1865, VHS. For the Lincolns’ high spirits at the time, see statement of James Harlan, n.d., in Katherine Helm, The True Story of Mary, Wife of Lincoln (New York: Harper Brothers, 1928), 252; MTL to Abram Wakeman, Washington, D.C., April 4, 1865, in Turner and Turner, Life and Letters, 213.

22. “The Fall of Richmond and Lee’s Surrender, Saint’s Rest . . . April the 10th 1865,” in [David Ross Locke], The Struggles (Social, Financial and Political) of Petroleum V. Nasby (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1888), 170.

23. Porter, “Lincoln’s Entry into Richmond,” 653–54; Green, Facts and Suggestions, 232; Margaret Green Calhoun to Patr[ick] Calhoun, n.d. [c. 1885], Green Papers, SHC-UNC.

24. Entry of April 5, 1865, Patrick, Diary of Marsena Rudolph Patrick, 488; Charles Sumner to Salmon P. Chase, Washington, D.C., April 10 and 12, 1865, in Sumner, Selected Letters, 2:282 and (quotations) 283; Chambrun, “Personal Recollections,” 28.

25. Duff Green to James Buchanan, December 28, 1860, in Charles M. Segal, ed., Conversations with Lincoln (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1961), 62–63; Green to AL, Richmond, January 2, 1865, typescript, Green Papers, SHC-UNC; “Interview of Duff Green with Mr. Lincoln on the Crisis,” New York Herald, January 6 [sic; 8], 1865, in Green, Facts and Suggestions, 226–31.

26. Green, “Buchanan, Lincoln, and Duff Green,” 318; Green to Buchanan, December 28, 1860, in Segal, Conversations, 62–63; AL to Duff Green, and AL to Lyman Trumbull, both Springfield, Ill., December 28, 1860, CW, 4:162–63; Edward D. Baker to AL, Lafayette, n.d. [later stamped c. December 31, 1860], ALP-LC; Green to President [Jefferson Davis], Richmond, January 15, 1864, Green Papers, SHC-UNC; Green to Jefferson Davis, May 26, 1862 [?], in John G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln: A History (New York: Century, 1886–1890), 3:286.

27. Joshua Speed to AL, Louisville, November 14, 1860, ALP-LC; Thomas Corwin to AL, and John Gilmer to AL, both House of Representatives, December 10, 1860, ALP-LC; William Hunt to AL, Philadelphia, December 13, 1860, ALP-LC; Diary of Samuel R. Curtis, December 5, 1860, Samuel R. Curtis Papers, ILPL; William J. Cooper, We Have the War upon Us: The Onset of the Civil War, November 1860–April 1861 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 177.

28. Montgomery Blair to AL, Washington, D.C., December 14, 1860, ALP-LC; Thurlow Weed to AL, New York, December 11, [1860], ALP-LC; William S. Thayer to Bancroft Davis, Washington, D.C., February 4, [1861], J. C. Bancroft Davis Papers, LC; Cooper, We Have the War upon Us, 78–79.

29. There are scores of such letters: see, e.g., Gideon Welles to AL, Hartford, November 12, 1860, Gideon Welles Papers, HL; Carl Schurz to AL, Manchester, N.H., December 18, [18]60, ALP-LC.

30. Curtis Diary, December 5, 1860, Curtis Papers, ILPL.

31. AL, “Address at Cooper Institute,” February 27, 1860, CW, 3:522–50; AL, “Remarks at Monongahela House, Pittsburgh,” February 14, 1861, ibid., 4:209. For an examination of AL as a wrestler, see Douglas L. Wilson, Honor’s Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 19–51.

32. John G. Nicolay Memorandum, November 5, 1860, Nicolay Papers, LC; AL, “Remarks at Monongahela House, Pittsburgh,” February 14, 1861, CW, 4:209; AL, “Speech at Beloit, Wis.,” October 1, 1859, ibid., 3:482; Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 205–8, 224–25, and 313–17, Greeley quoted on 213.

33. Robert W. Johannsen, Lincoln, the South, and Slavery: The Political Dimension (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991), 107–8. Dated, but still thought-provoking on the subject of emotionalism is Avery Craven, The Repressible Conflict, 1830–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1939), 63–97.

34. Foner, Free Soil, 313–17; Drew Gilpin Faust, “Introduction,” in Drew Gilpin Faust, ed., The Ideology of Slavery: Proslavery Thought in the Antebellum South, 1830–1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 9–17. For one community’s reaction to increasingly harsh Northern rhetoric, see Elizabeth Brown Pryor, Reading the Man: A Portrait of Robert E. Lee Through His Private Letters (New York: Viking, 2007), 150–54.

35. AL, “Debate at Quincy, Ill.,” October 13, 1858, CW, 3:254. AL reiterated this idea at, among other places, Alton, October 15, 1858, ibid., 3:312–13; Cooper Institute, February 27, 1860, ibid., 3:549–50; Hartford, March 5, 1860, ibid., 4:8. For “this matter of keeping,” see AL, “Speech at Chicago,” July 10, 1858, ibid., 2:493.

36. AL to George Robertson, Springfield, Ill., August 15, 1855, CW, 2:318; AL to Anson G. Henry, Springfield, Ill., November 19, 1858, ibid., 3:339.

37. AL, “Speech at Bloomington, Ill.,” September 12, 1854, CW, 2:230; AL, “Speech at Peoria,” October 16, 1854, ibid., 2:255; AL, “Address at Cooper Institute,” February 27, 1860, ibid., 3:522–50; AL, “Debate at Galesburg,” October 7, 1858, ibid., 3:221. See also Cooper, We Have the War upon Us, 16; John Burt, Lincoln’s Tragic Pragmatism: Lincoln, Douglas, and Moral Conflict (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 608–21.

38. Green, Facts and Suggestions, 231; “The President-Elect,” New Orleans Daily Crescent, November 12, 1860, in Dwight Lowell Dumond, ed., Southern Editorials on Secession (New York: Century, 1931), 229–31; Edward Bates to Wyndham Robertson, St. Louis, November 3, 1860, Wyndham Robertson Papers, VHS; Green, “Buchanan, Lincoln, and Duff Green,” 317–18; AL, “Speech at Springfield,” June 16, 1858, CW, 2:461; AL, “Speech at Elwood, Kans.,” December 3, 1859, ibid., 3:496; John G. Nicolay and John Hay, “The President-Elect at Springfield,” The Century Magazine, November 1887, 87.

39. Cooper, We Have the War upon Us, 31–32; William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 2:218 and 441; AL, “Message to Congress,” July 4, 1861, CW, 4:437; L. S. Hardee [?] to Geo[rge] W. Julian, Milan, Ind., October 18, 1860, Joshua R. Giddings and George W. Julian Papers, LC; W[illia]m Stickney to AL, Washington, D.C., December 10, 1860, ALP-LC.

40. Henry Villard, Dispatch, December 11, 1860, in Henry Villard, Lincoln on the Eve of ’61: A Journalist’s Story, ed. Harold G. Villard and Oswald Garrison Villard (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974), 34. A detailed description of the trip is in Harold Holzer, Lincoln, President-Elect: Abraham Lincoln and the Great Secession Winter 1860–1861 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 305–90.

41. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 273–77; David M. Potter, Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942), 317; Kenneth M. Stampp, “Lincoln and the Strategy of Defense in the Crisis of 1861,” Journal of Southern History 11, no. 3 (August 1945): 309–11; Burt, Lincoln’s Tragic Pragmatism, 628–29; AL, “Speech at Pittsburgh,” February 15, 1861, CW, 4:211; AL, “Speech at Bates House, Indianapolis,” February 11, 1861, ibid., 4:194–95; AL, “Speech at Steubenville, Ohio,” February 14, 1861, ibid., 4:207. The quotations in this paragraph are from, respectively, AL, “Address to the New Jersey General Assembly, Trenton,” February 21, 1861, ibid., 4:237; AL, “Address to the Pennsylvania General Assembly, Harrisburg,” February 22, 1861, ibid., 4:245; Michael Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln: A Life (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2:30.

42. Charles Francis Adams quoted in Holzer, Lincoln, President-Elect, 339; Charles Carter to [William] Overton Winston, Philadelphia, February 16, 1861, Winston Family Papers, VHS. The number of Confederate States Carter gives is correct, for at the time he wrote Texas had voted to secede but not yet joined the Confederacy.

43. Donald, Lincoln, 274; New Orleans Daily Delta, February 26, 1861, quoted in Michael Davis, The Image of Lincoln in the South (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1971), 28–29 (see also 35); entry of March 4, 1861, in Catherine Ann Devereux Edmondston, Journal of a Secesh Lady: The Diary of Catherine Ann Devereux Edmondston, 1860–1866, ed. Beth Gilbert Crabtree and James W. Patton (Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, 1979), 39–40.

44. Donald, Lincoln, 277–79; Curtis Diary, February 23, 1861, Curtis Papers, ILPL; Davis, Image of Lincoln, 31–34; New York Times, February 28, 1861; Vanity Fair, March 9, 1861; George Washington Harris, Sut Lovingood Travels with Old Abe Lincoln (Chicago: Black Cat Press, 1937), 34.

45. Green, Facts and Suggestions, 232. For a sampling of views, see Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln, vol. 2, Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861 (New York: Scribner, 1950); David M. Potter, The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1976); Stampp, “Lincoln and the Strategy of Defense,” 297–323; Russell McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); William J. Cooper, We Have War upon Us; Freehling, The Road to Disunion; Burt, Lincoln’s Tragic Pragmatism. See also AL, “Resolutions Drawn Up for Senate Committee,” [December 20, 1860], CW, 4:156–57; AL to Elihu B. Washburne, Springfield, Ill., December 13 and 21, 1860, ibid., 4:151 and 159; conversation with D. M. Smith, Sp[ringfield], July 8, 1875, in John G. Nicolay, An Oral History of Abraham Lincoln: John G. Nicolay’s Interviews and Essays, ed. Michael Burlingame (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1996), 17–18; AL to Alexander Stephens, Springfield, Ill., December 22, 1860, CW, 4:160.

46. AL, “First Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1861, CW, 4:262–71; Douglas L. Wilson, Lincoln’s Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words (New York: Vintage, 2006), 42–70; Davis, Image of Lincoln, 36.

47. Diary of Mrs. Eugene McLean, March 4, 1861, excerpted in “When the States Seceded,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, January 1914, 286; entry of March 5, 1861, in The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed. Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey (New York: Macmillan, 1952), 3:106; Charleston Mercury, March 9, 1861; Richmond Enquirer, March 5, 1861; North Carolina Standard, March 9, 1861. T. R. R. Cobb is quoted in Davis, Image of Lincoln, 37.

48. Robert E. Lee to Agnes [Lee], Fort Mason, Tex., January 29, 1861, Lee Family Papers, VHS; Charles S. Morehead to John J. Crittenden, Washington, D.C., February 23, 1862, John J. Crittenden Papers, LC; Statement of Charles S. Morehead, October 9, 1862, in David Rankin Barbee and Milledge L. Bonham Jr., eds., “Fort Sumter Again,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 28, no. 1 (June 1941): 63–73. For an excellent overview of sources on the Sumter-for-Virginia deal, see Burlingame, Abraham Lincoln, 2:119–21.

49. Both McClintock, Lincoln and the Decision for War, and Cooper, We Have the War upon Us, deal extensively with the Fort Sumter crisis, from different perspectives. See also the comments in chapter 1. The most complete manuscript sources are in the Samuel Wylie Crawford Papers, LC; see also AL, “Proclamation Calling Militia,” April 15, 1861, CW, 4:331–32; AL, “Proclamation of a Blockade,” April 19, 1861, ibid., 4:338–39; AL, “Reply to Baltimore Committee,” April 22, 1861, ibid., 4:341.

50. George Alexander Magruder to “friend” [Samuel F. Du Pont], Washington, D.C., April 22, 1861, in Samuel Francis Du Pont, Samuel Francis Du Pont: A Selection from His Civil War Letters, ed. John D. Hayes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969), 1:59; Judith Walker Rives to son, Castle Hill, Va., March 15, 1861, William Cabell Rives Family Papers, LC; William C. Rives to John Janney, Castle Hill, Va., May 1, 1861, Rives Papers, LC; William C. Rives to son [William C. Rives Jr.], Castle Hill, Va., May 6, 1861, Rives Papers, LC; Wyndham Robertson to Frank Robertson, Richmond, April 13 [?; blotted, but between April 12 and 17], 1861, Robertson Papers, VHS; James Wickersham to brother, Memphis, May 8, 1861, Civil War Letters 1861–1865, NYHS; Emma Mordecai to Nell, Richmond, April 21, 1861, Mordecai Family Papers, SHC-UNC; Caroline Mordecai Plunkett to Alfred Mordecai, Richmond, March 11, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; Emma Hays to Sara [Mordecai], Richmond, April 21, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC; Caroline M. Plunkett to Alfred Mordecai, Richmond, April 18, 1861, Mordecai Papers, LC.

51. AL to Samuel Haycraft, Springfield, Ill., November 13, 1860, CW, 4:139; Davis, Image of Lincoln, 16–18; Ben E. Green, undated notes on Lincoln-Green meeting, Green Papers, SHC-UNC.

52. J. G. Randall attempts to show AL’s special affinity with the South in Lincoln and the South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1946), 23 and 26–27; the connection is also made in Ward Hill Lamon, Recollections of Abraham Lincoln, 1847–1865, ed. Dorothy Lamon Teillard (Washington, D.C.: Privately published, 1911), 69. AL’s ties to Kentucky are detailed in William H. Townsend, Lincoln and the Bluegrass: Slavery and Civil War in Kentucky (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1955); Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 6–8; AL to Joshua Speed, Springfield, Ill., August 24, 1855, CW, 2:320; AL, “Speech at Peoria,” October 16, 1864, ibid., 2:255.

53. Richard Nelson Current, “Lincoln the Southerner,” in Speaking of Abraham Lincoln: The Man and His Meaning for Our Times (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 148–49, 153–56, and 161–62; AL, “Fragment of Speech for Kentucky,” [c. February 12, 1861], CW, 4:200; Lucius E. Chittenden, “President Lincoln and His Administration at the Commencement of the War,” n.d. [c. 1865], Lucius E. Chittenden Manuscripts, HL. For mistrust of AL, see Diary of Salmon P. Chase, October 11, 1862, in Salmon P. Chase, The Salmon P. Chase Papers, ed. John Niven et al. (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1993–1998), 1:420; Fisher A. Hildreth to [Benjamin] Butler, Lowell, Mass., March 24, 1864, in Benjamin F. Butler, Private and Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler During the Period of the Civil War, ed. Jesse Ames Marshall (N.p.: Privately published, 1917), 3:574–75.

54. Diary of Mary Boykin Chesnut, March 11, 1861, in Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, ed. C. Van Woodward (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 25; Jonathan Daniel Wells, The Origins of the Southern Middle Class, 1800–1861 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 188–90, 202–3, and 222; William Gannaway Brownlow, Sketches of the Rise, Progress, and Decline of Secession (Philadelphia: G. W. Childs, 1862), 273–74; Michael T. Bernath, Confederate Minds: The Struggle for Intellectual Independence in the Civil War South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 43.

55. Wells, Origins of the Southern Middle Class, 181–88; Thomas, The Iron Way, 17–36 (quotation on 22); Green, Facts and Suggestions, 228–31.

56. For an overview of secessionist viewpoints, see Holzer, Lincoln, President-Elect, and David C. Keehn, Knights of the Golden Circle: Secret Empire, Southern Secession, Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013). See also James L. Petigru to “Willie” [Carson], Charleston, S.C., March 2, 1861, James L. Petigru Papers, LC; Edward Hartz to father, Camp Hudson, Tex., December 15, 1860, Edward L. Hartz Papers, LC. Secession’s practical problems are discussed in Robert E. Lee to Agnes Lee, San Antonio, November 7, 1860, Nancy Astor Papers, Museum of English Rural Life, Reading University, Reading, U.K. The moderate is Robert War Johnson; his letter to Joseph Holt of January 16, 1861, is quoted in Elizabeth D. Leonard, Lincoln’s Forgotten Ally: Judge Advocate General Joseph Holt of Kentucky (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 117.

57. Henry Adams, The Great Secession Winter of 1860–61 and Other Essays by Henry Adams, ed. George Hochfield (New York: Sagamore Press, 1958), 3–4; Maria Lydig Daly Diary, November 24, 1861, in Diary of a Union Lady, ed. Harold Earl Hammond (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1962), 82; David M. Potter, Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942), 6–19; Robert S. Holt to Joseph Holt, Yazoo City, Miss., January 10, 1861, Joseph Holt Papers, LC.

58. Green, Facts and Suggestions, 227–30. Numerous pleas for AL to take Southern determination seriously are in ALP-LC: see, e.g., Richard W. Thompson to AL, Washington, D.C., December 25, 1860. See also William H. Russell to [Bancroft] Davis, Cairo, June 22, 1861, Davis Papers, LC; William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman (New York: D. Appleton, 1875), 1:167–68; entry of February 6, 1865, Richard Launcelot Maury Diary, VHS.

59. Edward Tayloe to B[enjamin] O. Tayloe, Washington, D.C., March 9, 1861, William H. Seward Papers, UR; Flora Darling to [R. J.] Walker, Southampton, Eng., March 8, 1861, in Flora Adams Darling, Mrs. Darling’s Letters or Memories of the Civil War (New York: John Lovell, 1883), 42; Francis R. Rives to Will[iam C. Rives], New York, March 13, 1861, Rives Papers, LC; James R. Gilmore, ed., Among the Pines or South in Secession Time by Edmund Kirke (New York: J. R. Gilmore, 1862), 75.

60. Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:372.

61. Entry of April 17, 1861, in Edmondston, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 51; George Mason to Samuel Cooper, Spring Bank, Va., March 10, 1861, Cooper Family Papers, VHS; Davis, Image of Lincoln, 63–66; Mrs. Pryor, Reminiscences of Peace and War, 97.

62. Recollection of Esther King Casey, Birmingham, June 4, 1937, in George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972–1981), 6.1:56; Arthur James Lyon Fremantle, Three Months in the Southern States, April–June, 1863 (New York: John Bradburn, 1864), 279; “The Devil’s Visit to ‘Old Abe,’” Southern Confederacy, September 27, 1861, in Martin Abbott, “President Lincoln in Confederate Caricature,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 51, no. 3 (Autumn 1958): 312–13—this song shows up in many places, see, e.g., entry of October 8, 1863, in Edmondston, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 476. See also Recollection of George Wood, June 1, 1937, Rawick, The American Slave, 3.4:250.

63. Bernath, Confederate Minds, 200–203.

64. [William Russell Smith], The Royal Ape: A Dramatic Poem (Richmond: West & Johnson, 1863); criticism of The Royal Ape in Introduction to John Hill Hewitt, King Linkum the First: As Performed at the Concert Hall Augusta, Georgia, February 23, 1863, ed. Richard Barksdale Harwell (Atlanta: Emory University, 1947), 7; Davis, Image of Lincoln, 71–72.

65. Hewitt, King Linkum, 8–12, 21–22, and 25–26.

66. [Charles Henry Smith], Bill Arp, So Called: A Side Show of the Southern Side of the War (New York: Metropolitan Records Office, 1866); Mark E. Neely Jr., Harold Holzer, and Gabor S. Boritt, The Confederate Image: Prints of the Lost Cause (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 44–45 and 95–96; “Lincoln on the Lyre,” The Southern Illustrated News, February 7, 1863; “The Times,” The Southern Illustrated News, March 14, 1863; Richard Barksdale Harwell, “John Esten Cooke, Civil War Correspondent,” Journal of Southern History 19, no. 4 (November 1953): 501–16.

67. For examples of “personalizing” the war, see Robert S. Hudson to AL, Yazoo County, Miss., November 3, 1860, ALP-LC; J. H. Woods to AL, Lebanon, Tenn., January 14, 1861, ALP-LC; Thomas Smith Taylor to sister, Fairfax Station, Va., September 15, 1861, in Thomas Smith Taylor, Letters Home: Three Years Under General Lee in the 6th Alabama, ed. Harlan Eugene Cross Jr. (Fairfax, Va.: History4All, 2010), 10; James A. Graham to Augustus W. Graham, Fort Macon, November 20, 1861, in Max R. Williams and Joseph Grégoire de Roulhac Hamilton, eds., The Papers of William Alexander Graham (Raleigh: North Carolina Office of Archives and History, 1957–1992), 5:310.

68. J. B. Long to AL, Jackson, Tenn., January 18, 1861, ALP-LC; entries of August 25 and 28, 1862, in Sarah Morgan, The Civil War Diary of a Southern Woman, ed. Charles East (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 232–40, quotation on 258.

69. Richmond Enquirer, July 25, 1861, quoted in Don. E. Fehrenbacher, “The Anti-Lincoln Tradition,” JALA 4, no. 1 (1982), at www.quod.lib.umich.edu/j/jala (no page numbers online); “Inauguration Day,” Petersburg [Va.] Daily Express, March 4, 1865, in Herbert Mitgang, ed., Lincoln as They Saw Him (New York: Rinehart, 1956), 436–37. On AL and Confederate identity, see Drew Gilpin Faust, The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 1–21.

70. Bell Irvin Wiley, Southern Negroes, 1861–1865 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1938), 12–13; Narrative of Moble Hopson in Charles L. Perdue Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips, eds., Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976), 145–46. The scarcity of African American contemporary accounts necessitates the use of narratives, as imperfect as they are; I have tried to use as a guide John W. Blassingame, “Using the Testimony of Ex-Slaves: Approaches and Problems,” Journal of Southern History 41, no. 4 (November 1975): 473–92.

71. Wiley, Southern Negroes, 14–18; Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1901), 7–8; Elizabeth Hyde Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1893), 6–7; Interview with Hanna Fambro, Cuyahoga Co., Ohio, n.d., in Rawick, American Slave, Sup. 1.5:341; diary of Cyrena Stone, [May 21, 1864], in Thomas G. Dyer, Secret Yankees: The Union Circle in Confederate Atlanta (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 308; entry of May 14, 1864, in Elizabeth Van Lew, A Yankee Spy in Richmond: The Civil War Diary of “Crazy Bet” Van Lew, ed. David D. Ryan (Mechanicsburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1996), 94.

72. Washington, Up from Slavery, 7–8; Narrative of Louis Meadow, Lee Co., Ala., n.d., in Rawick, American Slave, Sup. 1.1:255; Lew Wallace to [?], Paducah, Ky., December 22, 1861, Lew and Susan Wallace Papers, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis, Ind.; diary of Cyrena Stone, n.d. [c. June 7, 1864], in Dyer, Secret Yankees, 316.

73. Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Vintage, 1980), 4–5 and 17–20; entry of April 23, 1865, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, 794; diary of Cyrena Stone, [January 20, 1864], in Dyer, Secret Yankees, 286.

74. Laura Towne to [?], n.p., April 29, 1865, in Laura M. Towne, Letters and Diary of Laura M. Towne: Written from the Sea Islands of South Carolina, 1862–1884, ed. Rupert Sargent Holland (Cambridge: Riverside Press, 1912), 162. “Visitation” stories are legion; some samples are Elizabeth Thomas interview, Washington Star, July 11, 1903; Charlie Davenport Narrative, Adams Co., Miss., n.d. [c. 1937], in Rawick, American Slave, Sup. 1.7:562; Bob Maynard, Weleetka, Okla., n.d. [c. 1937], ibid., Sup. 7.1:225.

75. Harriet Tubman, quoted in Lydia Maria Child to John G. Whittier, January 21, 1862, in Lydia Maria Child, Letters of Lydia Maria Child with a Biographical Introduction by John G. Whittier (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1883), 161; George E. Stephens, A Voice of Thunder: The Civil War Letters of George E. Stephens, ed. Donald Yacovone (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 18. For “medicine man,” see Hannah Crasson, slave near Raleigh, n.d. [c. 1937], in Rawlins, American Slave, 14.1:193. For “Hear talk,” see Sallie Paul, Marion, S.C., November 1937, ibid., 3.3:247. See also Litwack, Been in the Storm, epigraph page.

76. Gregory P. Downs, Declarations of Dependence: The Long Reconstruction of Practical Politics in the South, 1861–1908 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 70–73 and 94; George Washington to AL, Taylors Barracks [Louisville], December 4, 1864, in Ira Berlin et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, series 1, vol. 1, The Destruction of Slavery (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 384; see also Annie Davis to AL, Belair, August 25, 1864, ibid., 608.

77. “TER” to “CPW,” St. Helena, May 6, 1865, in Elizabeth Ware Pearson, ed., Letters from Port Royal, Written at the Time of the Civil War (1862–1868) (Boston: W. B. Clarke, 1906), 310–11; Laura Towne to [?], April 29, 1865, in Towne, Letters and Diary, 162. See also Botume, Days Amongst the Contrabands, 173 and 178.

78. Dispatch of Thomas Morris Chester, before Richmond, February 3, 1865, in R. J. M. Blackett, ed., Thomas Morris Chester, Black Civil War Correspondent: His Dispatches from the Virginia Front (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989), 249–50; Ervin L. Jordan Jr., Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995), 265–68 and 289–384. For other examples of African American intelligence work, see Claim of Sylvanus T. Brown, Charles City Co., Va., March 14, 1879, Southern Claims Commission, NARA; Ryan, A Yankee Spy in Richmond, 109.

79. Jordan, Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees, 289; George E. Stephens to Weekly Anglo-African, Morris Island, S.C., August 1, 1864, in Donald Yacovone, ed., Freedom’s Journey: African American Voices of the Civil War (Chicago: Lawrence Hill, 2004), 165–66; James Henry Gooding to AL, Morris Island, S.C., September 28, 1863, in ibid., 154; Anonymous [“Hagar”] to AL (endorsed by AL), [June 16, 1864], ALP-LC; James Oakes, The Radical and the Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and the Triumph of Antislavery Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 214–16; Foner, The Fiery Trial, 253–55.

80. George E. Stephens to [Robert Hamilton], Morris Island, S.C., August 1, 1864, in A Voice Like Thumder, xi–xii and 17–19, quotations on 19 and 324.

81. New Orleans Tribune, August 9, 11, 13, and 25, 1864, quotations from issues of August 11 and 25, 1864; James M. McPherson, ed., The Negro’s Civil War: How American Negroes Felt and Acted During the War for the Union (New York: Pantheon, 1965), 128–29; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 63–65.

82. AL, “Address on Colonization to a Deputation of Negroes,” August 14, 1862, CW, 5:370–75 and 370–71n; “ESP” to [?], n.p. [Sea Islands, S.C.], October 5, 1862, in Pearson, Letters from Port Royal, 91; L’Union translated in New Orleans Tribune, August 13, 1864; George B. Vashon to AL, September 1862, reprinted in Douglass’ Monthly, October 1862, and quoted in Yacovone, Freedom’s Journey, 41–43. For a longer discussion of the colonization issue, see chapter 3.

83. Letter to Union Convention, Nashville, January 9, 1865, in Edward L. Ayers and Bradley C. Mittendorf, eds., The Oxford Book of the American South: Testimony, Memory, and Fiction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 194–99; Petition to AL, c. May 14, 1864, and Petition to AL, c. March 12, 1864, both in McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War, 275–84; AL to Michael Hahn, March 13, 1864, CW, 7:243; “La Population de Couleur et les Yankees,” La Tribune de la Nouvelle-Orléans (French edition of New Orleans Tribune), August 4, 1864; Speech of Capt. J. R. Ingraham, c. March 18, 1865, in McPherson, The Negro’s Civil War, 130; Foner, Reconstruction, 566.

84. New Orleans Tribune, July 28, August 9, 11, and 13, and November 18, 1864, and March 29, 1865; Foner, Reconstruction, 70–71; William W. Freehling, The South vs. the South: How Anti-Confederate Southerners Shaped the Course of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 165–66; Peter Randolph, From Slave Cabin to the Pulpit: The Autobiography of Rev. Peter Randolph; The Southern Question Illustrated and Sketches of Slave Life (Boston: James H. Earle, 1893), 69 and 135.

85. For quick turnaround in black views after the assassination, see New Orleans Tribune, April 20, 1865; Thomas Hall testimony, Raleigh, N.C., September 10, 1937, in Rawlins, American Slave, 14.1:361. An informal count of positive and negative postwar views of AL expressed in Rawlins revealed that 54 percent of ex-slaves who mentioned AL had a positive view, 39 percent had a negative one, and 6.6 percent expressed indifference.

86. Wiley, Southern Negroes, 22–23; Coffin, “Late Scenes in Richmond,” 755; Mary Barnes, Charles Co., Md., n.d. [1937], in Rawlins, American Slave, Sup. 2–1.9:300.

87. Green, “Industrial Pioneer,” 37–38; “Inside Views of Dixie, by the Northern Spy Duff Green,” New York Times, May 1, 1864; William Prezter, “‘The British, Duff Green, the Rats and the Devil’: Custom, Capitalism, and Conflict in the Washington Printing Trade, 1834–36,” Labor History 27, no. 1 (Winter 1985): 5–30.

88. Duff Green to AL, Richmond, January 20, 1864, ALP-LC; Green, Facts and Suggestions, 232; Green, “Industrial Pioneer,” 39–41; “Inside Views of Dixie.”

89. For Campbell’s presence at the Green-Lincoln interview, see Green, Facts and Suggestions, 232; John A. Campbell to Ben E. Green, Baltimore, April 7, 1885, Green Papers, SHC-UNC. See also “John Archibald Campbell,” www.encyclopediaofalabama.org.

90. John A. Campbell to [Jefferson Davis], Washington, D.C., April 3, 23, and 28, 1861, copies in Nicolay Papers, LC (quotation from April 3); entries of December 13, 1862, and August 13 and November 15, 1863, in Robert Garlick Hill Kean, Inside the Confederate Government: The Diary of Robert Garlick Hill Kean, ed. Edward Younger (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), 33, 93–94, and 122–23.

91. Entries of December 25, 1864, and March 23, 1865, in Kean, Inside the Confederate Government, 182 and 202; John Archibald Campbell, Reminiscences and Documents Relating to the Civil War During the Year 1865 (Baltimore: John Murphy, 1887), 3–19; for “There is anarchy,” see Campbell to John Breckinridge, March 5, 1865, ibid., 31. See also John A. Campbell to [Godfrey] Weitzel, Richmond, April 7, 1865, copy in Edwin M. Stanton Papers, LC; Lankford, Richmond Burning, 201–2.

92. Lankford, Richmond Burning, 203; Memorandum of Gustavus A. Myers, Richmond, April 5, 1865, Holt Papers, LC (a slightly different copy is in Myers Family Papers, VHS); AL, “Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction,” December 8, 1863, CW, 7:53–56; AL to Nathaniel P. Banks, January 31, 1864, ibid., 7:161–62.

93. John A. Campbell to Horace Greeley, Richmond, April 26, 1865, in “Papers of Hon. John A. Campbell,” Southern Historical Society Papers 42 (1917): 61–65; Charles H. Dana to Edwin M. Stanton, Richmond, March 5, 1865, Stanton Papers, LC; AL to John A. Campbell, [April 5, 1865], CW, 8:386–87.

94. Myers Memorandum, April 5, 1865, Holt Papers, LC; J[ohn] A. Campbell to Lt. Gen. R. Taylor, April 11, 1865, copy in Stanton Papers, LC; AL to Godfrey Weitzel, City Point, Va., April 6, 1865, CW, 8:389.

95. John A. Campbell to Lt. Gen. R. Taylor, April 11, 1865, Stanton Papers, LC; Weitzel, Richmond Occupied, 56–58; entry of April 13, 1865, in Gideon Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles: Secretary of the Navy Under Lincoln and Johnson, ed. Howard K. Beale (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960), 2:279–80; New York Times, April 10, 1865; “A Revisal of Belligerent Rights,” New York Times, April 12, 1865; Gideon Welles, “Lincoln and Johnson: Their Plan of Reconstruction and the Resumption of National Authority,” The Galaxy, April 1872, 524 and 526–27; AL to Godfrey Weitzel, Washington, D.C., April 12, 1865, CW, 8:406–7. For congressional outrage, see Recollections of George Julian in T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and the Radicals (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965), 372. Stanton is quoted in Memoranda Book of Isham Haynie, April 14, 1865, Isham Nicholas Haynie Papers, ILPL.

96. AL to Whom It May Concern [Horace Greeley], July 18, 1864, CW, 7:451; AL to George F. Shepley, November 21, 1862, ibid., 5:504; Welles, “Plan of Reconstruction,” 526; Green, Facts and Suggestions, 232; Michael P. Riccards, The Ferocious Engine of Democracy: A History of the American Presidency (New York: Madison, 1997), 1:275–76 and 278. Blocking the amendment was indeed technically possible, if all Southern states voted against it, denying the three-quarters needed for it to enter into law; Alexander Stephens maintained that a similar opening was given to him at the Hampton Roads Conference—see Donald, Lincoln, 558.

97. AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 8, 1863, CW, 7:50–52; AL, “Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction,” December 8, 1863, ibid., 7:53–56; Foner, Reconstruction, 35–37 and 62; Carwardine, Lincoln, 235–39; Mark E. Neely Jr., The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 179–81.

98. Machiavelli, Discourses, III.8—on March 13, 1862, Salmon P. Chase recorded that the Rev. Dr. [Richard] Fuller of Baltimore had thus quoted Machiavelli, Chase Papers, 1:331; J. B. Henderson to Gen. John M. Schofield, St. Louis, September 4, 1863, John B. Schofield Papers, LC; Joseph Medill to AL, Washington, D.C., January 15, 1865, ALP-LC; entry of April 7, 1865, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 2:277–78.

99. Neely, Last Best Hope, 179–81; entry of December 14, 1863, Kean, Inside the Confederate Government, 127.

100. Entry of December 20, 1863, in Edmonston, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 508–9.

101. Dr. Henderson to George D. Blakey, Louisville, June 18, 1864, ALP-LC; John S. Brien to AL, Nashville, January 30, 1864, ALP-LC; Myers Memorandum, April 5, 1865, Holt Papers, LC.

102. “Reconstruction in Tennessee,” New York Times, February 2, 1864; Edwin H. Ewing to AL, Murfreesboro, Tenn., January 23, 1864, ALP-LC; Horace Maynard to AL, Nashville, February 2, 1864, ALP-LC; AL to Maynard, February 13, 1864, CW, 7:183; William C. Harris, With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1997), 212–28; Foner, Reconstruction, 43–45.

103. AL to Frederick Steele, January 27 and 30, 1864, CW, 7:154–55 and 161; Donald, Lincoln, 484; T. M. Jacks to AL (endorsed by AL), Washington, D.C., January 13, 1865, ALP-LC; Harris, With Charity for All, 197–211.

104. D. Christie to AL, New Orleans, February 28, 1864, ALP-LC; P. M. Lapice to George F. Shepley, New Orleans, December 15, 1862, George F. Shepley Papers, Maine Historical Society, Portland, Me.; George H. Hepworth, The Whip, Hoe, and Sword; or The Gulf-Department in ’63 (Boston: Walker, Wise, 1864), 27–28; Harris, With Charity for All, 182–84; Foner, Reconstruction, 47–50; La Tribune de la Nouvelle-Orléans, July 28 and August 11, 1864.

105. Foner, Reconstruction, 47–50; Nathaniel P. Banks to AL, New Orleans, December 16, 1863, January 22 and February 12, 1864, all ALP-LC; Thomas S. Bacon to AL, n.p., February 5, 1864, ALP-LC.

106. Entry of September 22, 1864, in Edmund Ruffin, The Diary of Edmund Ruffin, ed. William Kaufman Scarborough (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972–1989), 3:573; AL, “Proclamation Concerning Reconstruction,” July 8, 1864, CW, 7:433–34; AL to Whom It May Concern [Greeley], July 18, 1864, ibid., 7:451; Donald, Lincoln, 510–11; entry for July 4, 1864, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 217–19.

107. Donald, Lincoln, 524; Charles Sumner to John Bright, Washington, D.C., March 27, 1865, in Sumner, Selected Letters, 2:279; AL to the Senate and House of Representatives, n.d. [February 5, 1865], CW, 8:260–61; entry of February 6, 1865, Welles, Diary of Gideon Welles, 2:237; Salmon P. Chase to Jas R. Gilmore, Washington, D.C., February 23, 1865, John Roberts Gilmore Papers, Johns Hopkins University, Special Collections, Milton S. Eisenhower Library, Baltimore, Md.

108. Edward Lyulph Stanley to “mamma,” Quebec [Parish, La.], July 17, 1864, Edward Lyulph Stanley Papers, Cambridge University Library: Royal Commonwealth Society Library, Cambridge, U.K.; Michael Hahn to AL (endorsed by AL), New Orleans, September 24, 1864, ALP-LC; William O. Stoddard to AL, Little Rock, January 16, 1865, ALP-LC; Foner, Reconstruction, 73–74.

109. AL, “Message to Congress in Special Session,” July 4, 1861, CW, 4:437; Freehling, Road to Disunion, 2:453–66 and 506; Stephen V. Ash, When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 109–10; Carl N. Degler, The Other South: Southern Dissenters in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 168–69; Dale Baum, The Shattering of Texas Unionism: Politics in the Lone Star State During the Civil War Era (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998), 82–83.

110. John W. Palmer to W[illiam] G. Brownlow, Unionville, S.C., October 4, 1860, in Brownlow, Sketches of the Rise, 65–66; Alexandria [Va.] Gazette, November 9, 1860; Hiram Cockrell to Ward Hill Lamon, Fairfax Court House, Va., January 15, 1861, Ward Hill Lamon Papers, HL; Claim of Abraham Garber, Harrisonburg, Va., October 25, 1871, in David A. Rodes, Norman R. Wenger, and Emmert F. Bittinger, eds., Unionists and the Civil War Experience in the Shenandoah Valley (Rockport, Me.: Penobscot Press, 2003–2012), 1:90.

111. Diary of William Howard Russell, April 15, 17, and 25 and May 6, 11, and 27, 1861, in William Howard Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston: Burnham, 1863), 94, 100, 136–37, 171, 190, and 239; John A. Logan to wife [Mary Logan], Washington, D.C., July 16, 1861, John A. Logan Family Papers, LC; unidentified diary, March 11, 1862, in G. W. Cable, ed., “War Diary of a Union Woman in the South,” The Century Magazine 38, no. 6 (October 1889): 936.

112. Entry of April 25, 1861, Russell, My Diary, 136–37; William Fanning Wickham to Dr. Charles Carter, near Hanover C’House, April 25, 1865, Wickham Family Papers, VHS; Claim of Edward C. Turner, Kinloch, Fauquier County, Va., March 1876, Southern Claims Commission Records, NARA.

113. Entry of October 14, 1862, in The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning, 1850–1864, ed. Theodore Calvin Pease and James G. Randall (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1925), 1:578; Isaac Murphy to AL, St. Louis, February 17, 1863, ALP-LC; Charles P. Bertrand to AL, Little Rock, October 19, 1863, ALP-LC; Ash, When the Yankees Came, 111, 113, 116, and 118–19.

114. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 110–16; William W. Gallaher to AL, Memphis, February 9, 1863, ALP-LC.

115. Unionist letters decrying AL are legion, e.g., Wyndham Robertson to Frank Robertson, Richmond, c. April 12–17, 1861, Robertson Papers, VHS; Hector Green to Johnnie [Green], Henderson, [Ky.], May 12, 1861, Green Family Papers, Filson Historical Society, Louisville, Ky.; [Gov. Thomas E. Bramlette] to AL, fragment, Frankfort, Ky., September 15, 1864, Abraham Lincoln Papers, DU; James L. Petigru to [Alfred] Hugar, White Sulphur Springs, Va., September 5, 1860, copy, Petigru Papers, LC.

116. R. B. Smith et al. to AL, Ringgold, Ga., December 17, 1860, ALP-LC; Unionist pleas for direct contact with AL are plentiful, e.g., Thomas Brown to Ward Hill Lamon, Washington, D.C., February 5, 1862, Lamon Papers, HL; Amos Young to AL, Washington, D.C., March 20, 1862, ALP-LC.

117. James W. Jones to AL, Harrison County, [Va.], December 11, 1860, ALP-LC; Elizabeth R. Varon, Southern Lady, Yankee Spy: The True Story of Elizabeth Van Lew, A Union Agent in the Heart of the Confederacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 71; entry of November 19, 1863, in Elisha Hunt Rhodes, All for the Union: The Civil War Diary and Letters of Elisha Hunt Rhodes, ed. Robert Hunt Rhodes (New York: Vintage, 1985), 125; John B. Fry to AL, Washington, D.C., September 29, 1863, ALP-LC; John M. Botts to John B. Fry, Auburn, Va., January 22, 1864, ALP-LC.

118. In The South vs. the South, Freehling gives a detailed discussion of pro-Union Southerners’ contribution to the Northern effort (statistics on xiii); Ash, When the Yankees Came, 128–31; Varon, Southern Lady, Yankee Spy, 78–82 and 158–59; entry of September 18, 1862, in Frances Peter, A Union Woman in Civil War Kentucky: The Diary of Frances Peter, ed. John David Smith and William Cooper Jr. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 33–34; Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “Robert E. Lee and the Full Mobilization of the South,” North and South 10, no. 4 (November–December 2007): 61–70.

119. AL to Cuthbert Bullitt, July 28, 1862, CW, 5:344–45; Ward H. Lamon to AL, Washington, D.C., May 27, 1861, ALP-LC.

120. Entry of April 17, 1865, in Jones, A Rebel War Clerk’s Diary, 2:479; Margaret Green Calhoun to Patr[ick] Calhoun, n.d. [c. 1885], Green Papers, SHC-UNC; Benjamin B. French to Frank [Francis O. French], Washington, D.C., April 30, 1865, Benjamin B. French Family Papers, LC.

121. Thomas M. Cook, “The Rebellion: Views of General Lee,” New York Herald, April 29, 1865; William Parker Miles to Mrs. William Mason Smith, Anderson, S.C., April 24, 1865, in Daniel E. Huger Smith, Alice R. Huger Smith, and Arney R. Childs, eds., Mason Smith Family Letters, 1860–1868 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1950), 200; Martin Abbott, “Southern Reaction to Lincoln’s Assassination,” Abraham Lincoln Quarterly 7, no. 3 (September 1952): 112–14, 117, and 119–20.

122. Entry of April 20, 1865, in Kate Cumming, Kate: The Journal of a Confederate Nurse, ed. Richard Barksdale Harwell (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959), 275; Abbott, “Southern Reaction to Lincoln’s Assassination,” 114 and 116; Houston Telegraph, April 26, 1865, and Dallas Herald, May 4, 1865, in Ralph W. Steen, “Texas Newspapers and Lincoln,” The Southwestern Historical Quarterly 51, no. 3 (January 1948): 201–2; entry of April 23, 1865, in Ellen Renshaw House, A Very Violent Rebel: The Civil War Diary of Ellen Renshaw House, ed. Daniel E. Sutherland (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), 162; Caroline S. Jones to Mary Jones, Augusta, Ga., April 30, 1865, in Robert Manson Myers, ed., The Children of Pride: A True Story of Georgia and the Civil War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), 1268; entry of April 21, 1865, in The Diary of Edmund Ruffin, 3:859–60; entry of April 23, 1865, in Edmonston, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 702.

123. Entry of April 17, 1865, Cornelius Walker Diary, MoC; entries of April 22 and 26, 1865, in Lizzie Hardin, The Private War of Lizzie Hardin, ed. G. Glenn Clift (Frankfort: Kentucky Historical Society, 1963), 233–35; entry of June 15, 1865, in Morgan, Civil War Diary, 611.

CHAPTER 7. EPILOGUE TO THE HOLLOW CROWN: LINCOLN AND SHAKESPEARE

1. Charles Sumner, The Promise of the Declaration of Independence: Eulogy on Abraham Lincoln, Delivered Before the Municipal Authorities of the City of Boston, June 1, 1865 (Boston: J. E. Farwell, 1865), 45; Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun, Impressions of Lincoln and the Civil War: A Foreigner’s Account, trans. General Aldebert de Chambrun (New York: Random House, 1952), 83; Marquis Adolphe de Chambrun, “Personal Recollections of Mr. Lincoln,” Scribner’s Magazine, January 1893, 35; Macbeth, act III, sc. 2 (all Shakespeare quotations are from www.shakespeare.mit.edu); AL to James H. Hackett, August 17, 1863, CW, 6:392. For appreciation of AL’s readings, see F. B. Carpenter, Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln (New York: Hurd & Houghton, 1866), 52. For “nodding off,” see entry of August 23, 1863, in John Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House: The Complete Civil War Diary of John Hay, ed. Michael Burlingame and John R. Turner Ettlinger (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1997), 76.

2. R. Gerald McMurtry, “Lincoln Knew Shakespeare,” Indiana Magazine of History 31, no. 4 (December 1935): 265–70; Hamlet, act III, sc. 3; AL to James H. Hackett, August 17, 1863, CW, 6:392; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 49–51.

3. Douglas L. Wilson, “His Hour upon the Stage,” The American Scholar, Winter 2012, online at www.theamericanscholar.org; entries of August 13 and December 18, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 76 and 127–28; Noah Brooks, “Personal Reminiscences of Lincoln,” Scribner’s Monthly, March 1878, 675; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 49–51; Daily National Republican (Washington, D.C.), October 19, 1863; AL to James H. Hackett, August 17, 1863, CW, 6:392; William O. Stoddard, Inside the White House in War Times: Memories and Reports of Lincoln’s Secretary, ed. Michael Burlingame (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 188.

4. AL, “Remarks to a Committee of Reformed Presbyterian Synod,” July 17, 1862, CW, 5:327; AL, “Speech at Great Central Sanitary Fair,” June 16, 1864, ibid., 7:394; Macbeth, act II, sc. 4, and act III, sc. 2.

5. Ward H. Lamon, The Life of Abraham Lincoln: From His Birth to His Inauguration as President (Boston: James R. Osgood, 1872), 146; Robert Berkelman, “Lincoln’s Interest in Shakespeare,” Shakespeare Quarterly 2, no. 4 (October 1951): 310–11; Michael Burlingame, “The Trouble with the Bixby Letter,” American Heritage 50, no. 4 (July–August 1999): 64–67; Jason Emerson, “America’s Most Famous Letter,” American Heritage 57, no. 1 (February–March 2006): 41–49.

6. AL, “Annual Message to Congress,” December 1, 1862, CW, 5:537; AL to Horace Greeley, August 22, 1862, ibid., 5:388–89; Berkelman, “Lincoln’s Interest in Shakespeare,” 310–11. An analysis of influences on AL’s writing and his use of words and cadence can be found in Ronald C. White Jr., The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words (New York: Random House, 2005). See also Douglas L. Wilson, Lincoln’s Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words (New York: Vintage, 2006).

7. Salmon P. Chase to AL, Baltimore, April 11 and 12, 1865, ALP-LC; AL, “Last Public Address,” April 11, 1865, CW, 8:399–405; David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 582–85.

8. Richard II, act IV, sc. 1; Macbeth, act IV, sc. 3.

9. Henry IV, Part 2, act I, sc. 1; Macbeth, act IV, sc. 2.

10. For more on AL’s managerial problems, see Elizabeth Brown Pryor, “‘The Grand Old Duke of York’: How Abraham Lincoln Lost the Confidence of His Military Command,” forthcoming; Henry IV, Part 1, act I, sc. 1; Richard II, act V, sc. 5.

11. Entry of December 13, 1863, Hay, Inside Lincoln’s White House, 127–28; Henry IV, Part 1, act II, sc. 4.

12. Notes on Interview with Dr. LeGrand, n.d., Arthur E. Morgan Papers, LC; Address of William Fortune, Princeton, Ind., November 12, 1925, in Bess V. Ehrmann, The Missing Chapter in the Life of Abraham Lincoln (Chicago: Walter M. Hill, 1938), 64.

13. AL, “Address Before the Young Men’s Lyceum,” January 27, 1838, CW, 1:114; AL to Richard M. Corwine, Springfield, Ill., April 6, 1860, ibid., 4:36; AL to Lyman Trumbull, Springfield, Ill., April 29, 1860, ibid., 4:45; Reminiscence of Henry J. Raymond, in Don E. Fehrenbacher and Virginia Fehrenbacher, eds., Recollected Words of Abraham Lincoln (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996), 375–76; Reminiscence of James B. Fry, n.d. [c. 1888], in Allen Thorndike Rice, ed., Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time (New York: North American Review, 1888), 390; WHH, “Analysis of the Character of Abraham Lincoln,” December 26, 1865, William Henry Herndon Papers, HL.

14. Macbeth, act III, sc. 2; Hamlet, act III, sc. 3; AL to James H. Hackett, August 17, 1863, CW, 6:392; Carpenter, Six Months at the White House, 50–51.

15. Richard II, act III, sc. 2; John Hay, “Life in the White House in the Time of Lincoln,” in Addresses of John Hay (New York: Century, 1907), 334; Henry IV, Part 2, act IV, sc. 5; William Stoddard quoted in Wilson, “His Hour upon the Stage.”

16. Hamlet, act III, sc. 3; insomnia passages in Macbeth, act II, sc. 1 and 2, and act III, sc. 2; Henry IV, Part 1, act II, sc. 3; Henry IV, Part 2, act III, sc. 1; Chambrun, “Personal Recollections,” 35.

17. AL, “Second Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1865, CW, 8:332; AL, “Address on Colonization to a Deputation of Negroes,” August 14, 1862, ibid., 5:372; AL, “Speech at Great Central Sanitary Fair,” June 16, 1864, ibid., 7:395; Reminiscence of Hugh McCulloch, n.d. [c. 1888], in Rice, Reminiscences of Lincoln, 411. For other Northerners holding AL accountable for the war, see, e.g., Maria Lydig Daly Diary, September 11, 1862, in Diary of a Union Lady, ed. Harold Earl Hammond (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1962), 170; Carl Schurz to AL, November 20, 1862, Centreville, Va., ALP-LC. Donald, Lincoln, 566, believes AL had shifted his responsibility “to a Higher Power,” but other historians disagree: see, e.g., Richard Hofstadter, The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948), 133–34.

18. Michael Knox Beran, “Lincoln, Macbeth, and the Moral Imagination,” Humanitas 11, no. 2 (1998), www.nhnet.org/beran, informed much of this and the previous paragraph; AL’s humility was more oriented to a recognition of the insignificance of mankind in a universal sense than deference in interpersonal relations. See John Hay to WHH, Paris, September 5, 1866, HI, 332; William Pitt Fessenden to J. M. Forbes, Portland, November 13, 1862, in John Murray Forbes, Letters and Recollections of John Murray Forbes, ed. Sarah Forbes Hughes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1899), 1:337; WHH, “Analysis of the Character of Abraham Lincoln,” December 26, 1865, HL. The quotations are from Macbeth, act II, sc. 2; Richard III, act V, sc. 3; AL, “Gettysburg Address,” November 19, 1863, CW, 7:20–21; Hofstadter, American Political Tradition, 133.