⁸Even if I caused you sorrow by my letter,^† I do not regret it. Though I did regret it — I see that my letter hurt you, but only for a little while — ⁹yet now I am happy, not because you were made sorry, but because your sorrow led you to repentance. For you became sorrowful as God intended and so were not harmed in any way by us. ¹⁰Godly sorrow brings repentance that leads to salvation^† and leaves no regret, but worldly sorrow brings death. ¹¹See what this godly sorrow has produced in you: what earnestness, what eagerness to clear yourselves, what indignation, what alarm, what longing, what concern,^† what readiness to see justice done. At every point you have proved yourselves to be innocent in this matter. ¹²So even though I wrote to you,^† it was not on account of the one who did the wrong^† or of the injured party, but rather that before God you could see for yourselves how devoted to us you are. ¹³By all this we are encouraged.

In addition to our own encouragement, we were especially delighted to see how happy Titus^† was, because his spirit has been refreshed by all of you. ¹⁴I had boasted to him about you,^† and you have not embarrassed me. But just as everything we said to you was true, so our boasting about you to Titus^† has proved to be true as well. ¹⁵And his affection for you is all the greater when he remembers that you were all obedient,^† receiving him with fear and trembling.^{† 16}I am glad I can have complete confidence in you.^†

2 Corinthians 8

Generosity Encouraged

¹And now, brothers, we want you to know about the grace that God has given the Macedonian^† churches. ²Out of the most severe trial, their overflowing joy and their extreme poverty welled up in rich generosity. ³For I testify that they gave as much as they were able,^† and even beyond their ability. Entirely on their own, ⁴they urgently pleaded with us for the privilege of sharing in this service^† to the saints.^{† 5}And they did not do as we expected, but they gave themselves first to the Lord and then to us in keeping with God’s will. ⁶So we urged^† Titus,^† since he had earlier made a beginning, to bring also to completion^† this act of grace on your part. ⁷But just as you excel in everything^† — in faith, in speech, in knowledge,^† in complete earnestness and in your love for us^[12] — see that you also excel in this grace of giving.

⁸I am not commanding you,^† but I want to test the sincerity of your love by comparing it with the earnestness of others. ⁹For you know the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ,^† that though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor,^† so that you through his poverty might become rich.

¹⁰And here is my advice^† about what is best for you in this matter: Last year you were the first not only to give but also to have the desire to do so.^{† 11}Now finish the work, so that your eager willingness^† to do it may be matched by your completion of it, according to your means. ¹²For if the willingness is there, the gift is acceptable according to what one has,^† not according to what he does not have.

¹³Our desire is not that others might be relieved while you are hard pressed, but that there might be equality. ¹⁴At the present time your plenty will supply what they need,^† so that in turn their plenty will supply what you need. Then there will be equality, ¹⁵as it is written: “He who gathered much did not have too much, and he who gathered little did not have too little.”^{[13] †}

Titus Sent to Corinth

¹⁶I thank God,^† who put into the heart^† of Titus^† the same concern I have for you. ¹⁷For Titus not only welcomed our appeal, but he is coming to you with much enthusiasm and on his own initiative.^{† 18}And we are sending along with him the brother^† who is praised by all the churches^† for his service to the gospel.^{† 19}What is more, he was chosen by the churches to accompany us^† as we carry the offering, which we administer in order to honor the Lord himself and to show our eagerness to help.^{† 20}We want to avoid any criticism of the way we administer this liberal gift. ²¹For we are taking pains to do what is right, not only in the eyes of the Lord but also in the eyes of men.^†

²²In addition, we are sending with them our brother who has often proved to us in many ways that he is zealous, and now even more so because of his great confidence in you. ²³As for Titus, he is my partner^† and fellow worker^† among you; as for our brothers,^† they are representatives of the churches and an honor to Christ. ²⁴Therefore show these men the proof of your love and the reason for our pride in you,^† so that the churches can see it.

2 Corinthians 9

¹There is no need^† for me to write to you about this service to the saints.^{† 2}For I know your eagerness to help, and I have been boasting^† about it to the Macedonians, telling them that since last year^† you in Achaia^† were ready to give; and your enthusiasm has stirred most of them to action. ³But I am sending the brothers in order that our boasting about you in this matter should not prove hollow, but that you may be ready, as I said you would be.^{† 4}For if any Macedonians^† come with me and find you unprepared, we — not to say anything about you — would be ashamed of having been so confident. ⁵So I thought it necessary to urge the brothers to visit you in advance and finish the arrangements for the generous gift you had promised. Then it will be ready as a generous gift,^† not as one grudgingly given.^†

Sowing Generously

⁶Remember this: Whoever sows sparingly will also reap sparingly, and whoever sows generously will also reap generously.^{† 7}Each man should give what he has decided in his heart to give,^† not reluctantly or under compulsion,^† for God loves a cheerful giver.^{† 8}And God is able^† to make all grace abound to you, so that in all things at all times, having all that you need,^† you will abound in every good work. ⁹As it is written:

“He has scattered abroad his gifts to the poor;

his righteousness endures forever.”^{[14] †}

¹⁰Now he who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food^† will also supply and increase your store of seed and will enlarge the harvest of your righteousness.^{† 11}You will be made rich^† in every way so that you can be generous on every occasion, and through us your generosity will result in thanksgiving to God.^†

¹²This service that you perform is not only supplying the needs^† of God’s people but is also overflowing in many expressions of thanks to God.^{† 13}Because of the service^† by which you have proved yourselves, men will praise God^† for the obedience that accompanies your confession of the gospel of Christ,^† and for your generosity in sharing with them and with everyone else. ¹⁴And in their prayers for you their hearts will go out to you, because of the surpassing grace God has given you. ¹⁵Thanks be to God^† for his indescribable gift!^†

2 Corinthians 10

Paul’s Defense of His Ministry

¹By the meekness and gentleness^† of Christ, I appeal to you — I, Paul,^† who am “timid” when face to face with you, but “bold” when away! ²I beg you that when I come I may not have to be as bold^† as I expect to be toward some people who think that we live by the standards of this world. ³For though we live in the world, we do not wage war as the world does. ⁴The weapons we fight with^† are not the weapons of the world. On the contrary, they have divine power^† to demolish strongholds.^{† 5}We demolish arguments and every pretension that sets itself up against the knowledge of God,^† and we take captive every thought to make it obedient^† to Christ. ⁶And we will be ready to punish every act of disobedience, once your obedience is complete.^†

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Early Christian Heresies

2 Corinthians 10 In his New Testament epistles, Paul frequently warned his readers to be on guard against false teaching (e.g., 2Co 11:3–4). These cautions reveal that from an early point Christianity was open to distortions and heresies that took many forms through overemphasis on some and denial of other central Christian teachings.

The “super-apostles” who opposed Paul in 11:5 appear to have erred by overemphasizing their own righteousness (11:15) and boasting about revelations they had purportedly received (12:1). Perhaps they were similar to the Judaizing opponents Paul faced in Galatia,¹ whose teaching required the continuation of Jewish customs and led to an imposition of circumcision and dietary laws upon Gentiles.² Paul condemned those who distorted the gospel through the addition of Jewish requirements (Gal 1:8) and preached salvation on the basis of faith rather than works. Montanism was a later heresy that placed strict emphasis on law observance. It arose during the second century and encouraged excessive prophetic utterances in the hope of speeding Christ’s return.

Other early Christian heresies that denied central Christian beliefs included Gnosticism, Docetism, Ebionism and Arianism.

• Gnostics were a diverse group, but the main tenet of their philosophy was that the material world was by nature evil and that by knowledge one could ascend to the pure spirituality of the heavenly realm.³

• Docetists, a subgroup of the Gnostics, affirmed the deity of Jesus but denied his humanity, believing that a divine being was incapable of suffering and concluding that Jesus merely appeared to be human and to experience pain.

• At the opposite extreme, beginning at the end of the first century A.D., a Jewish Christian sect known as the Ebionites denied the deity of Jesus, preferring to uphold him as a human being who perfectly obeyed the law and was rewarded by being made Messiah.

• Similarly, in the fourth century Arians denied the divinity of Jesus, demoting him to the status of a demigod (a being with more power than a mortal but less than a god, or a person so outstanding as to seem to approach the divine). They argued that upholding the divinity of Jesus would contradict a belief in the oneness and immutability of God.

The creeds composed by the early church were an attempt to combat heresy and identify orthodox teaching. They emphasize the uniqueness of Jesus Christ, who is simultaneously fully God and fully man.

1. See “Which Galatia?”; see also “Map 13.”

2. See “Circumcision in the Ancient World” and “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs.”

3. See “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures.”

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⁷You are looking only on the surface of things.^{[15] †} If anyone is confident that he belongs to Christ,^† he should consider again that we belong to Christ just as much as he.^{† 8}For even if I boast somewhat freely about the authority the Lord gave us for building you up rather than pulling you down,^† I will not be ashamed of it. ⁹I do not want to seem to be trying to frighten you with my letters. ¹⁰For some say, “His letters are weighty and forceful, but in person he is unimpressive^† and his speaking amounts to nothing.”^{† 11}Such people should realize that what we are in our letters when we are absent, we will be in our actions when we are present.

¹²We do not dare to classify or compare ourselves with some who commend themselves.^† When they measure themselves by themselves and compare themselves with themselves, they are not wise. ¹³We, however, will not boast beyond proper limits, but will confine our boasting to the field God has assigned to us,^† a field that reaches even to you. ¹⁴We are not going too far in our boasting, as would be the case if we had not come to you, for we did get as far as you^† with the gospel of Christ.^{† 15}Neither do we go beyond our limits by boasting of work done by others.^{[16] †} Our hope is that, as your faith continues to grow,^† our area of activity among you will greatly expand, ¹⁶so that we can preach the gospel in the regions beyond you.^† For we do not want to boast about work already done in another man’s territory. ¹⁷But, “Let him who boasts boast in the Lord.”^{[17] † 18}For it is not the one who commends himself^† who is approved, but the one whom the Lord commends.^†

2 Corinthians 11

Paul and the False Apostles

¹I hope you will put up with^† a little of my foolishness;^† but you are already doing that. ²I am jealous for you with a godly jealousy. I promised you to one husband,^† to Christ, so that I might present you^† as a pure virgin to him. ³But I am afraid that just as Eve was deceived by the serpent’s cunning,^† your minds may somehow be led astray from your sincere and pure devotion to Christ. ⁴For if someone comes to you and preaches a Jesus other than the Jesus we preached,^† or if you receive a different spirit^† from the one you received, or a different gospel^† from the one you accepted, you put up with it easily enough. ⁵But I do not think I am in the least inferior to those “super-apostles.”^{† 6}I may not be a trained speaker,^† but I do have knowledge.^† We have made this perfectly clear to you in every way.

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Aretas IV of Nabatea and Petra

2 Corinthians 11 Aretas IV ruled the desert kingdom of Nabatea (“Map 14”) from 9 B.C. to A.D. 40. With its capital at Petra, this nation included southern Syria, Jordan, the Negev of Israel, the Sinai Peninsula, portions of the eastern deserts of Egypt and the northwestern region of Saudi Arabia. Beginning during the fourth century B.C. Nabatea began to amass great wealth through caravan trade in luxury goods from the East.

Aretas IV, although a usurper with only a marginal claim to the throne, became the most powerful ruler of Nabatea, eventually winning official recognition from Caesar Augustus.¹ During his reign the kingdom reached its zenith commercially, culturally and artistically. Numerous coins minted by Aretas IV have survived, many of them bearing his image.²

One of Aretas IV’s daughters married Herod Antipas, the son of Herod the Great and the ruler of Galilee and Perea in Transjordan from 4 B.C. to A.D. 39. Herod Antipas later divorced Aretas’s daughter in order to marry Herodias, the wife of his half brother Herod Philip I. John the Baptist spoke out against this, warning Herod Antipas, “It is not lawful for you to have your brother’s wife” (Mk 6:18). John was imprisoned and eventually executed at the request of Herodias (Mt 14:1–12; Mk 6:14–29). As there was also a dispute between Aretas IV and Antipas regarding rule over a territory called Gamalitis, Aretas used Antipas’s rejection of his Nabatean wife as an occasion to wage war. The Jewish historian Josephus recorded that when Aretas IV destroyed much of Antipas’s army a few years afterward, many Jews viewed this as divine retribution for John’s execution (Antiquities, 18.5.2).

The “Kazneh” at Petra (perhaps the tomb of Aretas IV)

Photograph: © Todd Bolen/Bible Places.com

The most famous Nabatean site is Petra, located in modern Jordan in what was once Edomite territory. It lay near the King’s Highway, one of the important trade routes on the eastern side of the Jordan River. The site occupies an area approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) long and slightly less distance in width. Magnificent tombs and funerary banquet halls had been carved into the sandstone mountains surrounding the area, the most famous of which are the Treasury of the Pharaoh and the Royal Tombs. An ancient cultic site sitting atop one of the surrounding peaks features one of the best preserved altars from antiquity. Petra may possibly be identified as the Old Testament site of Sela, captured by Amaziah of Judah (2Ki 14:7). By 312 B.C., when the Greeks took control of the Near East, Petra was the capital of the Nabateans, who may have migrated from the Persian Gulf.

After Paul began preaching in the synagogues of Damascus,³ the local Jews, with the support of the Roman ethnarch under Aretas IV, attempted to kill him, but he was able to escape (Ac 9:23–25; 2Co 11:32–33). This incident indicates that both Rome and Aretas IV had political power in Damascus.

1. See “Caesar Augustus, Emperor of Rome; the Census; and Quirinius, Governor of Syria.”

2. See “Coins and Numismatics.”

3. See “Damascus.”

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⁷Was it a sin^† for me to lower myself in order to elevate you by preaching the gospel of God to you free of charge?^{† 8}I robbed other churches by receiving support from them^† so as to serve you. ⁹And when I was with you and needed something, I was not a burden to anyone, for the brothers who came from Macedonia supplied what I needed. I have kept myself from being a burden to you^† in any way, and will continue to do so. ¹⁰As surely as the truth of Christ is in me,^† nobody in the regions of Achaia^† will stop this boasting^† of mine. ¹¹Why? Because I do not love you? God knows I do!^{† 12}And I will keep on doing what I am doing in order to cut the ground from under those who want an opportunity to be considered equal with us in the things they boast about.

¹³For such men are false apostles,^† deceitful^† workmen, masquerading as apostles of Christ.^{† 14}And no wonder, for Satan himself masquerades as an angel of light. ¹⁵It is not surprising, then, if his servants masquerade as servants of righteousness. Their end will be what their actions deserve.^†

Paul Boasts About His Sufferings

¹⁶I repeat: Let no one take me for a fool.^† But if you do, then receive me just as you would a fool, so that I may do a little boasting. ¹⁷In this self-confident boasting I am not talking as the Lord would,^† but as a fool. ¹⁸Since many are boasting in the way the world does, I too will boast.^{† 19}You gladly put up with fools since you are so wise!^{† 20}In fact, you even put up with anyone who enslaves you^† or exploits you or takes advantage of you or pushes himself forward or slaps you in the face. ²¹To my shame I admit that we were too weak^† for that!

What anyone else dares to boast about — I am speaking as a fool — I also dare to boast about.^{† 22}Are they Hebrews? So am I.^† Are they Israelites? So am I.^† Are they Abraham’s descendants? So am I. ²³Are they servants of Christ? (I am out of my mind to talk like this.) I am more. I have worked much harder,^† been in prison more frequently,^† been flogged more severely, and been exposed to death again and again. ²⁴Five times I received from the Jews the forty lashes^† minus one. ²⁵Three times I was beaten with rods,^† once I was stoned,^† three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea, ²⁶I have been constantly on the move. I have been in danger from rivers, in danger from bandits, in danger from my own countrymen,^† in danger from Gentiles; in danger in the city,^† in danger in the country, in danger at sea; and in danger from false brothers.^{† 27}I have labored and toiled and have often gone without sleep; I have known hunger and thirst and have often gone without food;^† I have been cold and naked. ²⁸Besides everything else, I face daily the pressure of my concern for all the churches. ²⁹Who is weak, and I do not feel weak? Who is led into sin, and I do not inwardly burn?

³⁰If I must boast, I will boast of the things that show my weakness.^{† 31}The God and Father of the Lord Jesus, who is to be praised forever,^† knows that I am not lying. ³²In Damascus the governor under King Aretas had the city of the Damascenes guarded in order to arrest me.^{† 33}But I was lowered in a basket from a window in the wall and slipped through his hands.^†

2 Corinthians 12

Paul’s Vision and His Thorn

¹I must go on boasting.^† Although there is nothing to be gained, I will go on to visions and revelations^† from the Lord. ²I know a man in Christ who fourteen years ago was caught up^† to the third heaven.^† Whether it was in the body or out of the body I do not know — God knows.^{† 3}And I know that this man — whether in the body or apart from the body I do not know, but God knows — ⁴was caught up to paradise.^† He heard inexpressible things, things that man is not permitted to tell. ⁵I will boast about a man like that, but I will not boast about myself, except about my weaknesses. ⁶Even if I should choose to boast, I would not be a fool,^† because I would be speaking the truth. But I refrain, so no one will think more of me than is warranted by what I do or say.

⁷To keep me from becoming conceited because of these surpassingly great revelations, there was given me a thorn in my flesh,^† a messenger of Satan, to torment me. ⁸Three times I pleaded with the Lord to take it away from me.^{† 9}But he said to me, “My grace is sufficient for you, for my power^† is made perfect in weakness.” Therefore I will boast all the more gladly about my weaknesses, so that Christ’s power may rest on me. ¹⁰That is why, for Christ’s sake, I delight in weaknesses, in insults, in hardships,^† in persecutions,^† in difficulties. For when I am weak, then I am strong.^†

Paul’s Concern for the Corinthians

¹¹I have made a fool of myself,^† but you drove me to it. I ought to have been commended by you, for I am not in the least inferior to the “super-apostles,”^† even though I am nothing.^{† 12}The things that mark an apostle — signs, wonders and miracles^† — were done among you with great perseverance. ¹³How were you inferior to the other churches, except that I was never a burden to you?^† Forgive me this wrong!^†

¹⁴Now I am ready to visit you for the third time,^† and I will not be a burden to you, because what I want is not your possessions but you. After all, children should not have to save up for their parents,^† but parents for their children.^{† 15}So I will very gladly spend for you everything I have and expend myself as well.^† If I love you more, will you love me less? ¹⁶Be that as it may, I have not been a burden to you.^† Yet, crafty fellow that I am, I caught you by trickery! ¹⁷Did I exploit you through any of the men I sent you? ¹⁸I urged^† Titus to go to you and I sent our brother^† with him. Titus did not exploit you, did he? Did we not act in the same spirit and follow the same course?

¹⁹Have you been thinking all along that we have been defending ourselves to you? We have been speaking in the sight of God^† as those in Christ; and everything we do, dear friends, is for your strengthening.^{† 20}For I am afraid that when I come^† I may not find you as I want you to be, and you may not find me as you want me to be.^† I fear that there may be quarreling,^† jealousy, outbursts of anger, factions,^† slander, gossip,^† arrogance and disorder.^{† 21}I am afraid that when I come again my God will humble me before you, and I will be grieved^† over many who have sinned earlier^† and have not repented of the impurity, sexual sin and debauchery in which they have indulged.

2 Corinthians 13

Final Warnings

¹This will be my third visit to you.^† “Every matter must be established by the testimony of two or three witnesses.”^{[18] † 2}I already gave you a warning when I was with you the second time. I now repeat it while absent: On my return I will not spare^† those who sinned earlier^† or any of the others, ³since you are demanding proof that Christ is speaking through me.^† He is not weak in dealing with you, but is powerful among you. ⁴For to be sure, he was crucified in weakness,^† yet he lives by God’s power.^† Likewise, we are weak^† in him, yet by God’s power we will live with him to serve you.

⁵Examine yourselves^† to see whether you are in the faith; test yourselves.^† Do you not realize that Christ Jesus is in you^† — unless, of course, you fail the test? ⁶And I trust that you will discover that we have not failed the test. ⁷Now we pray to God that you will not do anything wrong. Not that people will see that we have stood the test but that you will do what is right even though we may seem to have failed. ⁸For we cannot do anything against the truth, but only for the truth. ⁹We are glad whenever we are weak but you are strong; and our prayer is for your perfection.^{† 10}This is why I write these things when I am absent, that when I come I may not have to be harsh in my use of authority — the authority the Lord gave me for building you up, not for tearing you down.^†

Final Greetings

¹¹Finally, brothers,^† good-by. Aim for perfection, listen to my appeal, be of one mind, live in peace.^† And the God of love and peace^† will be with you.

¹²Greet one another with a holy kiss.^{† 13}All the saints send their greetings.^†

¹⁴May the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ,^† and the love of God,^† and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit^† be with you all.

GALATIANS

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The apostle Paul wrote Galatians (1:1). The date for the letter’s composition depends upon whether the Galatians to whom Paul addressed the letter were located in the northern part of the province of Galatia (the “North Galatian” theory) or the southern part (the “South Galatian” theory). The North Galatian theory maintains that Galatians was written from Ephesus or Macedonia in the mid-50s. Of those subscribing to the South Galatian theory, some believe that Galatians was written from Syrian Antioch in 48–49, while others assert that it was drafted in Syrian Antioch or in Corinth between 51 and 53. Today most scholars accept the South Galatian theory and the earlier date for the letter (see “Which Galatia?”).

Audience

As indicated above, the original recipients of this letter are uncertain. The addressees may have been believers in northern Galatia in the region of Ancyra (these churches would have been founded by Paul during his second missionary journey; see Ac 16:6; 18:23) or churches founded by Paul and Barnabas (Ac 14:1–23) during Paul’s first missionary journey into southern Galatia included Pisidian Antioch as well as Iconium, Lystra and Derbe—the more widely accepted view.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Judaizers were Jewish Christians who believed that a number of ceremonial practices of the Old Testament were still binding on the New Testament church. This thorny issue, in various forms, dogged Paul throughout his ministry (see “Paul’s Jewish Opponents”). Paul wrote Galatians to convince his readers that this perspective was no less than an abandonment of the principle of salvation by grace through faith.

Timeline

As You Read

Note the accusations leveled against Paul and the vigorous arguments he put forth to defend the gospel of grace and freedom in Christ that he preached. Apply the truths laid out by Paul to your own (or your church’s) battles with legalism. Identify Paul’s explanation of the doctrine of justification by faith.

Did You Know?

• To “live like a Gentile” meant to disregard Jewish customs, especially dietary restrictions (2:14).
• The expression “put in charge” refers to the personal slave-attendant who accompanied a freeborn boy wherever he went and exercised a certain amount of discipline over him. His function was more like that of a baby-sitter than a teacher (3:24).
• In ancient times the Greek word for “mark” was used for the brand that identified slaves or animals (6:17).

Themes

Galatians includes the following themes:

1. Paul’s apostleship. Paul vigorously defended his apostolic calling (1:1, 15; 2:1–10) and his gospel (1:11–12). He was not trying to protect his wounded reputation as an apostle but was defending the truth of the gospel as it had been revealed to him by Christ.
2. Salvation by faith alone. Paul’s definition of the truth of the gospel affirms God’s universal grace for all people: In Christ there is “neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for … all [are] one in Christ Jesus” (3:28). Justification by faith, a doctrine central to this letter, creates harmonious community.
3. Legalism versus freedom. Believers do not need to be under the law to lead ethical lives (5:1–6:16). The Spirit, whom they receive when they believe (3:1–3), empowers them to live the way God wants (5:16–17, 22–25). The law can neither produce the fruit of the Spirit (5:22–23) nor restrain people from sinning. Its function is to identify sin and pronounce God’s judgment (3:19–24), and it is through the believer’s union with Christ that he or she is truly set free. This liberation is not freedom to sin, but freedom to “serve one another in love” (5:13).
4. A Spirit-empowered life. Believers are not to rely on their own power to live the Christian life. The Spirit-led Christian does not live for self (5:16) but allows the fruit of the Spirit to shine through his or her everyday activities (5:22–23).

Outline

I. Introduction: Greeting and Denunciation (1:1–9)

II. Paul Defends His Authority (1:10–2:21)

III. Paul Defends the Doctrine of Liberty and Faith (3–4)

IV. Paul Defends the Gospel of Freedom (5:1–6:10)

A. The Principle of Freedom in Christ (5:1–12)

B. Live by the Spirit, Not by the Flesh (5:13–26)

C. Bearing Each Other’s Burdens (6:1–10)

V. Conclusion (6:11–18)

Galatians 1

¹Paul, an apostle— sent not from men nor by man, but by Jesus Christ^† and God the Father, who raised him from the dead^†— ²and all the brothers with me,^†

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Which Galatia?

Galatians 1 At the time Paul wrote his letter to “the churches in Galatia” (Gal 1:2), the Roman province by that name extended from north-central Asia Minor¹ (Turkey), where the Gauls (Galatians) had settled centuries earlier, to south-central Asia Minor, which had been incorporated into the province at the end of the first century B.C. Did Paul address his letter to believers in the north, who would have been ethnic Galatians, or to those living in the southern part of the Roman province?²

Acts indicates that Paul traveled to Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe during his first missionary journey (Ac 13:14–14:21).³ Although Luke did not refer to them as Galatian cities, they did belong to the southern part of that province. If Paul wrote this letter to believers in those cities shortly after that first journey, this would have been his first letter—and probably the oldest document in the New Testament. On the other hand, Acts 16:6 and 18:23 may indicate that Paul also traveled through northern Galatia during his second and third missionary journeys. If so, he may have addressed this letter to churches he had founded at that time.

This issue is important for determining the destination and date of Paul’s letter to the Galatians, as well as for interpreting crucial passages that relate to the apostle’s life. The “South Galatian theory” dates the letter to about A.D. 49–50 and the “North Galatian theory” to the mid-50s. Some scholars believe that Galatians 2:1–10 refers to the Jerusalem council of Acts 15, while others see it as a reference to the famine visit of Acts 11.

Many scholars doubt that Paul would have referred to his readers as “Galatians” (Gal 3:1) if they were not ethnically Galatians. Others feel that it would have been the most appropriate term for believers of various ethnic backgrounds who all lived in that Roman province. Some interpreters argue that, in describing geographic locations and ethnic groups, Paul would have used the same terms that his contemporary and fellow Jew Josephus used. This famous historian appears to have considered all of the inhabitants of the Roman province of Galatia to be “Galatians.”

Today most scholars hold to the “South Galatian theory,” believing that the letter refers to the churches Paul evangelized in that region (Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe). In fact, there is no clear evidence that Paul ever evangelized the northern Galatian region.

1. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

2. See also “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World.”

3. See “The Missionary Journeys of Paul” and “Map 13.”

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To the churches in Galatia:^†

³Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ,^{† 4}who gave himself for our sins^† to rescue us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father,^{† 5}to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.^†

No Other Gospel

⁶I am astonished that you are so quickly deserting the one who called^† you by the grace of Christ and are turning to a different gospel^†— ⁷which is really no gospel at all. Evidently some people are throwing you into confusion^† and are trying to pervert the gospel of Christ. ⁸But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel other than the one we preached to you,^† let him be eternally condemned!^{† 9}As we have already said, so now I say again: If anybody is preaching to you a gospel other than what you accepted,^† let him be eternally condemned!

¹⁰Am I now trying to win the approval of men, or of God? Or am I trying to please men?^† If I were still trying to please men, I would not be a servant of Christ.

Paul Called by God

¹¹I want you to know, brothers,^† that the gospel I preached is not something that man made up. ¹²I did not receive it from any man,^† nor was I taught it; rather, I received it by revelation^† from Jesus Christ.

¹³For you have heard of my previous way of life in Judaism,^† how intensely I persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it.^{† 14}I was advancing in Judaism beyond many Jews of my own age and was extremely zealous for the traditions of my fathers.^{† 15}But when God, who set me apart from birth^{[1] †} and called me^† by his grace, was pleased ¹⁶to reveal his Son in me so that I might preach him among the Gentiles,^† I did not consult any man,^{† 17}nor did I go up to Jerusalem to see those who were apostles before I was, but I went immediately into Arabia and later returned to Damascus.

¹⁸Then after three years,^† I went up to Jerusalem^† to get acquainted with Peter^[2] and stayed with him fifteen days. ¹⁹I saw none of the other apostles— only James,^† the Lord’s brother. ²⁰I assure you before God that what I am writing you is no lie.^{† 21}Later I went to Syria and Cilicia.^{† 22}I was personally unknown to the churches of Judea^† that are in Christ. ²³They only heard the report: “The man who formerly persecuted us is now preaching the faith^† he once tried to destroy.” ²⁴And they praised God^† because of me.

Galatians 2

Paul Accepted by the Apostles

¹Fourteen years later I went up again to Jerusalem,^† this time with Barnabas. I took Titus along also. ²I went in response to a revelation and set before them the gospel that I preach among the Gentiles.^† But I did this privately to those who seemed to be leaders, for fear that I was running or had run my race^† in vain. ³Yet not even Titus,^† who was with me, was compelled to be circumcised, even though he was a Greek.^{† 4}[This matter arose] because some false brothers^† had infiltrated our ranks to spy on^† the freedom^† we have in Christ Jesus and to make us slaves. ⁵We did not give in to them for a moment, so that the truth of the gospel^† might remain with you.

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Antioch of Syria, Center of Christianity

Galatians 2 There are two cities in the New Testament by the name of Antioch: Antioch of Pisidia in Asia Minor, evangelized by Paul (Ac 13:14–50), and Antioch in Syria, an early center of Christianity. Antioch of Syria was located on the Orontes River, about 15 miles (24 km) from the Mediterranean coast. Today this is the site of Antakya in southern Turkey, close to the border with Syria. Due to its status as a major commercial center at the junction of trade routes running eastward to Mesopotamia, westward to the Aegean and south to Damascus, Palestine and Egypt, it was one of the greatest cities in the ancient world.

Stone carving from Syrian Antioch

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin

Paul, in Galatians 2:11–14, provided us with a look at church life in this early center of Christianity, a place where Jewish and Gentile believers came together. It became the base of the early church as a result of persecution, which forced followers of Jesus to flee there from Judea during the first century (Ac 11:19). Paul and Barnabas spent much time in Antioch preaching and teaching (Ac 11:25–26; 15:35); Paul embarked upon his missionary journeys from there (Ac 13:1–3; 15:36–41; 18:23);¹ and it was there that believers in Jesus were first called Christians (Ac 11:26). Excavations from 1932 to 1939 revealed the main street of first-century Antioch, flanked by broad walkways, temples, shops and baths. Herod the Great paved the street with marble, and Tiberius later added colonnades.²

A street and theater at Pisidian Antioch

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin

1. See “The Missionary Journeys of Paul.”

2. See “Herod the Great” and “Tiberius Caesar, the Caesar of Jesus’ Ministry.”

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⁶As for those who seemed to be important^†— whatever they were makes no difference to me; God does not judge by external appearance^†— those men added nothing to my message. ⁷On the contrary, they saw that I had been entrusted with the task^† of preaching the gospel to the Gentiles,^{[3] †} just as Peter^† had been to the Jews.^{[4] 8}For God, who was at work in the ministry of Peter as an apostle^† to the Jews, was also at work in my ministry as an apostle to the Gentiles. ⁹James, Peter^{[5] †} and John, those reputed to be pillars,^† gave me and Barnabas^† the right hand of fellowship when they recognized the grace given to me.^† They agreed that we should go to the Gentiles, and they to the Jews. ¹⁰All they asked was that we should continue to remember the poor,^† the very thing I was eager to do.

Paul Opposes Peter

¹¹When Peter^† came to Antioch,^† I opposed him to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong. ¹²Before certain men came from James, he used to eat with the Gentiles.^† But when they arrived, he began to draw back and separate himself from the Gentiles because he was afraid of those who belonged to the circumcision group.^{† 13}The other Jews joined him in his hypocrisy, so that by their hypocrisy even Barnabas^† was led astray.

¹⁴When I saw that they were not acting in line with the truth of the gospel,^† I said to Peter^† in front of them all, “You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew.^† How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?

¹⁵“We who are Jews by birth^† and not ‘Gentile sinners’^{† 16}know that a man is not justified by observing the law, but by faith in Jesus Christ.^† So we, too, have put our faith in Christ Jesus that we may be justified by faith in Christ and not by observing the law, because by observing the law no one will be justified.

¹⁷“If, while we seek to be justified in Christ, it becomes evident that we ourselves are sinners,^† does that mean that Christ promotes sin? Absolutely not!^{† 18}If I rebuild what I destroyed, I prove that I am a lawbreaker. ¹⁹For through the law I died to the law^† so that I might live for God.^{† 20}I have been crucified with Christ^† and I no longer live, but Christ lives in me.^† The life I live in the body, I live by faith in the Son of God,^† who loved me^† and gave himself for me.^{† 21}I do not set aside the grace of God, for if righteousness could be gained through the law,^† Christ died for nothing!”^[6]

Galatians 3

Faith or Observance of the Law

¹You foolish Galatians! Who has bewitched you?^† Before your very eyes Jesus Christ was clearly portrayed as crucified.^{† 2}I would like to learn just one thing from you: Did you receive the Spirit by observing the law, or by believing what you heard?^{† 3}Are you so foolish? After beginning with the Spirit, are you now trying to attain your goal by human effort? ⁴Have you suffered so much for nothing— if it really was for nothing? ⁵Does God give you his Spirit and work miracles^† among you because you observe the law, or because you believe what you heard?

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Paul’s Jewish Opponents

Galatians 3 Throughout his Christian ministry Paul was dogged by Jewish opponents who sought to undermine his message. Some of these challengers were Jews who rejected the Messianic claims of Jesus and sought to halt the growth of the church by open persecution (Ac 13:45; 14:19), just as Paul himself had once done. On other occasions, however, Paul seems to have been opposed by Jews who were perhaps offended not so much by the fact that Paul preached Christ but that he did not require Gentiles to become proselytes (i.e., to embrace the ways of Judaism, such as circumcision, observance of the Sabbath and avoidance of non-kosher foods).¹ It appears that the Christians in Galatia had been persuaded not to turn away from Christ but to become proselytes. For Paul this was an alarming development because it undercut the core message of the gospel; if salvation could not be attained without embracing Judaism, then the death of Christ was insufficient.

Scholars have become vitally interested in understanding Paul’s Jewish adversaries, because this issue is key to understanding Paul. The traditional Protestant view is that Paul’s Jewish opponents were “legalists” who believed that salvation is not received by grace through faith but must be earned by “good works” (which in this case meant adherence to the ritual laws of Judaism).

Against this, some have recently argued that first-century Judaism was not really “legalistic” at all but that it held to the belief that forgiveness was obtained purely by the mercy of God. These scholars charge that Protestants have judged ancient Jews out of the context of the Protestant Reformation, when Luther faced the legalism of Roman Catholic masses and indulgences, rather than truly listening to the first-century Jews themselves. To the contrary, such critics insist, faithful Jews believed that God had chosen them purely on the basis of his grace and that he required only that they regulate their lives according to the terms of his covenant. The “rules” of Judaism, according to this perspective, helped Jews to preserve their identity and faithfulness but were not a means for acquiring God’s favor.

This viewpoint on Judaism has led to an altered perspective on Paul. If the early Jews were not in fact legalistic, then our interpretation of some of Paul’s words needs significant revision. On the other hand, many believe that it is valid to claim that many first-century Jews did embrace an excessively moralistic and institutionalized view of religion and that Paul was reacting against this code. Scholars are currently involved in research to try to determine exactly what these early Jews believed about how God’s favor was to be obtained.

Even so, it is probably unnecessary to prove that first-century Judaism was formally and theologically legalistic in order to demonstrate that many of Paul’s opponents were legalistic in their approach to their religion. When Jesus opposed the Jewish leadership, he was concerned not so much with debating the Pharisees over hypothetical elements of theology as with their lack of repentance (e.g., Mt 23).² When religious people are unrepentant, they often become harsh and judgmental, adhering to a letter-of-the-law code of moral and ethical standards. Their ability to perform religious rites and duties becomes a substitute for an authentic and personal knowledge of God. This is true in Christian communities as well, notwithstanding the fact that no one in these communities disputes that Christianity holds to salvation “by grace and not by works” as one of its core teachings. Thus, even though many of Paul’s opponents may have formally accepted that forgiveness depends entirely upon the mercy of God, in their practical religious lives they may well have been legalistic.

1. See “Circumcision in the Ancient World” and “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs.”

2. See “The Pharisees.”

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⁶Consider Abraham: “He believed God, and it was credited to him as righteousness.”^{[7] † 7}Understand, then, that those who believe^† are children of Abraham. ⁸The Scripture foresaw that God would justify the Gentiles by faith, and announced the gospel in advance to Abraham: “All nations will be blessed through you.”^{[8] † 9}So those who have faith^† are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith.

¹⁰All who rely on observing the law are under a curse, for it is written: “Cursed is everyone who does not continue to do everything written in the Book of the Law.”^{[9] † 11}Clearly no one is justified before God by the law, because, “The righteous will live by faith.”^{[10] † 12}The law is not based on faith; on the contrary, “The man who does these things will live by them.”^{[11] † 13}Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law^† by becoming a curse for us, for it is written: “Cursed is everyone who is hung on a tree.”^{[12] † 14}He redeemed us in order that the blessing given to Abraham might come to the Gentiles through Christ Jesus,^† so that by faith we might receive the promise of the Spirit.^†

The Law and the Promise

¹⁵Brothers, let me take an example from everyday life. Just as no one can set aside or add to a human covenant that has been duly established, so it is in this case. ¹⁶The promises were spoken to Abraham and to his seed.^† The Scripture does not say “and to seeds,” meaning many people, but “and to your seed,”^[13] meaning one person, who is Christ. ¹⁷What I mean is this: The law, introduced 430 years^† later, does not set aside the covenant previously established by God and thus do away with the promise. ¹⁸For if the inheritance depends on the law, then it no longer depends on a promise;^† but God in his grace gave it to Abraham through a promise.

¹⁹What, then, was the purpose of the law? It was added because of transgressions^† until the Seed^† to whom the promise referred had come. The law was put into effect through angels^† by a mediator.^{† 20}A mediator,^† however, does not represent just one party; but God is one.

²¹Is the law, therefore, opposed to the promises of God? Absolutely not!^† For if a law had been given that could impart life, then righteousness would certainly have come by the law.^{† 22}But the Scripture declares that the whole world is a prisoner of sin,^† so that what was promised, being given through faith in Jesus Christ, might be given to those who believe.

²³Before this faith came, we were held prisoners^† by the law, locked up until faith should be revealed. ²⁴So the law was put in charge to lead us to Christ^{[14] †} that we might be justified by faith.^{† 25}Now that faith has come, we are no longer under the supervision of the law.

Sons of God

²⁶You are all sons of God^† through faith in Christ Jesus, ²⁷for all of you who were baptized into Christ^† have clothed yourselves with Christ.^{† 28}There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free,^† male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.^{† 29}If you belong to Christ,^† then you are Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise.^†

Galatians 4

¹What I am saying is that as long as the heir is a child, he is no different from a slave, although he owns the whole estate. ²He is subject to guardians and trustees until the time set by his father. ³So also, when we were children, we were in slavery^† under the basic principles of the world.^{† 4}But when the time had fully come,^† God sent his Son, born of a woman,^† born under law,^{† 5}to redeem those under law, that we might receive the full rights^† of sons. ⁶Because you are sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts,^† the Spirit who calls out, “Abba,^[15] Father.”^{† 7}So you are no longer a slave, but a son; and since you are a son, God has made you also an heir.^†

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The Gods of the Greeks and Romans

Galatians 4 The “religious marketplace” was extremely crowded during the Hellenistic era. The Olympian deities (and their Roman equivalents) still held a place in popular religion: mighty Zeus and his consort Hera, warlike Ares, erotic Aphrodite, prophetic Apollo, the virgin warrior Athena, Artemis the huntress,¹ Hermes the messenger of the gods, Hephaestus the smith, Poseidon of the sea, Demeter of the field and Hestia of the hearth. Pluto, the grim god of the underworld, was not always listed among the “Twelve” but retained a significant place in religious thinking. While these deities were certainly reverenced, they were seldom seen as admirable characters. To the contrary, myths described them as violent and lustful, as well as capricious and conniving in their dealings with humans and with one another (as is seen in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and in Ovid’s Metamorphoses).

Nereid temple of Xanthos

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The British Museum

It is not surprising, then, that these deities and their stories were later sanitized by the philosophers.² In some systems, for example, Zeus was equated with the organizing principle of the universe (examples are Cleanthes’ Hymn to Zeus and Aratus’s Phaenomena). This transformation of the idea of Zeus was so thorough that Jews and Christians could sometimes make use of material related to Zeus in their apologetic teaching in the Hellenistic world (as in Paul’s reference to a poem by the stoic Aratus in Ac 17).

Foreign cults also proliferated in Greece and Rome during the Hellenistic age. The worship of the god Sarapis was particularly popular, even though it appears that he was invented as late as the third century B.C., drawing together characteristics from various Greek and Egyptian deities. Widespread stories of his offering help to his followers (deliverance from shipwreck, healing, etc.) compensated for his lack of a long history. Isis and Osiris, other Egyptian deities, were also popular objects of worship.

In addition to these major deities, there remained a host of local spirits and gods that attracted veneration throughout the empire. Household gods, preserving hearth and home, were especially popular among the Romans. Naiads were described as water-nymphs associated with fountains, just as Dryads were associated with trees and Nereids with the sea. Various spirits connected with the earth were thought to bring fertility to crops, as well as to be associated with death and the underworld. The terrifying goddess Hekate was particularly prominent and was frequently invoked in magic spells.³ Finally, heroes from the past, most notably Hercules, were thought to aid people in distress and sometimes to serve as spiritual mentors.

See also “The Imperial Cult”, the discussion of Asclepius in “Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World”, “The Cult of Dionysus” and “The Mystery Religions.”

1. See “Artemis of the Ephesians.”

2. See “Greek Philosophical Schools.”

3. See “Magic in the Greco-Roman World.”

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Paul’s Concern for the Galatians

⁸Formerly, when you did not know God,^† you were slaves to those who by nature are not gods.^{† 9}But now that you know God— or rather are known by God^†— how is it that you are turning back to those weak and miserable principles? Do you wish to be enslaved^† by them all over again?^{† 10}You are observing special days and months and seasons and years!^{† 11}I fear for you, that somehow I have wasted my efforts on you.^†

¹²I plead with you, brothers,^† become like me, for I became like you. You have done me no wrong. ¹³As you know, it was because of an illness^† that I first preached the gospel to you. ¹⁴Even though my illness was a trial to you, you did not treat me with contempt or scorn. Instead, you welcomed me as if I were an angel of God, as if I were Christ Jesus himself.^{† 15}What has happened to all your joy? I can testify that, if you could have done so, you would have torn out your eyes and given them to me. ¹⁶Have I now become your enemy by telling you the truth?^†

¹⁷Those people are zealous to win you over, but for no good. What they want is to alienate you [from us], so that you may be zealous for them. ¹⁸It is fine to be zealous, provided the purpose is good, and to be so always and not just when I am with you.^{† 19}My dear children,^† for whom I am again in the pains of childbirth until Christ is formed in you,^{† 20}how I wish I could be with you now and change my tone, because I am perplexed about you!

Hagar and Sarah

²¹Tell me, you who want to be under the law, are you not aware of what the law says? ²²For it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the slave woman^† and the other by the free woman.^{† 23}His son by the slave woman was born in the ordinary way;^† but his son by the free woman was born as the result of a promise.^†

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Greco-Roman Deities

Olympian gods are in bold type.

Chronological and Background Charts of the New Testament, p. 57

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²⁴These things may be taken figuratively, for the women represent two covenants. One covenant is from Mount Sinai and bears children who are to be slaves: This is Hagar. ²⁵Now Hagar stands for Mount Sinai in Arabia and corresponds to the present city of Jerusalem, because she is in slavery with her children. ²⁶But the Jerusalem that is above^† is free, and she is our mother. ²⁷For it is written:

“Be glad, O barren woman,

who bears no children;

break forth and cry aloud,

you who have no labor pains;

because more are the children of the desolate woman

than of her who has a husband.”^{[16] †}

²⁸Now you, brothers, like Isaac, are children of promise. ²⁹At that time the son born in the ordinary way^† persecuted the son born by the power of the Spirit.^† It is the same now. ³⁰But what does the Scripture say? “Get rid of the slave woman and her son, for the slave woman’s son will never share in the inheritance with the free woman’s son.”^{[17] † 31}Therefore, brothers, we are not children of the slave woman, but of the free woman.

Galatians 5

Freedom in Christ

¹It is for freedom that Christ has set us free.^† Stand firm,^† then, and do not let yourselves be burdened again by a yoke of slavery.^†

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Magic in the Greco-Roman World

Galatians 5 Various types of magical practice flourished in the Greco-Roman world. Spells, charms, amulets, potions and even voodoo-type dolls were used to procure the favor of supernatural powers. The borders of magic were fluid; some “magical potions” may have been legitimate attempts at pharmacology,¹ while certain “magical spells” had a strong component of prayer and worship. Nonetheless, the idea of magic as manipulating supernatural beings for one’s personal benefit still accurately represents this underground spirituality.

Various substances—anything from bits of the hair of a desired lover to baboon dung or drowned field mice—were employed in spells. These substances, combined with the “right” ritual practices and the proper magic words, supposedly guaranteed the compliance of the deity who was to accomplish the task. The words might be nonsense syllables or secret names of the gods. It was not unusual for such spells to end with an abrupt command such as “Quick! Quick! Do it! Do it!” While practitioners commonly called upon evil spirits of the underworld to do their bidding, any divinity was likely to be invoked. Some magicians even attempted to manipulate the God of Israel. Indeed, he is invoked frequently in the magical papyri, generally under the name “lao,” a possible pronunciation of the name Yahweh by first-century Christians.²

1. See “Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World.”

2. See also “Miracle Workers and Magicians in the First Century A.D..”

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Ancient Voices

I adjure you, Evangelos, by Anubis and Hermes and all the rest down below; attract and bind / Sarapias whom Helen bore, to this Herais, whom Thermoutharin bore, now, now; quickly, quickly. By her soul and heart / attract Sarapias herself…

—A Magical Love Spell for a Woman to Help Her Win the Affection of Another Woman

From Hans Dieter Betz, ed., The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1986), 266. Trans. by E. N. O’Neil

See “Magic in the Greco-Roman World” article.

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²Mark my words! I, Paul, tell you that if you let yourselves be circumcised,^† Christ will be of no value to you at all. ³Again I declare to every man who lets himself be circumcised that he is obligated to obey the whole law.^{† 4}You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace.^{† 5}But by faith we eagerly await through the Spirit the righteousness for which we hope.^{† 6}For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value.^† The only thing that counts is faith expressing itself through love.^†

⁷You were running a good race.^† Who cut in on you^† and kept you from obeying the truth? ⁸That kind of persuasion does not come from the one who calls you.^{† 9}“A little yeast works through the whole batch of dough.”^{† 10}I am confident^† in the Lord that you will take no other view.^† The one who is throwing you into confusion^† will pay the penalty, whoever he may be. ¹¹Brothers, if I am still preaching circumcision, why am I still being persecuted?^† In that case the offense^† of the cross has been abolished. ¹²As for those agitators,^† I wish they would go the whole way and emasculate themselves!

¹³You, my brothers, were called to be free. But do not use your freedom to indulge the sinful nature^[18];^† rather, serve one another^† in love. ¹⁴The entire law is summed up in a single command: “Love your neighbor as yourself.”^{[19] † 15}If you keep on biting and devouring each other, watch out or you will be destroyed by each other.

Life by the Spirit

¹⁶So I say, live by the Spirit,^† and you will not gratify the desires of the sinful nature.^{† 17}For the sinful nature desires what is contrary to the Spirit, and the Spirit what is contrary to the sinful nature.^† They are in conflict with each other, so that you do not do what you want.^{† 18}But if you are led by the Spirit, you are not under law.^†

¹⁹The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: sexual immorality,^† impurity and debauchery; ²⁰idolatry and witchcraft; hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions ²¹and envy; drunkenness, orgies, and the like.^† I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God.

²²But the fruit^† of the Spirit is love,^† joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, ²³gentleness and self-control.^† Against such things there is no law. ²⁴Those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the sinful nature^† with its passions and desires.^{† 25}Since we live by the Spirit, let us keep in step with the Spirit. ²⁶Let us not become conceited,^† provoking and envying each other.

Galatians 6

Doing Good to All

¹Brothers, if someone is caught in a sin, you who are spiritual^† should restore him gently. But watch yourself, or you also may be tempted. ²Carry each other’s burdens, and in this way you will fulfill the law of Christ.^{† 3}If anyone thinks he is something^† when he is nothing, he deceives himself. ⁴Each one should test his own actions. Then he can take pride in himself, without comparing himself to somebody else, ⁵for each one should carry his own load.

⁶Anyone who receives instruction in the word must share all good things with his instructor.^†

⁷Do not be deceived:^† God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows.^{† 8}The one who sows to please his sinful nature, from that nature^[20] will reap destruction;^† the one who sows to please the Spirit, from the Spirit will reap eternal life.^{† 9}Let us not become weary in doing good,^† for at the proper time we will reap a harvest if we do not give up.^{† 10}Therefore, as we have opportunity, let us do good^† to all people, especially to those who belong to the family^† of believers.

Not Circumcision but a New Creation

¹¹See what large letters I use as I write to you with my own hand!^†

¹²Those who want to make a good impression outwardly are trying to compel you to be circumcised.^† The only reason they do this is to avoid being persecuted^† for the cross of Christ. ¹³Not even those who are circumcised obey the law,^† yet they want you to be circumcised that they may boast about your flesh.^{† 14}May I never boast except in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, through which^[21] the world has been crucified to me, and I to the world.^{† 15}Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything;^† what counts is a new creation.^{† 16}Peace and mercy to all who follow this rule, even to the Israel of God.

¹⁷Finally, let no one cause me trouble, for I bear on my body the marks^† of Jesus.

¹⁸The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ^† be with your spirit,^† brothers. Amen.

EPHESIANS

Author, Place and Date of Writing

It appears that the apostle Paul wrote Ephesians (1:1; 3:1; but see “The Authorship of Ephesians”) between A.D. 60 and 62, while he was imprisoned in Rome (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and that Tychicus delivered the letter (6:21–22).

Audience

A number of churches in the province of Asia, including the one in Ephesus, most likely read this letter. Evidently Paul had not met all of the Christians in areas where this epistle circulated, but he had heard about their faith and was aware that news of his ministry had reached them (see 1:15; 3:2).

Cultural Facts and Highlights

During Paul’s day Ephesus was a thriving urban center and the capital of the province of Asia (see “Ephesus During the Time of Paul”). Rivaling Rome, Antioch, Alexandria and Corinth in importance, Ephesus’ strategic location at the center of trade routes attracted people from all over the known world.

Today the ruins of Ephesus (in modern-day Turkey) still proclaim its former magnificence. In Paul’s day thousands of people traveled there to worship in the temple of Artemis (Diana), one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Activities in three gymnasiums, public baths and a theater that seated 25,000 people provided some of the local entertainment and recreation.

Timeline

As You Read

Watch for Paul’s frequent use of the phrase “in Christ” to explain the believer’s new relationship to the Lord. Note Paul’s systematic enumeration of the many blessings Christians possess in Christ. Look for the clear statement of God’s ultimate purpose for the universe (see 1:10) and his plan for the church. Finally, notice the word pictures Paul used to describe the church and the importance of unity.

Did You Know?

• The Ephesians were familiar with the Greco-Roman practice of redemption. Slaves were freed by the payment of a ransom (1:7).
• The right hand was the symbolic place of highest honor and authority (1:20).
• Ancient Greek culture often viewed humility, meekness, gentleness and self-sacrifice in negative terms, as weaknesses (4:2).
• In the Greek and Roman world, slavery was considered an economic and practical necessity, an assumed part of life (6:5–9).
• The large Roman shield was covered with leather, which could be soaked in water and used to extinguish flame-tipped arrows (6:16).

Themes

Paul’s letter to the Ephesians focuses on two aspects of unity:

1. The basis for unity. God’s eternal purpose—“to bring all things in heaven and on earth together under one head, even Christ” (1:10)—is evidenced in, and accomplished through, the church. Christians are chosen to be “holy and blameless” before God (1:4), were created in Christ Jesus “to do good works” (2:10) and have been called to be members of a united “household” (2:19). By his death Christ destroyed every “barrier” (2:14) that separated human beings, so believers can have true unity as members of “one body” (3:6). Through the church the “mystery” (1:9; 3:3–6) that all believers share a common identity as the one family of God is revealed and fulfilled (3:9–10).
2. Maintaining unity. Church unity is more than just an ideal; it is a reality to be experienced. Paul gave practical instructions for realizing and maintaining this unity. Old patterns of thinking and behavior, which were characterized by futility, darkness and sensuality (4:17–19), had to be “put off” (4:25). Instead, believers were to live in a manner consistent with their salvation in Christ (4:1).

Outline

I. Greeting (1:1–2)

II. The Divine Purpose (1:3–3:21)

A. Made Alive in Christ by Grace (1:3–2:10)

B. Jew and Gentile Made One in Christ (2:11–18)

C. Jew and Gentile United in One Household in Christ (2:19–22)

D. Paul as a Minister to the Gentiles (3:1–13)

E. Paul’s Prayer for the Ephesians (3:14–21)

III. Practical Instruction (4:1–6:20)

IV. Conclusion (6:21–24)

Ephesians 1

¹Paul, an apostle^† of Christ Jesus by the will of God,^†

To the saints in Ephesus,^[1] the faithful^{[2] †} in Christ Jesus:

²Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.^†

Spiritual Blessings in Christ

³Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ,^† who has blessed us in the heavenly realms^† with every spiritual blessing in Christ. ⁴For he chose us in him before the creation of the world to be holy and blameless^† in his sight. In love^{† 5}he^[3] predestined^† us to be adopted as his sons through Jesus Christ, in accordance with his pleasure^† and will— ⁶to the praise of his glorious grace, which he has freely given us in the One he loves.^{† 7}In him we have redemption^† through his blood, the forgiveness of sins, in accordance with the riches of God’s grace ⁸that he lavished on us with all wisdom and understanding. ⁹And he^[4] made known to us the mystery^† of his will according to his good pleasure, which he purposed in Christ, ¹⁰to be put into effect when the times will have reached their fulfillment^†— to bring all things in heaven and on earth together under one head, even Christ.^†

¹¹In him we were also chosen,^[5] having been predestined according to the plan of him who works out everything in conformity with the purpose^† of his will, ¹²in order that we, who were the first to hope in Christ, might be for the praise of his glory.^{† 13}And you also were included in Christ when you heard the word of truth,^† the gospel of your salvation. Having believed, you were marked in him with a seal,^† the promised Holy Spirit, ¹⁴who is a deposit guaranteeing our inheritance^† until the redemption of those who are God’s possession— to the praise of his glory.

Thanksgiving and Prayer

¹⁵For this reason, ever since I heard about your faith in the Lord Jesus and your love for all the saints,^{† 16}I have not stopped giving thanks for you,^† remembering you in my prayers. ¹⁷I keep asking that the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the glorious Father,^† may give you the Spirit^[6] of wisdom^† and revelation, so that you may know him better. ¹⁸I pray also that the eyes of your heart may be enlightened^† in order that you may know the hope to which he has called you, the riches of his glorious inheritance in the saints, ¹⁹and his incomparably great power for us who believe. That power^† is like the working of his mighty strength,^{† 20}which he exerted in Christ when he raised him from the dead^† and seated him at his right hand in the heavenly realms, ²¹far above all rule and authority, power and dominion, and every title^† that can be given, not only in the present age but also in the one to come. ²²And God placed all things under his feet^† and appointed him to be head^† over everything for the church, ²³which is his body, the fullness of him who fills everything in every way.

Ephesians 2

Made Alive in Christ

¹As for you, you were dead in your transgressions and sins,^{† 2}in which you used to live^† when you followed the ways of this world and of the ruler of the kingdom of the air,^† the spirit who is now at work in those who are disobedient.^{† 3}All of us also lived among them at one time, gratifying the cravings of our sinful nature^{[7] †} and following its desires and thoughts. Like the rest, we were by nature objects of wrath. ⁴But because of his great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, ⁵made us alive with Christ even when we were dead in transgressions^†— it is by grace you have been saved.^{† 6}And God raised us up with Christ and seated us with him^† in the heavenly realms^† in Christ Jesus, ⁷in order that in the coming ages he might show the incomparable riches of his grace, expressed in his kindness^† to us in Christ Jesus. ⁸For it is by grace you have been saved,^† through faith— and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God— ⁹not by works,^† so that no one can boast.^{† 10}For we are God’s workmanship, created^† in Christ Jesus to do good works,^† which God prepared in advance for us to do.

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The Dividing Wall of the “Court of the Gentiles” in Herod’s Temple

Warning inscription from the Jerusalem temple

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Israel Museum

Ephesians 2 Gentiles were allowed to enter the outer temple enclosure in Jerusalem. This large, paved area surrounding the temple and its inner courts was enclosed by a double colonnade of pillars standing 37 feet (10 m) high. The perimeter of this area measured three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km). This outer court was also called the court of the Gentiles.

But Gentiles were physically prevented access to the inner courts of the temple by a 4.5 foot (1.4 m) high barrier (Paul’s “dividing wall of hostility” in 2:14). The Jewish historian Josephus pointed out that 13 stone slabs with writing in both Greek and Latin were placed at intervals on the barrier, warning Gentiles not to enter.¹ In Josephus’s words, “There was a partition made of stone … Its construction was very elegant; upon it stood pillars, at equal distances from one another, declaring the law of purity, some in Greek, and some in Roman letters, that ‘no foreigner should go within that sanctuary’ ” (Wars, 5.5.2). Archaeologists have discovered two of these warning slabs, which state: “No foreigner is allowed to enter within the balustrade surrounding the sanctuary and the court. Whoever is caught will be personally responsible for his ensuing death.”

This dividing wall had great significance for Paul, who was arrested in Jerusalem for reportedly bringing a Gentile into the inner court of the temple (see Ac 21:16–30). Paul and other Jewish followers of Christ recognized that the God who had previously resided in the temple had entered humanity in the person of Jesus, the Messiah. Jesus’ death on the cross and his resurrection had in effect broken down the dividing wall, effecting spiritual unity between Jews and Gentiles. As a result, Paul knew, all people have been granted access to God through saving faith in Jesus Christ.

1. See “Herod’s Temple.”

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One in Christ

¹¹Therefore, remember that formerly you who are Gentiles by birth and called “uncircumcised” by those who call themselves “the circumcision” (that done in the body by the hands of men)^†— ¹²remember that at that time you were separate from Christ, excluded from citizenship in Israel and foreigners to the covenants of the promise,^† without hope^† and without God in the world. ¹³But now in Christ Jesus you who once were far away have been brought near^† through the blood of Christ.^†

¹⁴For he himself is our peace, who has made the two one^† and has destroyed the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility, ¹⁵by abolishing in his flesh^† the law with its commandments and regulations.^† His purpose was to create in himself one^† new man out of the two, thus making peace, ¹⁶and in this one body to reconcile both of them to God through the cross,^† by which he put to death their hostility. ¹⁷He came and preached peace to you who were far away and peace to those who were near.^{† 18}For through him we both have access^† to the Father^† by one Spirit.^†

¹⁹Consequently, you are no longer foreigners and aliens,^† but fellow citizens^† with God’s people and members of God’s household,^{† 20}built on the foundation^† of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the chief cornerstone.^{† 21}In him the whole building is joined together and rises to become a holy temple^† in the Lord. ²²And in him you too are being built together to become a dwelling in which God lives by his Spirit.

Ephesians 3

Paul the Preacher to the Gentiles

¹For this reason I, Paul, the prisoner^† of Christ Jesus for the sake of you Gentiles—

²Surely you have heard about the administration of God’s grace that was given to me^† for you, ³that is, the mystery^† made known to me by revelation,^† as I have already written briefly. ⁴In reading this, then, you will be able to understand my insight^† into the mystery of Christ, ⁵which was not made known to men in other generations as it has now been revealed by the Spirit to God’s holy apostles and prophets.^{† 6}This mystery is that through the gospel the Gentiles are heirs^† together with Israel, members together of one body,^† and sharers together in the promise in Christ Jesus.

⁷I became a servant of this gospel^† by the gift of God’s grace given me through the working of his power.^{† 8}Although I am less than the least of all God’s people,^† this grace was given me: to preach to the Gentiles the unsearchable riches of Christ, ⁹and to make plain to everyone the administration of this mystery,^† which for ages past was kept hidden in God, who created all things. ¹⁰His intent was that now, through the church, the manifold wisdom of God^† should be made known^† to the rulers and authorities^† in the heavenly realms, ¹¹according to his eternal purpose which he accomplished in Christ Jesus our Lord. ¹²In him and through faith in him we may approach God^† with freedom and confidence.^{† 13}I ask you, therefore, not to be discouraged because of my sufferings for you, which are your glory.

A Prayer for the Ephesians

¹⁴For this reason I kneel^† before the Father, ¹⁵from whom his whole family^[8] in heaven and on earth derives its name. ¹⁶I pray that out of his glorious riches he may strengthen you with power^† through his Spirit in your inner being,^{† 17}so that Christ may dwell in your hearts^† through faith. And I pray that you, being rooted^† and established in love, ¹⁸may have power, together with all the saints, to grasp how wide and long and high and deep^† is the love of Christ, ¹⁹and to know this love that surpasses knowledge— that you may be filled^† to the measure of all the fullness of God.^†

²⁰Now to him who is able^† to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine, according to his power that is at work within us, ²¹to him be glory in the church and in Christ Jesus throughout all generations, for ever and ever! Amen.^†

Ephesians 4

Unity in the Body of Christ

¹As a prisoner^† for the Lord, then, I urge you to live a life worthy^† of the calling you have received. ²Be completely humble and gentle; be patient, bearing with one another^† in love.^{† 3}Make every effort to keep the unity^† of the Spirit through the bond of peace. ⁴There is one body and one Spirit^†— just as you were called to one hope when you were called— ⁵one Lord, one faith, one baptism; ⁶one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all.^†

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The Authorship of Ephesians

Ephesians 4 Did Paul truly write the letter to the Ephesians? The answer has great significance for the letter’s canonical authority. In Ephesians 3:1–7 Paul placed great emphasis on his apostolic authority (see also 1Co 9:1–2; 2Co 12:11–12; Gal 1:1). So rejection of Pauline authorship would significantly diminish the letter’s authority.¹

Some scholars question Paul’s authorship of this book because its vocabulary differs somewhat from his other letters and its sentences are unusually long and complex. The theology of Ephesians also incorporates the idea of the church universal, suggesting that this letter might be dated to a time after the apostle’s death, when the church was better established and theology was more developed (although Paul certainly espoused this concept). The letters of Ephesians and Colossians are in fact quite similar, raising the possibility that Ephesians was modeled after Colossians but written later and by a different author.

Eastern aerial view of Ephesus, including the theater and central street of the city

© Dr. James C. Martin

Other evidence, however, does support Pauline authorship:

• The letter itself twice claims Paul as its author (1:1; 3:1) and contains biographical material corresponding to Paul’s life (3:1–13).

• Personal remarks are in keeping with Pauline authorship (see 6:21–22).

• Centuries of church tradition support this premise. The letter’s authenticity was never questioned by the early church.

• Analyzing the writing style of Ephesians is too subjective a process to be a serious basis for disputing Pauline authorship. No doubt Paul was capable of employing variety in his writing style. Throughout this letter he created a worshipful context, particularly in Ephesians 1–3, and the elevated style of writing was appropriate in light of the book’s portrayal of believers’ exaltation in Christ.

• The suggestion that Ephesians may have been written as a circular letter (i.e., intended for multiple churches rather than addressing a specific crisis in a specific church) may also help to account for its stylistic distinctives. Since this epistle was not written to address a particular controversy, it lacks the direct, hard-hitting and sometimes harsh tone found in the books of 1 Corinthians and Galatians.

• The structure of Ephesians, which moves from a doctrinal foundation (chs. 1–3) to practical exhortation (chs. 4–6), is also found in letters that are indisputably Pauline, such as Romans and Galatians.

• The theology of Ephesians is consistent with Paul’s message elsewhere. For example, the description of Gentile sin in Ephesians 4:17–19 is similar to that found in Romans 1:21–23.

• Slight differences between Ephesians and other letters may actually support Pauline authorship of Ephesians, where Paul sometimes took familiar ideas in new directions. For example, the picture of the church as the body of Christ (4:15–16) is expressed differently from what we read in Romans 12:3–5, but both passages are examples of what for Paul was a standard image of the church. An imitator of Paul would most likely not have taken this idea in a new direction but would have slavishly followed Paul’s use of the image found in Romans.

On the other hand, similarities between Ephesians and Colossians do not suggest non-Pauline authorship. The same author could quite possibly have written two letters with similar style and content at about the same time. Paul may simply have addressed similar thoughts to different audiences.

1. See also “The Authorship of the Pastoral Epistles” and “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World.”

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⁷But to each one of us^† grace has been given^† as Christ apportioned it. ⁸This is why it^[9] says:

“When he ascended on high,

he led captives^† in his train

and gave gifts to men.”^{[10] †}

⁹(What does “he ascended” mean except that he also descended to the lower, earthly regions^[11]? ¹⁰He who descended is the very one who ascended higher than all the heavens, in order to fill the whole universe.) ¹¹It was he who gave some to be apostles,^† some to be prophets, some to be evangelists,^† and some to be pastors and teachers, ¹²to prepare God’s people for works of service, so that the body of Christ^† may be built up ¹³until we all reach unity^† in the faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God and become mature,^† attaining to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ.

¹⁴Then we will no longer be infants,^† tossed back and forth by the waves,^† and blown here and there by every wind of teaching and by the cunning and craftiness of men in their deceitful scheming.^{† 15}Instead, speaking the truth in love, we will in all things grow up into him who is the Head,^† that is, Christ. ¹⁶From him the whole body, joined and held together by every supporting ligament, grows^† and builds itself up in love, as each part does its work.

Living as Children of Light

¹⁷So I tell you this, and insist on it in the Lord, that you must no longer live as the Gentiles do, in the futility of their thinking.^{† 18}They are darkened in their understanding^† and separated from the life of God^† because of the ignorance that is in them due to the hardening of their hearts.^{† 19}Having lost all sensitivity,^† they have given themselves over^† to sensuality^† so as to indulge in every kind of impurity, with a continual lust for more.

²⁰You, however, did not come to know Christ that way. ²¹Surely you heard of him and were taught in him in accordance with the truth that is in Jesus. ²²You were taught, with regard to your former way of life, to put off^† your old self,^† which is being corrupted by its deceitful desires; ²³to be made new in the attitude of your minds;^{† 24}and to put on the new self,^† created to be like God in true righteousness and holiness.^†

²⁵Therefore each of you must put off falsehood and speak truthfully^† to his neighbor, for we are all members of one body.^{† 26}“In your anger do not sin”^[12]: Do not let the sun go down while you are still angry, ²⁷and do not give the devil a foothold. ²⁸He who has been stealing must steal no longer, but must work,^† doing something useful with his own hands,^† that he may have something to share with those in need.^†

²⁹Do not let any unwholesome talk come out of your mouths,^† but only what is helpful for building others up according to their needs, that it may benefit those who listen. ³⁰And do not grieve the Holy Spirit of God,^† with whom you were sealed for the day of redemption.^{† 31}Get rid of all bitterness, rage and anger, brawling and slander, along with every form of malice.^{† 32}Be kind and compassionate to one another, forgiving each other, just as in Christ God forgave you.^†

Ephesians 5

¹Be imitators of God,^† therefore, as dearly loved children ²and live a life of love, just as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us^† as a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God.^†

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The Cult of Dionysus

Ephesians 5 The cult of Dionysus, the god of wine, also called Bacchus, appears to have emigrated from Asia to ancient Greece. Dionysus worship was notorious for its unrestrained, orgiastic character, involving wine, music, dance and sex (although festivals officially sanctioned by Greek cities tended to downplay some of the wilder elements).

Euripides, the ancient Greek playwright, included a memorable account of Dionysus worship in his play Bacchae. This play highlights the efforts of Pentheus, king of Thebes, to stifle Dionysus worship in his city. At the end of the play, frenzied female devotees of Dionysus (a group that included Pentheus’s mother) tore the unfortunate king limb from limb.

The cult remained popular throughout the Hellenistic age. Although suppressed in Rome during the second century B.C., Dionysus worship experienced a resurgence, becoming an authorized religion of the Roman Empire. Outsiders sometimes confused Jewish worship with that of Dionysus, possibly for the following reasons:

• Prior to the Jewish Maccabean revolt, which began in 167 B.C., Greek overlords forced their Jewish slaves to participate in Dionysus worship (See 2Mc 6:7).¹,² Observers may have believed that these Jews had become involved in the Dionysus cult voluntarily.

• Jewish society used symbols also associated with Dionysus worship (such as the vine leaf, grape cluster and cup).

• Ecstatic worshipers of Dionysus often shouted out a meaningless exclamation, Euoe Saboe! This could have been confused with the Jewish term for God, Yahweh Sabaoth, which was sometimes pronounced Iao Sabaoth.

The Greek god Dionysus

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Seljuk Museum

Dionysian drunkenness was more than mere self-indulgence; it was a counterfeit spirituality.³ In the frenzied and ecstatic Dionysiac rituals, intoxication with wine was equated with being filled with the spirit of Dionysus. Some of the new believers in Asia Minor were probably carrying this form of worship with them into the church by associating wine with the filling of the Holy Spirit. Paul did not want anyone to confuse a drunken frenzy with the power of the Spirit. He repudiated this notion by denouncing drunkenness and associating Spirit filling with other activities.

1. Second Maccabees is an Apocryphal book never accepted into the standard Protestant canon.

2. See also the “The Intertestamental Period.”

3. See also “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans” and “The Mystery Religions.”

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