A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.
Aalsmeer, Holland, flower auctions, 157–59
ahuejote juniper trees, 96
Ackerman, Diane, 3
Adams, John, 101
Adenanthos, 74
Adonis flowers, 144
Africanized honey bees, 184
African lily (Massonia depressa), 74
African marigold (Calendula officinalis), 173, 289
agaves (century plants), 73–74, 190
agriculture
breeding and, 127
early American, 101
flowers for perfume and, 195–97
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in, 141–42
myths about, 91–92
saffron culture and, 179–80
air quality, and moods, 294–95
Ajax delphiniums, 90
aldehydes, 203
alfalfa leafcutter bee (Megachile rotundata), 67–68
alkanet, 194
allergies, 10–11, 28, 176, 178, 185
All Saints’ Day, 217
aloes, 72
Alpine Colorado lupine (Lupinus argenteus), 286
alula (Brighamia insignis), 300–301
Amazon.com, 161–62
amber, 30, 32, 33, 34–35, 38, 40, 41
ambush bugs, 9
American Orchid Society, 134
Amorphophallus titanum, 53
Anachnorchis orchids, 57
anatomy of flowers
botanical illustration of, 259–62
cutaway illustration of, 7
glass models of, 258–59
overview of, 6–8
Andersen, Hans Christian, 231–32
anemone (Anemone coronaria), 50, 90, 91, 108, 130, 144, 176, 223, 227, 255
angel’s trumpet blossom (Datura wrightii), 61
angiosperms, 5, 8, 30, 31–32, 37, 38, 39, 42, 142
anther
cutaway illustration of, 7
in pollination, 37, 53, 55, 58, 65, 66, 74, 125, 126, 138, 184, 278–79, 281
anthocyanins, 19
Anthyllis, 90
antibacterial component of honey, 291–92
antibiotic aspect of plants, 288
ants, 20, 41, 42, 64, 75, 182, 244
Anzac Day, 217
Aphrodite, 90–91, 110, 115, 226
apothecary rose (Rosa gallica), 174
Applause blue rose, 146
apple mint, 173
apples and apple trees, 25, 77, 92, 93, 102, 135, 152, 214, 225, 234, 238, 296, 313
Archaefructus sinensis, 36–37
art, flowers in
ceramics and porcelains and, 256–58
fine art photography and, 248–50
flower arranging as, 252–55
glass flowers and, 258–59
scanning techniques in, 257–58, 280–81
tapestries and rugs and, 255–56
See also paintings and illustrations
artichokes, 169–70
artists, botanical, 259–62
Asclepius, 110
ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), 98
Asian camellia (Camellia japonica), 102, 219
Asian honey bee (Apis dorsata), 20
Asian poppy (Papaver orientale), 50
asphodel (Asphodelus), 92
aster (Aster), 212
Astylos of Croton, 214
auctions, 133, 156, 157–59, 162
Austin, David, 148
Australian chats, 71
Avicenna, 193
azalea (Rhododendron), 34, 72, 87, 98, 130, 156, 176, 212, 241
Aztecs, 94–96, 112, 116–17, 118
Babur, 97
baby’s breath (Gypsophila), 118, 129, 212
Ball Colegrave, 143
Ball Horticulture Company, 143
balsamroots, 56
bank notes, 252
Banks, Sir Joseph, 102, 252, 261
banksias, 74, 233, 262, 266, 267
banquets, 94, 192–93, 195, 214
Barash, Cathy, 176
Barrie, J. M., 58
Bartram, William, 102
Bashō, Matsuo, 236–37
Bateman, James, 62
Bat Conservation International, 314
bat flower (Tacca), 142, 190, 297
bats, 10, 15, 23, 38, 41, 42, 43, 70, 72–74, 190–91, 221, 297, 303
Bauer, Ferdinand, 261–62
Baumann, Hellmut, 109
bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), 93
beardtongue (Penstemon), 14, 15, 56, 128
bear grass (Xerophyllum tenax), 52, 299
Beatles, 239
Beautiful (perfume), 200
Beaux, Ernst, 203
bedding plants, 130, 132, 139–41, 151, 155, 158, 271–72, 307
bee balm, 175
bee flies (Bombyliidae), 51, 244
beekeeping, 65, 68–69, 181–82, 183, 291
bees
buzz pollination by, 17, 22, 66, 68, 69
colors detected by, 19–21
commercial beekeepers and, 68–69
courtship rituals (leks) of, 9, 12, 47–48
detail and color detection speed of, 22–24
electrostatic charges of flowers and, 17
evolution of flowers and, 6, 37–43
fragrances and, 188
learning and memory abilities of, 279–81
nectar preferences of, 6, 180–81
nests of, 11, 40, 41, 48, 49, 63–65, 181, 277, 280
pollination factors affecting, 16, 18
as pollinators, 9–13, 56, 58, 63–69, 70, 146–47, 122–23, 184
proboscis extension response of, 284–86
resonance theory of olfaction and, 284–85
stingless, 10, 35, 38, 40–41, 65, 67, 181, 184, 291
synthetic baits to attract, 49
tactile sensations of flowers and, 16
ultraviolet light and sight of, 17, 20, 277–79
See also honey bees
beetle marks, 144
beetles, 12–13, 20, 21, 29, 31, 38, 39–40, 41, 42, 49–51, 56, 57, 64–65, 67, 76, 90, 144, 190, 244
bellflower (Campanula), 75, 145, 300
betalains, 19
Bidens ferulifolia, 21
Billingsley, William, 257
biophilia, 287–88
bird-and-flower paintings, 241
bird-of-paradise (Strelitzia reginae), 72, 133
birds, and pollination, 10, 15, 19, 23, 42, 70–72, 104
blackberry, 64
black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia spp.), 20–21, 131
black flowers, breeding of, 142–44
black irises, 144
Black Magic hollyhock (Alcea), 143
Black Velvet petunia, 143–44
Blackwell, Elizabeth, 290
Blaschka, Leopold and Rudolf, 258–59
Bloemenveiling Aalsmeer, 157
Blossfeldt, Karl, 249
bluebonnet (Lupinus texensis), 219–20
blue orchard bee (Osmia lignaria), 68
blue passionflower (Passiflora caerulea), 209
blue quamash (Camassia), 85
blue sun orchid (Thelymitra macrophylla), 188
bluet (Hedyotis), 272
blue thistle, 137
blue water lily (Nymphaea caerulea), 86, 108, 194, 241
body tissues of flowers, and pollinators, 9, 12–13
Bollinger, Dominique, 250
Bombus impatiens, 68, 279–80, 281
Bon Jovi, Jon, 239
borage (Borago officinalis), 167, 172, 175, 311
boronia flower (Boronia megastigma), 191
Bosschaert, Ambrosias the Elder, 243
Boston, Bernie, 250
Boswellia trees, 187
botanical illustration, 77, 259–62, 265–66
bottlebrush tree (Metrosideros waialealae), 71, 75
boutonnieres, 215–16
Bowles’ Black pansy, 143
Boyle, A. J., 225
Brassica oleracea, 169
Brassica rapa, 169
breadfruit, 99
breeding
bedding plants and, 130, 132, 139–41
black flowers in, 142–44
blue rose and, 144–46
crossing in, 4, 77, 125–26, 127, 128, 130, 139, 141, 142, 143, 268–69, 272
early research on, 126–27
edible flowers and, 169
embryo rescue used in, 141
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in, 140, 141–42, 145
genomic maps used by, 136, 140–41
man as pollinator and, 76–77
opposition to new methods in, 142
pollinators affected by, 146–47
of rare orchids, 134
briar rose (Rosa canina), 231, 290
Brickdale, Eleanor, 245
Brieger, Ludwig, 14
Britomartis, 109
Bronstein, Judie, 63
bronze coins, 251
bronze sculptures, 257–58
brooms, 195
Brown’s peony (Paeonia brownii), 56
Brueghel, Pieter the Elder and Younger, 243
Brust, Keith, 46
Buchmann, Stanley, 105–6
buckwheat (Fagopyrum), 183, 272
bull bay (Magnolia grandiflora), 36, 102
bumble bee (Bombus spp.), 65, 68, 181, 279–81. See also bees
Burbank, Luther, 127, 128, 129, 139, 142
burial and funeral customs, 105–23
American customs in, 105–6, 121–23
Balinese practices in, 113–14
Christian practices in, 115–18
classical Greek practices in, 109–11
cut flowers in, 106
Hindu practices in, 111–13
roadside memorials and, 119
seasonal cycles of flowers and, 107–8
Victorian England and, 120–21
butter, flower, 167, 173, 175, 199, 311
buttercups (Ranunculus), 16, 36, 50, 90, 97, 144, 176, 223, 238
butterflies, 9, 10, 14, 20, 21, 31, 38, 42, 44, 57–59, 63, 67, 70, 104, 110, 117, 118, 146, 147, 220, 244, 257, 271, 299
butterwort (Pinguicula), 259
buzz pollination, 17, 22, 66, 68, 69
cabbage rose (Rosa x centifolia), 174
cacti, 1, 13, 15, 19, 42, 60–61, 63, 65, 72, 73, 95, 96, 104, 105, 116, 131, 155–56, 167, 204, 217, 219, 249, 274–77
Caesalpinia eriostachys legume, 278–79
calendula (Calendula officinalis), 97, 173, 255
calla lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), 122, 137, 143, 176, 212, 249–50
Calothamnus, 74
camel grass, 194
camellia (Camellia), 87, 89, 98, 102, 130, 212, 219, 250, 300
Camerarius, Rudolf Jacob, 127
campion (Silene), 300
candied flowers, 172–73, 177, 311
candytuft (Iberis), 110
Cannabis, 255
cape honeysuckle, 72
caper (Capparis spinosa), 168, 170
cape rock (elephant) shrew (Elephantulus edwardii), 43, 74, 75
cardamon, 194
Cardinal de Richelieu rose, 145–46
cardoon (Cynara scolymus), 169
carica fig trees, 86
carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), 6, 90, 103, 110, 127, 129, 130, 137, 145, 152, 157, 170, 175, 177, 191, 209, 212, 214, 215, 216, 228, 231, 244, 250, 255, 257, 287, 290, 313
carotenoids, 19
carpel. See pistil
carpenter bee (Xylocopa), 22, 64
carrion flies (muscids), 14, 51, 53, 55
carrion flower (Rafflesia arnoldii), 14, 54–55, 190
Carroll, Lewis, 231
Carter, Howard, 108
Carver, George Washington, 139
castor-oil plants, 127
caterpillars, 56, 57, 58, 59–60, 63, 220, 244, 275
Catherine de Médicis, 196
Catholicism, 115, 116, 117, 243
cattail (Typha), 184–85
cattleya (Cattleya sp.), 130, 150, 186, 271
cave burials, 106–7
celery leaves, 109
Center for Plant Conservation, 298, 314
century plants (agaves), 73–74, 190
cereal crops, 78, 185, 273, 274
certification, 160–61
chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), 86, 175, 178, 223, 287, 289
Chanel, Coco, 202–3
Chanel No. 5 (perfume), 197, 202–3, 204–5
charcoalized fossils, 33–34
Charlemagne, 241
chaste tree (Vitex), 110
cheddar pink (Dianthus gratianopolitanus), 228
Cheever, David, 152
Chelsea Flower Show, 123, 147–49
cherry blossoms, 68, 130, 237, 238, 241
chicory, 167
Children’s Hospital, St. Louis, 293
chili flowers, 65
Chiloglottis orchids, 57
China, ancient, 31, 34, 36, 87–90, 94, 98, 99, 234–36, 241, 251, 252, 253, 256–57
China rose (Rosa chinensis), 130
Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), 175, 218
Chittka, Lars, 22
chives (Allium schoenoprasum), 167, 172, 173, 310
Christianity, 98, 115–16, 117, 122, 221–22, 241–42
Christmas, 307
Christmas cactus (Schlumbergera), 217
Christ’s-thorn (Paliurus spina-christi), 86
chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum), 6, 87, 100, 114, 129, 130, 139, 140, 152, 156, 157, 172, 175, 177, 179, 212, 214, 216, 217, 240, 251, 256, 263, 288
Chuparosa bush (Justicia californica), 69–70
church ceremonies, 94, 118, 253
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), 134
citral, 204
citrus notes, 199, 200, 201, 203
civet cat, 204
Clarke, Dominic, 17
clematis, 176
Clements, Frederic, 279
cloudberry flowers (Rubus chamaemorus), 252
clove pinks, 170
clover, 175, 177, 183, 219, 224
clover honey, 183
cloves, 168, 180, 187, 210, 288
Cnaeus Matius Calvinus, 93
coach-whip ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), 69–70
Cochrane Review, 292
cockscomb (Celosia), 118
“coco de mer” (Lodoicea maldivica), 75–76
Coco Mademoiselle (perfume), 201
coevolution, 6, 32, 42, 288, 296–97
coins, 251–52
Colenso, William, 185
Collinson, Peter, 102
colony collapse disorder (CCD), 69
color in flowers
bees’ preferences for, 280–81
bees’ vision and, 19–24
black pigment in, 142–44
breeding for, 136
changes during pollination, 17–18
detection of ranges of, 19–22
evolutionary changes in size and, 37
funeral customs and, 121
gardens and, 81, 84, 86, 95, 99, 102, 103, 104, 139
impressionism in painting and, 89, 246–47
pollinators’ preferences for, 14, 18–19, 53, 55, 58, 69–70
signaling strategies using, 18–19
speed of detection of, 22–24
symbolism of, 115, 121, 211, 212–13
virus in flame tulips and, 132
Colorado lupine (Lupinus argenteus), 286
columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), 99, 232, 238
comet orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale), 61–62
Confucianism, 253
conservation, 131–32, 299, 300
conservation organizations, 301–2, 314
continental drift, 267
coral bell (Heuchera micrantha), 131
Corbet, Sally, 146
corn, 60, 83, 127, 141, 175, 185, 273, 299
cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), 86, 108, 109, 215, 218, 255
corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas), 217
corpse flower (Amorphophallus titanum), 53
corsages, 6, 130, 162, 215–16, 252, 254, 271
Cortambert, Louise, 210–11
Cortés, Hernán, 95
Cosmos, 103
courtship rituals (leks), of orchid bees, 9, 12, 47–48
cowslip (Primula), 131, 170, 230, 272
crab spiders, 9
Crane, Walter, 232
cranesbill (Geranium maculatum), 255
crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), 102
Creamer, Robert, 251
Creasy, Rosalind, 176
Cretaceous period, 30, 31–32, 33, 34–35, 36, 37, 74, 302
Cretotrigona prisca, 35
crime-scene forensic botany, 282–83
crocus, 81, 110, 115, 194, 223, 224, 234, 256
Crocus (Greek legend), 179
Crocus cartwrightianus, 179
crossbreeding, 4, 77, 125–26, 127, 128, 130, 139, 141, 142, 143, 268–69, 272
crossing, 4, 77, 125–26, 127, 128, 130, 139, 141, 142, 143, 268–69, 272
crown anemone (Anemone coronaria), 50, 90, 91, 108, 130, 144, 176, 223, 227, 255
crown vetch (Securigera varia), 219
crow-toe, 230
Cryptostylis orchids, 57
Cucurbitaceae, 59
Cunningham, Imogen, 249
cycad (Cycadales), 29, 30, 131
cyclamens, 90, 108, 155, 158, 191, 223, 224
Cymbidium orchids, 89–90, 130, 133, 137, 213
Cynaethus, 224
daffodils (Narcissus), 81, 104, 109, 128, 155, 176, 190, 209, 223, 228, 229, 230, 233–34, 248
Dafni, Amots, 222
dahlias (Dahlia spp.), 95, 96, 100, 123, 142–43, 287
daisies, 79, 110, 124, 127, 129, 144, 157, 177, 184, 238, 244
Damask rose (Rosa x damascena), 174, 188, 197
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), 175
Dante, 226
Darwin, Charles, 31–32, 41, 61–62, 100, 128, 270–73, 285, 287
date palms, 76, 78, 85, 86, 127, 267
date plum (Diospyros lotus), 235
datura (Datura wrightii), 13, 60–61, 104, 275–76, 294
d’Aulnoy, Countess, 231
day gecko (Phelsuma ornata), 43, 75
daylily (Hemerocallis spp.), 89, 100, 131, 172, 173, 179, 288
Day of the Dead, 117–18
death and dying rituals. See burial and funeral customs
decay, flower symbols of, 247
de Heem, Jan Davidsz., 244
Delaware Valley Wholesale Florist, 161
Derby porcelain, 257
Derma Sciences Inc., 292
desserts, edible flowers in, 169, 170–71, 172, 174, 175, 180
Día de Muertos, 117–18
Diana, Princess of Wales, 119
dianthus, 255
diazepam, 293
Dicksee, Sir Frank, 245
Dictynna, 109
digger bees (Centris and Gaesischia), 67, 278–79
digging sticks and tools, 82–83
digital photography, xii, 249, 251, 277, 304
Dilcher, David, 36
dill, 175
Dimberg, U., 295–96
Dimmitt, Mark, 124–26
Dirksen, Everett, 218
disease resistance, in breeding, 136, 139
DNA techniques, 56, 77, 140–41, 282
Dobbs, Arthur, 77
dogs, domestication of, 297
Domoney, David, 149
dondurma kaimak, 171
doubled flowers, 147
double fertilization, 8, 37, 42
dragon arum (Dracunculus vulgaris), 53, 109
Drakaea orchids, 57
Dressler, Robert, 48
drinks, flowers added to, 168, 169, 170, 172–73
drone fly (Eristalis tenax), 52
drying flowers, 177
Dubai Flower Centre (DFC), 162–63
Dürer, Albrecht, 242
Dutch East India Company, 242
Dutchman’s-pipe (Aristolochiaceae), 43, 53
Duvaucel’s gecko (Hoplodactylus duvaucelii), 75
dye, saffron as, 109, 179, 288
dyeing of flowers, 144–45
Dyson, Malcolm, 283–84
Easter (Madonna) lily (Lilium candidum), 109, 115, 184, 217, 251, 255
eastern spicebush (Calycanthus), 12–13
Ebers Papyrus, 291
Eden, 91
Edens-Meier, Retha, 299
edible flowers, 167–85
ancient Roman use of, 169–70
candied blooms of, 172–73, 177, 311
drying, 177
favorite flowers as, 173–76
flavored waters and desserts and, 170–71
floral teas and, 178–79
flowers to avoid, 176–77
honey and, 180–84
identifying flowers in, 175, 177, 178
lack of popularity of, 168–69
pollen and, 184–85
preparing, 177–78
range of flavors in, 168
reasons for eating, 168–69
recipes for, 310–11
researching before eating, 176–77
spices using, 179–80
egg cells, in fertilization, 8, 52, 126, 140
eggplants, 65
eglantine (Rosa rubiginosa), 228
Egypt, ancient, 85–87, 93, 106, 108–9, 115, 120, 135, 193–95, 241, 252, 255, 286, 288, 291, 295
“Egyptian, the” (perfume), 194
electrostatic charges of flowers, 16–18
elephant shrew (Elephantulus edwardii), 43, 74, 75
elm trees, 101
embalming practices, 120, 121–22
embryo sac, 8
emmer wheat, 83
endangered species, 71, 133–34, 204, 298, 299, 300, 301
endosperm, 8
English daisy (Bellis perennis), 177, 244
Eocene period, 41
essential oils of flowers
floral scents using, 193, 198, 294
as food for pollinators, 9, 11–12
Estée Lauder (company), 200
euglossine (orchid) bees, 9, 11–12, 43, 45–46, 47, 48–49, 58, 188
EuroFresh Farms, Arizona, 6
European boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), 93, 99
European honey bees, 67, 68, 291. See also honey bees
evolution of flowers
adaptive strategies in, 41–42, 46
artificial, from human interference, 84
backcrossing as trigger for, 128
changes during, 5–6, 141–42, 274
coevolution and, 296–97
Darwin’s research on, 31–32, 41, 270–73
diversity of reproductive strategies and, 42
first flower in fossil record and, 36–37
gymnosperms and, 28
increasing size of flowers during, 37–38
Fairtrade Foundation, 161
fennel, 175
ferns, 26, 27, 30, 115, 131, 167, 249
Fertile Crescent, 78, 83, 84–85, 97–98, 296
fertilization
double fertilization in, 8, 37, 42
early research on, 126–27
ethylene production in, 135–36
evolutionary changes in flowers and, 38
first flower in fossil record and, 36–37
role of pollinators in, 9–13
festivals, 91–92, 97, 107, 108, 112, 130, 196, 287
figs and fig trees, 43, 85, 86, 107, 135, 157
figwort (Scrophularia), 56
Fish, Janet, 248
fish ponds, 86, 93, 95, 97, 98–99, 246
fixatives, in perfumes, 200–201
flatbed optical scanners, 124, 251, 257–58, 304
flavonoids, 19
flavored waters, 170–71, 185, 290. See also orange water; rose water
flesh flies (calliphorids), 51
Flinders, Matthew, 261–62
FloraHolland, 157–58
Floramerica, 152
Florida coonties, 29
Florigene, 145
florist guilds, 252
florist shops, 24, 133, 136, 145, 151, 155–56, 161, 178, 244, 266, 308, 312, 313
flower arranging, 252–55
flower bundles, 288–89
flower butter, 167, 173, 175, 199, 311
flower candies, 172–73, 177, 311
flower fairies, 232
flower flies (Syrphidae), 51, 52
flower honey, 172
flower industry
Dutch auctions and, 156–59
flower imports, 151, 152, 155, 160, 308
future of, 161-63
Latin and South American, 152–54, 161, 308
organic (green-label) flowers and, 160–61
overview of, 308–9
flower people, 232
flowers
anatomy of, 6–8
ancestors of, 25–43
cutaway illustration of, 7
edible. See edible flowers
first, in fossil record, 36–37
notes in perfumes and, 199–201
obsessive collecting of, 131–32, 134
popularity of, 129–31
prices of bulbs and, 132–34
psychological effects of, 84, 155, 192, 287–88, 293–96
scent molecules released in, 187–88
seasonal cycles of, 107–8
flower syrup, 169, 170, 172, 177, 290
food allergies, 10–11, 176, 178, 185
food bodies on flowers, for pollinators, 9, 12–13, 70
forensic botany, 282–83
forget-me-not (Myosotis alpestris), 145, 219, 245
formalin (formaldehyde), 121–22
fossils
in amber, 30, 32, 33, 34–35, 38, 40, 41
in clay pits, New Jersey, 33–34, 36, 37
Darwin’s research on, 31–32
of flowers, 10, 24, 26, 29, 31, 32–34, 35, 36–37, 38, 40, 64, 273
of insects, 30–31, 32, 35, 40, 41, 56
pollen and pollen grains in, 10, 27–28, 30, 35, 41
four-o’clock (Mirabilis), 127, 176
foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), 14, 245, 290
fragrance
bad smelling flowers and, 14, 190
bats and, 15
breeding and, 147
capturing scents in, 274–76
funeral customs and, 120, 121, 122
in gardens, 86, 89, 90, 91, 93, 99
human preferences for categories of, 190–91
industrial development of, 191–92
isolating to smell, 188–89
orchid bee courtship rituals and, 12
of orchids, 60–61, 89, 137, 187, 188, 191
pollinators’ preferences for, 13–14, 46–47, 48, 53, 55, 56, 57, 60–61, 70, 188, 189, 190
fragrant olive (Osmanthus fragrans), 130, 179, 191, 288
Francis, Jake, 281
frangipani (Plumeria), 113, 114, 115, 125, 214
Franklin tree (Franklinia alatamaha), 300
freesia (Freesia), 130, 157, 191, 313
“fresh” scents, 192
friarbird (Philemon corniculatus), 71
Friedman, William E., 31
Friend, Hilderic, 209
fritillary (Fritillaria), 56–57
fritters, 172
Fromantiou, Hendrick de, 244
fruit flies, 70, 269, 284, 285
fruit trees, 89, 95, 97, 102, 241, 300
fuchsias, 250
funeral customs. See burial and funeral customs
fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae), 53
fu ran orchid (Neofinetia falcata), 134
Fussell, M., 146
Gandhi, Mahatma, 113
Ganesha, 113–14
gardenia (Gardenia), 87, 213, 295
Garden of Eden, 91
garden pea (Pisum sativum), 268–69
gardens, 81–104
Aztec, 94–96
bestselling flowers for, 130–31
breeding bedding plants for, 139–41
cacti, 104
classical Greco-Roman, 90–92
colonial American, 101–2
early European, 99–101
edible-flower, 171, 175, 176, 181
fragrance in, 13
human pollination in, 77–78
identifying flowers in, 177, 178
international trade and, 99–100, 102
modern design of, 103–4
oldest, in ancient Near East, 84–87
Persian, 96–98
of Pompeii and Herculaneum, 92–94
primitive cultures and, 82–84
Gardner, Martin, 231
garlands, 85, 94, 97, 107, 108–9, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 118, 213–14, 218, 245, 252, 254, 256
genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 140, 141–42, 145
genetic engineering experiments, 38, 136–37, 143, 145–46
Darwin’s research on, 31–32, 41, 270–73
evolution of flowers and, 5–6
Mendel’s research in, 268–70
geranium (Geraniaceae), 52, 130, 145, 175
Gérard, Jean Ignace Isidore, 211
Gerard, John, 290
gerbera daisy (Gerbera spp.), 79, 124, 129, 157
gerbils, 74
giant Himalayan lily (Cardiocrinum giganteum), 133
giant silk moth (Rothschildia cincta), 116
giant yucca (Yucca elephantipes), 176
Gibbs, May, 233
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), 29, 30
ginseng, 87
Giverny gardens, France, 246
gladioli, 93, 122, 128–29, 313
glass flowers, 258–59
glitterati blooms, 145
globe amaranth, 179
Glück, Louise, 234
golden needles, 172
gold funerary masks, 109
Gongora orchid, 11
Goodale, George, 258
Gordon, Elizabeth, 232
grain crops, 83, 101, 185, 273
grape hyacinths (Muscari), 82
grapevines, 92
Grasse, France, perfume industry, 196–97
grasses, 83, 106, 185, 274, 296
Grateful Dead, 239
Greece, ancient, 90–92, 109–10, 169, 181, 192–93, 213, 214, 223–24, 225, 228, 241, 252, 255, 266, 303, 305
greenhouses, 61, 68, 125–26, 131, 151, 152, 153, 156, 271, 279, 301
green-label flowers, 160–61
green sphinx moth (Tinostoma smaragditis), 301
Grevillea, 71
Grew, Nehemiah, 77, 127, 267–68
Grimm, Brothers Jacob and Wilhelm, 231
Guerlain (company), 203
Guerlain, Jean-Paul, 201
Gurania vine, 59
Gymea lily (Doryanthes excelsa), 262
gymnosperms, 27, 28–30, 31, 39, 40
haiku, 236–37
Haldane, J. B. S., 39
Halloween (All Hallows’ Eve), 117, 118
Harrison, Emma, 245
Harvard Museum of Natural History, 258–59
Hatshepsut, Queen of Egypt, 86
Haviland & Company, 257
Haviland-Jones, Jeannette, 294–95, 296
Hawaiian honeycreepers (Drepanididae), 43, 70–71
hawk moth (Manduca quinquemaculata and M. sexta), 13, 14, 60, 61, 62, 275, 276–77, 301
hawkweed (Picris), 109
H-bees, 52
heartsease (Viola tricolor), 143
heat-producing strategy in pollination, 39–40
Heino, Raimo, 252
heliotropin, 204
helleborine orchid (Epipactis), 56
Henry, Carol, 251
herbals (books), 241–42, 257, 289–90
herbs
bouquets and garlands using, 87, 110
burial sites and remembrances with, 111, 217
foods flavored with, 87, 167, 174
in gardens, 85, 86–87, 91, 103, 104, 253, 257
medicinal uses of, 86–87, 103, 241–42, 253, 257, 287, 289–90
Herrick, Robert, 229
hibiscus (Hibiscus spp.), 15, 168, 172, 175, 178, 179, 218, 244, 251, 252, 288
Hills, Harold “Hal,” 188
Hinduism, 111–12, 113, 114, 115, 213
Holi festival, 112
holly (Ilex spp.), 93
honey, 180–84
flowered, 172
healing and medicinal properties of, 291–92
kinds of, 182–84
raw or organic, 181–82
honey bees, xii, 10, 16, 20, 22, 23, 44, 61, 65, 66, 67–69, 77, 122, 142, 168, 181–82, 184, 185, 277, 284, 291, 297. See also bees
honeycreepers (Drepanididae), 43, 70–71
honeyeaters (Meliphagidae), 71
honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus), 43, 74, 75
honeysuckle, 72, 175, 177, 191, 300, 301
horai, 98
horned violet (Viola cornuta), 174
hornworm (Manduca quinquemaculata and M. sexta), 60, 275
Horowitz, Alexandra, 297
horseflies (tabanids), 51
hospitals, 292–93
Hostas, 131
Hughes, Arthur, 245
Hughes, Ted, 233–34
Huitzilopochtli, 118
hummingbird moths, 60
hummingbirds, 15, 38, 43, 44, 60, 69, 70, 72, 104, 118, 146, 147, 232, 273
humpback flies (Acroceridae), 61
Hunter, Robert, 239
hunter-gatherer societies, 82–83, 107, 240
hyacinths, 90, 144, 155, 176, 216, 223, 224, 225, 238, 257
Hyacinthus, 91
black flowers as, 142–43
crossing to produce, 4, 125–26, 127, 128, 130, 139, 141, 142, 143, 268–69, 272
early research on, 126–27
frequency in nature of, 128
of orchids, 128, 130, 137, 150
pedigrees of, 128–29
Hymenaea resin, 34
hyssop, 175
Ibn Sina, Ali, 193
‘I‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea), 71, 299
ikebana, 253
illuminated manuscripts, 254
illustration, botanical, 77, 259–62, 290
impressionism, in painting, 89, 246–47
incense tree, 86
Indian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), 86, 111, 218
Ineni, 86
insecticides, 69, 77, 168, 178, 301, 302
insect resistance, in breeding, 139
insects
role as pollinators, 6, 9–13, 23, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 42, 46, 50–51, 62, 63, 66, 67, 104
vision of, 20, 21, 23, 55, 144
Institut Superieur International du Parfum, 201–2
introgression, 128
iris (Iris), 50, 52, 90, 110, 128, 129, 130, 142, 144, 176, 194, 213, 218, 219, 224, 237, 244, 245, 246, 250, 251, 255
irrigation systems, 93–94, 95, 97, 299
Islamic gardens, 96–98
Ixtapan, 95
Ixtlilxóchitl, 95
Iznik ceramics, 257
Jacquemart, Albert, 212
Jagger, Mick, 239
Jainism, 113
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), 177
Japanese maples, 99
Japanese rose (Rosa rugosa), 174
jasmine (Jasminum sambac; Jasminum grandiflorum), 13, 14, 97, 97, 98, 104, 175, 178, 179, 191, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202, 230, 232, 252, 255, 288
Javanol, 204
Jefferson, Thomas, 101–2
jellies, floral, 172
jewel beetles (Buprestidae), 50, 51, 65
Jewish holidays, 107
Jicky (perfume), 203
jimsonweed (Datura), 61
Johndrow, David, 251
Johnny-jump-ups, 167, 172, 175, 177, 311
Johnson, Lady Bird, 219–20
Johnson, Lyndon, 219
joint pine (Ephedra), 106
jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), 273–74
Jones, Claris E., 278
joy perfume tree (Magnolia champaca), 188
Judaean sage (Salvia judaica), 107
Juliet rose, 148
Kaiser, Roman, 190–91
kapok trees, 190
Karoo rose (Adenium), 125–26
Kellert, Stephen, 287
Kitab al-Felahah, 144
kiwis, 65
Kline, A. S., 226
Kokin Wakashū, 237
Kölreuter, Joseph Gottlieb, 127, 128
Komachi, Ono no, 236
Krishna, 112
Labandeira, Conrad, 31
“lady bee” (Melipona beecheii), 183–84
lady slipper orchid (Calypso spp.), 299
lady’s-smock (Cardamine), 131
Lake Texcoco (Lago de Texcoco), 94, 95–96
landscape painting, 90, 98, 241, 246–47, 248
language of flowers, 209–13
Lan Su Chinese Garden, Portland Oregon, 87–88
lantanas, 176
larkspur (Delphinium), 19, 230
laser scanners, 257–58, 280–81
Latour, Charlotte de, 210–11, 212
lavender, 130, 172, 175, 178, 195–96, 198, 199, 200
lawns, 97, 101, 102, 104, 292, 293
Laws of Inheritance (Mendel), 269
leafcutter bees, 67–68
leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida), 183
legends. See myths and legends
leks, in courtship rituals of orchid bees, 9, 12, 47–48
lemon trees, 93
Leonard, Anne, 280
Leonardo da Vinci, 242
Leonidas roses, 137
leopard’s-bane (Doronicum), 110
Liberty Tree, 101
lilac (Sryinga vulgaris), 97, 98, 99, 130, 137, 156, 157, 213, 229, 233
lily (Lilium), 3, 4, 6–8, 14, 53, 74, 75, 77, 87, 88, 90, 92, 100, 109, 120, 121, 122, 123, 129, 131, 133, 137, 138, 172, 192, 194, 216, 222, 223, 226, 229, 231, 238, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246, 249, 250, 251, 253, 255, 256, 262, 283, 290
lily of the valley, 115, 176, 204, 222
Limoges porcelain, 257
Lincoln, Abraham, 233
Linnaeus, Carl, 77, 260, 261, 266, 270–71
Li Po, 235
Lippi, Filippo, 242
Long, Frances, 279
long-horned beetle (Cerambycidae), 65
long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae), 73
long-tongued flies (Criorhina caudata), 56
longwing (Heliconius), 59
loosestrife (Lythrum), 272
loquats, 241
lorikeets, 71
Los Angeles Flower Market, 137–39
lost-wax casting, 257–58
lotus, 86, 87, 94, 109, 111–13, 114, 115, 130, 218, 238, 241, 256, 257
Louise, Queen of Prussia, 218
Louisiana irises, 128
love of nature, 287–88
Lubbock, Sir John, 20
lungwort (Pulmonaria), 272
Lutz, Frank, 20
lyreleaf jewelflower (Streptanthus carinatus), 44
Madagascar hawk moth (Xanthopan morganii praedicta), 62
Madonna (Easter) lily (Lilium candidum), 109, 115, 184, 217, 251, 255
magnolias, 33, 36, 39, 50, 87, 89, 100, 128, 238, 239, 249, 250, 268
Maguire, Sarah, 229
maize, 127
Make Way for Monarchs, 301, 314
makhmali, 112
mallow bees, 65
mallows, 75
Malpighi, Marcello, 268
Malpighiaceae flowers, 11
mammals, as pollinators, 74
mandarin ducks, 235
Manduca moths, 276–77
Manet, Édouard, 246
mantids, 9
manuka honey, 291–92
Maori, 185
Mapplethorpe, Robert, 249–50
Marcus, Barry, 174
marginalia, 255
marigold (Tagetes), 94–95, 97, 100, 104, 112, 115, 118, 130, 139, 151, 171, 173, 175, 177, 210, 213, 217, 218, 238, 244, 272, 289
marsh marigold (Caltha palustris), 21, 176
Martial, 93
masarid wasp (Masaridae), 56, 57, 63
Max Havelaar Foundation, 161
mayflowers, 245
Mayo people, 116–17
maypop (Passiflora incarnata), 219
McCrae, John, 217
Mead’s milkweed (Asclepias meadii), 299–300
medicines, plant-based
floral and herbal teas and, 178, 179, 286–87, 288–89
floral scents and, 293–95
flowers’ healing aspects and, 94, 174, 288–89
herbs and herbals used in, 85, 86–87, 103, 241–42, 253, 257, 287, 289–90
honey’s healing qualities and, 291–92
hospital settings and, 292–93
wound care using, 282
Medina Az-Zahra, Spain, 97
Meleager of Gadara, 223
Melipona stingless bees, 41, 181, 183–84, 291
meliponines stingless bees, 65, 181
Melittosphex burmensis, 35
Melville, A. D., 225
memorials, roadside, 119
Mendel, Gregor Johann, 268–70, 271, 285
Mendoza, Tony, 251
Mercury plant (Mercurialis), 127
mess and soil approach in pollination, 40
Messel, Germany, fossils, 41
Mexican long-tongued bat (Choeronycteris mexicana), 73
Mexican marigold (Tagetes lucida), 115, 244, 289
Mexican yellow-show (Amoreuxia palmatifida), 21–22
Miami International Airport, 138, 154–55, 160
Michaux, André, 102
Mictlantecuhtli, 118
Middle Ages, 94, 115, 226, 253–54, 292
midge (Forcipomyia), 52
mignonette (Reseda), 272
migrant workers, 153
Milieu Programma Sierteelt (MPS), 161
milkweeds, 14, 58, 176, 299–300
Millais, Sir John, 245
millefiori glass, 259
millefleurs, 256
Miller, Joseph, 290
Milton, John, 229–30
Mimbres Classic period, 117
mining-bees (Andrenidae), 64
Minoan Empire, 109, 122, 179, 241, 255, 256
mint (Mentha spp.), 107, 173–74
miscellanies, 224
Missouri bladderpod (Physaria filiformis), 299
Moctezuma I, 95
Moctezuma II, 94
Modernism, in painting, 246–47
Moghul gardens, 97
Molan, Peter, 292
Moldenke, Harold and Alma, 222, 223
Mollevant, Charles-Louis, 210
monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus), 58, 299, 301, 314
monstrose flower, 54
moods, and air quality, 294–95
moonflower, 13
morning glories (Convolvulus), 145, 176, 238
mosquitoes, 51
moss pinks (Shibazakura, moss Phlox), 130
Mother’s Day, 139, 157, 159, 190, 217, 307
moth orchid (Phalaenopsis spp.), 136, 137, 138, 139
moths, 10, 13, 14, 38, 42–43, 58, 59–63, 116, 134, 146, 190, 197, 251, 275–77, 294, 301
mountain black-eye (Chlorocharis emiliae), 72
mountain laurel (Kalmia), 101, 102, 219
mouse-ear (Cerastium), 110
moutan peony, 89
mugunghwa rose, 252
mullein (Verbascum), 127
mum. See chrysanthemum
Mumford, Lewis, 218
Murano glass, 259
music, flowers in, 238–39
musk deer, 204
musk rose (Rosa moschata), 228, 230
Muslims, 96, 98, 99, 193, 217, 241
mustard, 186
mutation breeding, 140
Muth, Felicity, 281
Mycenaean civilization, 193–94
Myrrha, 90–91
myrrh tree (Commiphora myrrha), 91, 187, 192, 194
myrtle pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), 75, 183
myrtles (Eugenia or Myrtus), 86, 93, 97, 107, 180, 214
myths and legends, 83, 89, 90–91, 117, 179, 196, 202–3, 225, 227, 241, 242
Narcissus (Greek legend), 91
narcissus (Narcissus tazetta), 90, 93, 97, 108, 121, 130, 224, 229, 233, 243, 255
narcotic drugs, 289
Narihira, Ariwara no, 237
nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus), 100, 167, 172, 174, 272
National Wildlife Federation, 104
Natufian culture, 106–7, 302, 305
natural selection, 5, 14, 23, 37, 142, 144, 187, 271, 272
Neanderthal burials, 106
Nebamun, 85–86
nectar
coloring of, 75
evolution of flowers and bees’ preferences for, 6
flavoring from, 172
as food for pollinators, 9–10, 53, 59, 63–64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 74, 75, 104, 147, 168, 180–81, 182, 220, 275, 278–80, 281, 284, 294, 299, 301
honey from, 180–81, 182, 183, 184, 291
production of, 9–10
nectar glands, 9, 56, 147, 180, 266
Neofinetia orchids, 134
Nerium, 90
Nesocodon mauritianus, 75
nests
of bees, 11, 40, 41, 48, 49, 63–65, 181, 277, 280
flower material for, 9, 11, 189
Newman, Cathy, 195
Nezahualcoyotl, 95
Nichols, Walter, 256
night-blooming (nocturnal) plants, 13, 60–61, 175, 196, 197, 204, 249, 260, 275, 301
Nightingale, Florence, 293
nightshade (Solanum tridynamum), 66, 109, 176, 280–81
Niklas, Karl, 273–74
Nobel laureates, 214
North American Pollinator Protection Campaign, 301, 314
northern bog orchids (Platanthera obtusata), 51
nosegays, 254
notes, in perfumes, 199–201
oak-leaf hydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia), 219
Oaxtepec, 95
ocotillo (Fouquieria splendens), 69–70
odotope, 283
Öhman, A., 295–96
O’Keeffe, Georgia, 212, 220, 247
Olcott, Chauncey, 238
olive (fragrant olive; Osmanthus fragrans), 130, 179, 191, 288
olive branch, as victory branch, 214
olive trees, 86, 93, 109, 185, 296
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 103
Olympic games, 214
Oncidium, 22
online shopping, xi, 133, 147, 151, 161–62, 185, 220, 249, 314
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 270, 271
opelu (Lobelia grayana), 71
opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), 50, 86, 109, 144, 289
orange-blossom honey, 183
orange buttercups (Ranunculus asiaticus), 50, 97, 144
orange mint, 173
orange notes, 201
orange trees, 97
orchid bees, 9, 11–12, 43, 45–46, 47, 48–49, 58, 188
breeding of, 134
edible, 171
essential oils in, 11
floral patterns of, 22
fossils of, 35
fragrances of, 60–61, 89, 137, 187, 188, 191
hybrids of, 128, 130, 137, 150
international trade in, 100
pollinators of, 9, 11, 44–49, 51, 52, 57, 61–62
popularity of, 129, 130, 139, 213
prices of, 133–34
symbolic meaning of, 213
Orchis, 91
Orchis mascula, 271
Organic Bouquet brand, 161
organic gardening, 104
organic honey, 181–82
Organization for Tropical Studies, 278
Oriental lily (Lilium speciosum), 120
Oriental poppy (Papaver orientale), 50
osmanthus tea, 179, 286–87, 288, 289
Öst, L. G., 295–96
outcrossing, 4–6
ovary (flower part)
cutaway illustration of, 7
in opium poppy flowers, 269
in pollination, 8, 9, 63, 126, 135–36
ovules, 7, 8, 9, 36–37, 38, 50, 127, 266
oxeyes, 232
oxlips (Primula elatior), 227
pagoda lily (Whiteheadia bifolia), 74
pain remedies, 288, 289, 290, 293
paining (dyeing) flowers, 145
paintings and illustrations, 240–62
botanical illustration and, 77, 259–62, 290
Dutch still lives and, 242–45
illuminated manuscripts and, 255
language of flowers in, 210, 211–12
in modern and pop art, 246–48
oldest depictions of flowers in, 241–42
in Pre-Raphaelite art, 245–46
in the Renaissance, 242
scanning techniques in, 257–58, 280–81
Palicourea, 59
Palmer’s agave (Agave palmeri), 74
paloverde trees, 17–18
Pamphos, 224
pansy (Viola tricolor), 130, 139, 143, 145, 146, 155, 158, 172, 174, 228, 230, 244, 255, 311
Papaj, Dan, 280
paper currency, 252
paper mulberry tree, 236
Parkinson, John, 290
Parkinson, Sydney, 261
parrot feather (Alstroemeria), 129, 134–35
parrots, 71
parrot tulips, 137
partridge pea (Senna), 66
Pascua Yaqui people, 116
passionflowers (Passiflora spp.), 56, 209, 219, 230, 231, 242, 244
patchouli, 201
pea (Pisum sativum), 268–69
Peace rose, 218
Peck, J. Scott, 250–51
pemphredonines, 56
Peniocereus cactus (P. striatus), 60, 276
peonies, 6, 56, 87, 89, 90, 98, 130, 216, 232, 243, 244, 246, 250, 251, 253, 255
peppermint, 173
perfume industry, 187, 194, 201–3
perfumes, xi, 186–205
in ancient world, 186–87, 192–95
creation of new, 202–3
extraction of scents for, 198–99
famous and classic, 203–5
flower crops raised for, 195–96
funeral customs and, 121–22
noses for scents in, 201–2
notes in, 199–201
packaging of, 194
rise of flower-based, 195–98
roses and, 186, 191, 192–93, 194, 195, 186–97, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202–3
periwinkles, 176
Permian period, 27–28
Perrault, Charles, 231
persea tree (Mimusops laurifolia), 86, 108, 109
Persia, 89, 96–97, 98, 193, 256, 295
persimmon (Diospyros kaki), 87, 90, 235
anatomy of flowers with, 8
attractiveness for pollinators of, 5, 15–16, 17
bees’ vision of color of, 20–21, 278–79, 280
beetles in pollination and, 50
in black hybrids, 143–44, 145–46
breeding and genetic modification of, 136, 145–46, 269
ceramic shapes from, 257
coin shapes from, 251
color changes during pollination, 17–18
color signaling strategies of, 18–19
doubling of, 147
dyeing and spraying of, 144–45
edible, in food and drinks, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172–73, 174, 175, 177, 178, 311
evolution of flowers and, 5, 37
extraction of scent from, 198–99
fertilization and, 135–36
in fossil flowers, 32, 33, 34, 37
fragrance from, 13, 37, 187–88, 194, 254
as literary symbol, 225, 226, 232, 233, 235
nectar and, 9–10, 147, 180, 182, 279
of orchids, 43, 45, 57, 150, 188, 204, 271
in perfumes, 196, 197, 198–99, 203, 204
photography of movement of, 277–78
pollination and, 5, 40, 43, 45, 50, 126, 269
in religious rituals, 112, 113, 118, 242
role of pollinators and, 9–10, 12
rosary beads constructed from, 115
of roses, 81, 97, 145–46, 148, 167, 174, 177, 193, 194, 196, 197, 203, 242, 311
surface of, 15–16
in teas, 178
in tulips, 132
ultraviolet-light patterns on, 17, 20–22
petunias, 17, 123, 130, 136, 139, 143–44, 151, 155, 158, 184, 272
peyote, 116
pheasant’s eye (Adonis), 50, 272
philodendrons, 39–40, 47, 53, 109, 139
phloxes, 14
photography, xii
fine art images of flowers in, 248–50
Phragmipedium kovachii, 133
Pindar, 110
pineapple guava, 175
pineapple sage, 175
pine nuts, 28
pine trees, 28, 95, 98, 101, 106, 199, 219, 236, 241
pink (Dianthus), 87, 228, 230, 231, 255, 290. See also carnation
pistil (carpel)
cutaway illustration of, 7
description of, 6, 7, 8, 37, 65
in Linnaean method, 261
in orchids, 271
photography of, 249
in pollination, 65, 126–27, 269
in saffron, 179
as symbols, 179
plantain lily (Hosta), 131
Plath, Sylvia, 233–34
plum trees, 87, 89, 98, 99, 130, 251
poachers, 299
pocketbook flower (Calceolaria), 272
poetry, flowers in, 221–37
in American literature, 232–34
in Asian literature, 234–37
in biblical verses, 221–23
in children’s literature, 231–32
in Dante, 226
in English literature, 227–30
in Roman times, 225–26
roses in, 226
pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa), 75, 183
poinsettia, 217
Polemonium, 14
pollen and pollen grains
black flowers and, 144
burial flowers with, 106
crime-scene forensic botany using, 282–83
description of, 7–8
in double fertilization, 8, 37, 42
electrical charges of, 16
as food for people, 184–85
in fossil flowers, 10, 27–28, 30, 35, 41
as lure for pollinators, 9, 10–11, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 59, 63, 65, 66, 70, 71, 72, 75, 147, 181
bees’ visual preferences and, 23–24
breeding and, 125–26
buzz pollination in, 17, 22, 66, 68, 69
color detection in, 19–22
color signaling strategies in, 18–19
contracts with commerical beekeepers for, 68–69
detail and color detection speed in, 22–24
double fertilization in, 8, 37, 42
electrostatic charges and, 16–18
evolutionary changes and, 6, 37–38
first flower in fossil record and, 36–37
flowers as sex organs of plant in, 5
food substances attracting pollinators in, 9–13
fossil record of early, 30–31
genetic diversity and, 5
heat-producing strategy in, 39–40
mess and soil approach in, 40
outcrossing in, 4–5
pollen grain structure in, 7–8
role of pollinators in, 9–13
selfing (self-pollination), 4, 269, 271–72
tactile sensations in, 15–16
pollination syndrome concept, 70
Pollinator Partnership, 147, 301, 314
bats as, 70, 72–74, 190, 122–23
bees as, 9–13, 56, 58, 63–69, 70, 146–47, 122–23, 184
best plants for, 147
birds as, 69–72
breeding of flowers and, 146–47
buzz pollination used by, 17, 22, 66, 68, 69
color preferences of, 14, 18–19, 53, 55, 58, 69–70
early flowers and, 39–40
evolution of flowers and changes in, 6, 37–38
fossil record of early, 30–31
gardens for, 104
lizards as, 74–76
mammals as, 74
moths as, 59–63
nectar and, 9–10, 53, 59, 63–64, 65, 68, 70, 71, 74, 75, 104, 147, 168, 180–81, 182, 220, 275, 278–80, 281, 284, 294, 299, 301
pollen and pollen grains as lure for, 9, 10–11, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 59, 63, 65, 66, 70, 71, 72, 75, 147, 181
pollination syndrome approach to predicting, 70
rodents as, 74
polyanthus primrose (Primula), 128, 268
pomegranate, 86, 87, 89, 94, 97, 252, 253
Poor Knights lily (Xeronema callistemon), 75
pop art, 247–48
Pope, Alexander, 210
poppy (Escholtzia), 217, 232, 246, 250, 272
poppy flower (Papaver somniferum), 50, 86, 90, 109, 144, 289
popularity of flowers, 129–31
Portulaca, 19
postage stamps, 252
postman longwing (Heliconius), 59
postmodernism, in painting, 247
pot marigold (Calendula officinalis), 173
Pound, Ezra, 233
Pre-Raphaelite art, 245–46
prices of bulbs and plants, 132–34, 146
prickly pear cactus (Opuntia), 19, 128
primroses, 90, 110, 120, 155, 228, 230, 244, 268, 270, 272, 290
proboscis extension response (PER), 284–86
Prolman, Gerald, 161
Proplebeia dominicana, 35
Proteaceae, 266
proteas (Protea), 74, 133, 217, 266, 267
Psiguria vine, 59
psychological responses to flowers, 84, 155, 192, 287–88, 293–96
Psychotria, 59
Puccini, Giacomo, 238
pumpkins and pumpkin flowers, 59, 171–72, 296, 310
queen butterfly (Danaus gilippus), 58
Queen of the Night (perfume), 204
queen-of-the-night cactus (Peniocereus greggii), 13, 60–61, 167, 204, 275–78
Queen of the Night tulip, 143
radishes, 142
Rafflesia arnoldii, 54–55, 190
ragged robin (Clarkia), 272
Raguso, Robert, 188, 275, 276–77
rain forests, 11–12, 39, 42, 44, 49, 54, 298
rapini, 169
Raqefet Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel, 106–7, 305
Ray, John, 127
Reagan, Ronald, 218
recipes, 310–11
red buttercups (ranunculus), 223, 243
red cedars, 101
red clover (Trifolium pratense), 146–47, 175, 219
red corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas), 217
red-hot pokers (Kniphofia), 18
Redon, Odilon, 248
Redouté, Pierre-Joseph, 261
Red Rock Lavender farm, Arizona, 195–96
red roses, 19, 120, 129, 135, 154, 159–60, 213, 214, 216, 220, 230, 277
Remembrance Day, 217
Ren, Dong, 30
Ren, Jianping, 143
Renaissance, 94, 115, 227, 242, 254, 290
reproductive botany, 267–68, 272, 273–74
resonance theory of olfaction, 284–85
restaurants, 168, 171, 172, 178
rhodinon, 194
rhododendrons, 34, 72, 87, 90, 100, 156, 176
rice, 87, 111, 113, 114, 173, 180, 185, 273
Rice, Robert, 250
rice-cake flower (Arisaema sikokianum), 133
Richards, Keith, 239
Richtmyer, F., 20
Riou, Édouard, 27
Rivera, Diego, 212
roadside memorials, 119
Robert, Daniel, 17
rock art, 240
rock gardens, 104
rockroses (Cistus), 223
rocks, decorative, in gardens, 87, 88, 98, 253
rockspray (Cotoneaster horizontalis), 146
Rocky Mountain columbines (Aquilegia caerulea), 165
Roden, Claudia, 171
Rolling Stones, 239
Roman Catholicism, 115, 116, 117, 243
Roman Empire, 58, 92–94, 96, 99, 103, 110–11, 160, 169–70, 192–93, 198, 213–14, 217, 224, 225–26, 228, 241, 242, 252, 255, 268
Rosa foetida, 97
rosary beads, from roses, 115
rose (Rosa spp.)
in art, 242, 245, 246, 255, 256, 257
biblical references to, 222, 223
care after cutting, 136, 312, 313
colors of, 19
dark colors in, 123
fragrance of, 121, 137, 161, 187, 191, 194, 195, 196–97, 198, 199, 283, 293, 294, 295
gardens with, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96–97, 103, 148
in literature, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234
in market auctions, 157
in music, 238–39
organic, 161
perfumes using, 186, 191, 192–93, 194, 195, 186–97, 198, 202–3
in photography, 249, 250, 251, 277
popularity of, 129–30
shipping, 135, 138, 152, 153, 154, 155, 220
symbolic meaning of, 115, 160, 210, 211, 213, 214, 220, 290
synthetic, 200
for Valentine’s Day, 159–60, 217
wedding bouquets with, 110
rose absolutes, 197
rosebushes, 130
rose campion (Lychnis), 110
rose de mai rose, 197
rose hips, 136
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), 107, 175, 217
rose of May (Rosa gallica var. centifolia), 197
rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus), 222, 223, 252
rose petals, 115
absolutes from, 197
candied, 311
jam, 174
perfume from, 194
rosary beads from, 115
rose water from, 198
teas from, 177
rose water, 170, 171, 174, 185, 186, 192–93, 198, 290
rose wine, 191
Rothschild, Dame Miriam, 104
Rothschild’s slipper orchid (Paphiopedilum rothschildianum), 133
Roubik, David “Dave,” 44–45, 46, 48, 49
Roudnitska, Edmond, 202
Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), 148
ruderals, 108
rugs, 256
runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus), 177
Russell, Avery, 280
rye, 273
sacred datura (Datura wrightii), 13, 60, 275–76
sacred-thorn-apple (Datura wrightii), 25
saffron, 168, 173, 179–80, 192, 286, 288
saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), 109, 179, 194, 286
sage (Salvia officinalis), 107, 174, 175
saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea), 15, 73, 74, 190, 219, 221, 278
Saint Valentine’s Day, 115, 135, 139, 154, 157, 159–60, 190, 217, 307
Saji, Nobutada, 145
sakura cherry (Prunus serrulata), 130
salads, edible petals in, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173–75, 177, 310
Sanchez, Tania, 204
santalol, 204
Sappho, 224
Sardanapalus, 192
scanning, 124, 251, 257–58, 280–81, 304
scarab beetles (Amphicoma and Anthypna), 39, 50, 51, 144
scarlet banksia (Banksia coccinea), 262
scent organs, in perfume industry, 202
Scheer, Joseph, 251
Schnell, David, 258
Schonzeit, Ben, 248
Schwartzberg, Louie, 45, 46, 277
scientific illustration, 259–62, 265–66
scorpion flies, 30–31
scorpionweed (Phacelia), 57
SCS (Scientific Certification Systems), 161
sea daffodil (Pancratium maritimum), 109
seasons, 107–8, 141, 156, 210, 217, 244
self-pollination (selfing), 4, 269, 271–72
Semper Augustus tulip, 132
senita cacti, 63
sepals, 7, 8, 91, 232, 261, 266
sex pheromones, 9, 12, 200, 297
shadufs, 97
Shakespeare, William, 108, 129, 148, 217, 220, 227–28, 229
Shanidar Cave, Iraq, 106
Shenzhen Nongke orchids, 133
Shi Zi Lin, Suzhou, China, 88
shinden-zukuri gardens, 241
Siberian lilies, 133
Siddal, Lizzie, 245
Sierra Flowers, 161
signet marigold (Tagetes signata), 177
silk moth (Bombyx mori), 60
silk tree (Albizia julibrissin), 102
silphium, 251
silvereyes (Zosteropidae), 71
silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium), 265
Simonides, 214
Sioux Honey Association, 183
skin remedies, 289
Skorupski, Peter, 22
skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), 14, 53, 190
Smilax, 179
snapdragons, 14, 107, 141, 168
snowdrop (Galanthus), 110, 115, 121
snowflake (Leucojum), 110, 115
Sōgi, 236
soliflores, 204–5
solstice festivals, 124–25
Sonoran Desert, 17, 51, 60, 66, 69–70, 74, 117, 125, 273, 274, 276, 305, 306
Sonrel, Élisabeth, 245
soulangeana magnolia (Magnolia), 128, 268
soybeans, 141
Spain, 30, 94–95, 97, 100, 116, 180, 196, 198, 241, 256
Spathiphyllum, 47
spearmint, 173
sperm cells, 4, 5, 6, 8, 46, 125–26, 127, 135–36, 267
sphingids (Sphingidae), 60
sphinx moths, 60, 146, 275, 301
spicebush (Calycanthus), 12–13, 40, 49–50
spices, 179–80
spider wasps (Pompilidae), 58
Sprengel, Christian Konrad, 77, 268
spring adonis, 176
spring festivals, 112, 130, 148–49, 217
spring flowers, 81, 89, 91, 117, 129, 130, 139, 148, 151, 155–56, 217, 233, 237, 302
spurges, 176
squash blossoms, 171–72, 175, 310
cutaway illustration of, 7
in fossil flowers, 33
in lilies, 223
in Linnaean method, 261
in pollination, 10, 12, 50, 147, 267, 271, 278–79, 280
stamps, 252
Starfighter lily, 137
starfish plant (Stapelia spp.), 14, 190
Stargazer lily (Lilium sp. hybrid), 3–4, 6–8, 133, 138, 251, 283
star orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale), 61–62
stereochemical theory of olfaction, 283
stigma (flower part)
cutaway illustration of, 7
in fossil flowers, 33
pollination and, 13, 50, 53, 55, 58, 63, 64, 125–26, 274, 300
in saffron, 286
still-life flower photography, 249
still-life paintings, 220, 242–45, 246, 248
Sting, 239
stingless bees, 10, 35, 38, 40–41, 65, 67, 181, 183–84, 291
storax (Styrax), 110
stuffed squash blossoms, 172, 310
style (flower part), 6, 7, 8, 33, 37, 180
Sukkoth, 107
summer festivals, 91, 110, 124–25
summer flowers, 72–73, 91, 110, 124, 139, 156
Summer Wave snapdragon (Torenia), 141
Sun, Ge, 36
sunbirds (Nectariniidae), 43, 71–72
sunflower (Helianthus annuus), 20–21, 58, 65, 123, 128, 130, 142, 175, 210, 238, 243, 245, 289
Suntory Flowers Ltd., 145–46
superstitions, 121
surrealistic painting, 246–47
Su Shi, 235
sweet-flag (Acorus spp.), 194
sweet jasmine (Jasminum humile), 197
sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana), 195
sweet orange, 175
sweet pea (Lathyrus), 130, 176, 191, 272
sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus), 85, 86
symbolism of flowers, xi, 209, 212–13
in ancient Egypt, 108
in art, 243
of black flowers, 142
of blue roses, 144
Buddhist, 112–13
Chinese, 89, 212, 234, 235, 256
Christian, 115, 116, 212, 217, 226, 231, 241–42, 243
on coins, 251
of corsages or boutonnieres, 215–16, 217
of death and mourning, 108, 117, 216, 217, 241
in Dutch society, 132
of flower colors, 115, 121, 211, 212–13
of flower giving, 216–17
for holidays, 217
in India, 111
in language of flowers, 209–13
of love and marriage, 179, 213, 235
in manuscript illumination, 255
in music and operas, 238–39
as national or state emblems, 218–19, 252
among native Americans, 116, 117
syrups, flower, 169, 170, 172, 177, 290
tamarisk trees, 86
tangle-vein flies (Nemestrinidae), 51, 52
Taoism, 253
tapestries, 255–56
tea bush (Camellia sinensis), 178–79
tea roses, 89
tea-tree (Leptospermum scoparium), 291
temple ceremonies, 85, 94, 108, 110, 112, 113–14, 195, 241, 252, 253, 286
Tetragonisca stingless bees, 41
Theophrastus, 194
thornbills (Acanthizidae), 71
Thornton, Robert John, 259–61
thyme (domesticated Thymus), 175, 227
tiger butterfly (Heliconius), 59
Tiglath-Pileser I, 85
time-lapse (TL) photography, 277–78, 305
Tin Pan Alley, New York City, 238
ti plant (Cordyline fruticosa), 139
tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta), 60
tomatoes, 19, 60, 65, 66, 68, 141, 174, 279
tomato hornworm (Manduca quinquemaculata), 60, 275
tomb paintings, 85–86, 194, 195
Tomkins, Silvan, 296
torch gingers, 133
trade in flowers, 150–63
domestic flower-growing, 151, 155, 308
Dutch auctions and, 156–59
early gardens and, 99–100, 102
flower markets and, 138–39, 162–63
future of flower-growing and, 161–63
global commerce in, 150–51
Latin American flowers and, 152–54, 308
organic (green-label) flowers and, 160–61
potted spring flowers and, 155–56
transportation of cut flowers in, 154–55
Valentine’s Day roses and, 159–60
Tradescant, John the Elder and the Younger, 99
trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), 147
Trigona stingless bees, 41, 291
trilliums, 249
trumpet flowers (Solandra), 176
tuberose, 100
tube roses (Polianthes), 95
tuberous begonia, 175
tufted violas, 155
tulip (Tulipa), 50, 77, 78, 81, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 129, 130, 132–33, 137, 143, 155, 156, 157, 210, 213, 214, 216, 231, 238, 243–44, 256, 257, 260, 268
tupelo honey, 183
Turkish delight, 170–71
Turkish love letter, 210
tussie-mussies, 254
Ulrich, Roger, 293
ultraviolet (UV) light, 19
floral patterns and, 20–22, 278–79
global warming and, 15
sight of bees and other insects using, 17, 20, 277–79
Upiga virescens, 63
US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Economic Research Service, 129
US Department of Homeland Security, 154
Valentine’s Day, 115, 135, 139, 154, 157, 159–60, 190, 217, 307
van Coninxloo, Gillis, II, 243–44
van der Ast, Balthasar, 243
van Dyck, Anthony, 245
van Huysum, Jan, 243
vanillin, 204
van Veerendael, Nicolaes, 244
variable sunbird (Cinnyris venustus), 71–72
vase life, 129, 134–35, 136–37, 147, 159, 162, 312–13
Vatsyayana, 111
Vegetable Kingdom, 270
Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), 77, 102
verbenas, 155
Veriflora, 161
Veterans Day, 217
vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides), 201
vibrational theory of smell, 284
Viceroy tulip, 132
Victoria, Queen, 120
viola (Viola cornuta), 143, 155, 227
violet (Viola odorata), 93, 97, 108, 110, 111, 115, 131, 170, 172, 174, 175, 177, 191, 204, 209, 211, 213, 224, 227, 228, 230, 242, 255, 283, 290, 311
Virgil, 226
viscin threads, 34
von Helversen, Otto, 297
voodoo lily (Amorphophallus), 14, 53
Vosmaer, Jacob, 243
Wakefield North of England Tulip Society, 132
wallflower (Cheiranthus), 110, 255
Wani Kishi, 237
War of the Roses, 160
wasps, 9, 10, 20, 28, 42, 43, 44, 52, 55–57, 58, 63, 64, 67, 75, 299
Waterhouse, John, 245
Waterhouse, William, 245–46
water lily (Nymphaea), 37, 39, 83, 86, 93, 94, 108, 109, 115, 194, 229–30, 241, 246
Waters, Alice, 171
waters, flavored, 170–71, 185, 290. See also orange water; rose water
weddings, 94, 110, 215, 216, 217, 239, 271
Wegener, Alfred, 267
Weir, Bob, 239
Weisman, Alan, 258
western honey bee (Apis mellifera), 23, 65, 181–82, 291
western spicebush (Calycanthus occidentalis), 12–13, 40, 49–50
Weston, Brett, 249
white eyes (Zosteropidae), 72
white-lined sphinx (Hyles lineata), 60, 275
white musk, 201
white pine (Pinus strobus), 101, 219
white roses, 145–46, 160, 213, 230
Whitman, Walt, 233
Whitney, Heather, 17
wildflower honey, 183
wildflowers, xii, 9, 18, 23–24, 49, 57, 65, 68, 84, 90, 91–92, 93–94, 106, 107, 108, 110, 128, 129, 131–32, 143–44, 147, 179, 181, 219, 223, 227, 228, 232, 242, 249, 267, 287, 301–2, 314
wild Irish rose, 238–39
wildlife gardens, 104
Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 218
windflowers, 90
winter, 10, 81, 156, 181, 220, 237, 299
winter sickness, 155
wintersweet (Chimonanthus), 89
women
as buyers of flowers, 158–60, 307
commercial flower culture and, 27, 153, 197, 300
Day of the Dead celebrations and, 118
gifts of flowers to, 216–17
in hunter-gatherer societies, 82–83
nineteenth-century formalized culture of flowers and, 210–11
in paintings, 245
perfume and scents aimed at, 194, 195, 201, 202, 204
religious offerings from, 113, 114
wearing of flowers by, 188, 193, 194, 195, 252, 254
Women’s Day, 216
woodbine (Lonicera periclymenum), 228, 230
Woodriff, Leslie, 4
Wordsworth, William, 229
wormwood (Artemisia arborescens), 282–83
Wortley Montagu, Lady Mary, 210
wound care, 282
wreaths, 105, 108, 110, 111, 120, 121, 122, 213, 214
Xanthopan morganii praedicta, 62
Xochimilco floating gardens, 95–96
yellow jacket (Vespula), 56, 57
yellow pond lily (Nuphar), 246
yellow-show (Amoreuxia palmatifida), 21–22
yew (Taxus spp.), 93
ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), 113, 114, 196
Yoeme (Yaqui) people, 116–17
yucca moth (Tegeticula), 62–63
Yu Yuan gardens, Shanghai, China, 88
Zamia, 29
zebra butterfly (Heliconius), 59