11:33 The phrase “come together to eat” is another reference to the agape fellowship meal (see the note on v. 21).

12:3 The same Greek word for “Lord” is used in the Septuagint to translate the Hebrew name Yahweh (“the LORD”; see the note on Ro 10:9; see also “YHWH: The Name of God in the Old Testament”). The central Christian confession, “Jesus is Lord,” was a particular problem in the Roman Empire, because the affirmation of the sovereignty of Jesus was a direct challenge to the claim of absolute rule on the part of the Roman emperor (see “The Imperial Cult”).

12:10 For “tongues,” see “Tongue-Speaking in Christian and Pagan Worship.”

12:12 The believers in Corinth, and elsewhere in the ancient world, came from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds. But in Christ there is no ethnic, cultural or social distinction.

13:3 Many early Christians experienced martyrdom through being burned at the stake (see “The Early Persecution of the Church”).

13:8 For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

13:12 The imagery is of a polished metal (probably bronze) mirror in which one could perceive only an imperfect reflection.

14:2 For “tongue,” see “Tongue-Speaking in Christian and Pagan Worship.”

14:7 Flutes and harps were well known in Greece.

14:8 All Greeks would have been acquainted with the use of the trumpet for battle signals (see “Trumpets in the Ancient World”, and the Jews would have been familiar with the use of the ram’s horn (see “The Shofar”).

14:23 See “Tongue-Speaking in Christian and Pagan Worship.”

14:26 This verse includes the elements that made up the worship service at Corinth. Some of them (the hymn and the word of instruction) were carryovers from Old Testament and synagogue worship. (see “Early Christian Hymnody.”)

14:34–35 Paul had already noted that God had gifted women with the capacity to prophesy and pray in public (11:5). So rather than intending to silence women totally in the church, Paul may have been referring to interfering chatter or to the promotion of false teaching. (see “The Role of Women in Religious Life in the Greco-Roman World”, “Husbands and Wives: Family Life in the Greco-Roman World” and “The Demeanor of Wives.”)

15:1 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

15:3 Here Paul linked himself with early Christian tradition. He was not its originator, nor did he receive it directly from the Lord. His source was other Christians.

15:4 The Jews counted parts of days as whole days. Thus the three days would have included part of Friday afternoon, all of Saturday, and Sunday morning.

15:7 Since this James is listed in addition to the apostles, he was neither James, the son of Zebedee, nor James, the son of Alphaeus (Mt 10:2–3). This was James, the half brother of Jesus (Mt 13:55; see “The Family of Joseph, Mary and Jesus”), who did not believe in Christ before the resurrection (Jn 7:5) but afterward joined the apostolic band (Ac 1:14) and later became prominent in the Jerusalem church (Ac 15:13).

15:9 For “persecuted,” see “The Early Persecution of the Church.”

15:20 “Firstfruits” refers to the first sheaf of the harvest given to the Lord as a token that all of the harvest belonged to him and would be dedicated to him through committed lives (see Ex 23:19; Lev 2:12).

15:25 “Under his feet” is an Old Testament expression for complete conquest (see the note on Ps 110:1).

15:29 The present tense suggests that at Corinth people were currently being baptized for the dead. But because Paul did not offer any additional information about the practice, many attempts have been made to interpret the concept (see “Baptism for the Dead”).

15:32 See the note on 4:9.

15:33 This quotation is from the Greek comedy Thais, written by the familiar Greek poet Menander.

15:50 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

15:52 See “Trumpets in the Ancient World.”

16:1 “God’s people” refers to his people at Jerusalem. Many Jewish Christians in Jerusalem were impoverished—perhaps because of the famine recorded in Acts 11:28 (c. A.D. 44 or 46) or on account of the persecution of Jerusalem Christians (cf. Ac 8:1, as well as “The Early Persecution of the Church”)—and Paul spent considerable energy on his third missionary journey raising funds on their behalf from various Gentile churches. Paul undoubtedly saw the collection as an opportunity to promote unity and to pay a spiritual debt the Gentile congregations owed their “mother church” in Jerusalem (see Ro 15:26–27). Paul also hoped to demonstrate the genuineness of Gentile Christianity to skeptical Jewish Christians (cf. Ac 24:17).

16:2 Every Sunday (“the first day of every week”) believers were to bring what they had set aside for the Lord’s work—an amount proportionate to their income. Since it was to be brought on Sunday, the day when Christians gathered for worship (see Ac 20:7; Rev 1:10), it was probably collected at the worship service rather than at home. Justin Martyr indicated that in his time (c. A.D. 150) offerings were brought to the church on Sundays (Apology, 1.67–68).

16:6 Paul’s desire to spend a full winter in Corinth may have been realized, even if it was delayed by a year. The winter stay is probably the three-month visit to Greece mentioned in Acts 20:3. His motivation was at least twofold: (1) He wanted a significant period of time with the Corinthians in the hope of improving the situation in the church. (2) He desired to avoid having to travel in treacherous weather during the winter season, a time when the high seas were generally impassable and travel overland was arduous (see the note on Ac 27:9; see also “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”).

16:8 Pentecost was commemorated on the fiftieth day after Passover (see the note on Ac 2:1, as well as “Pentecost”), when the Jews celebrated the Feast of Firstfruits (Lev 23:10–16)—in the late spring.

16:9 These opponents were probably the pagan craftsmen who made the silver shrines of Artemis, as well as the general populace whom they had stirred up (see Ac 19:23–34).

16:12 For “Apollos,” see the note on 1:12.

16:15 Those of the household of Stephanas were among the first converts in Achaia (Greece), along with the few individuals in Athens who had believed a short time earlier (Ac 17:34). They were among the few people Paul had baptized at Corinth (1 Co 1:16).

16:17 These men were probably the ones who had brought Paul the letter from the Corinthians referred to in 7:1 (see “The ‘Missing’ Letter From the Corinthians to Paul”).

16:19 The “province of Asia” refers to the Roman province (presently in western Turkey) in which Ephesus and the surrounding cities were located. The churches of Colosse, Laodicea and Hierapolis, which were located on the border of the province of Asia, may have been included in the greetings, along with the other churches of Revelation 2–3.
While Christians at first continued to worship in temple and synagogue, from the beginning they also met in private homes (Ac 1:13; 2:2, 46). Worship in homes was a well-established pattern in Paul’s ministry (see also Ro 16:5; Col 4:15; Phm 2), and special buildings for Christian churches did not appear in the New Testament. The family had been the religious unit from the beginning of creation, and worship had centered in the house, from tent to palace. Tabernacle and temple were, in contrast, “the house of God.” In the New Testament the house where a Christian family lived was open to other Christian brothers and sisters to worship together, and when the temple was destroyed and the synagogue closed to Christians the church in the home became the sole refuge for the believers until special buildings were later erected (see “House Churches and Early Church Buildings”).

16:20 The “holy kiss” was the kiss of mutual respect and love in the Lord that was evidently the public practice of early Christians—from a practice that was customary in the ancient Near East (see “The Jewish Custom of Kissing”). Such a practice may have been used in the first-century A.D. synagogue—men kissing men, and women kissing women—and it would have been natural for the practice to have been continued in the early Jewish-Gentile churches.

16:21 Paul signed this letter, as was his habit, as a mark of its authenticity. Someone else had been penning the letter for him up to this point. (see “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World” and “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”)

1:1 There were two kinds of apostles in the early church: (1) the original “twelve apostles” (called disciples in the Gospels), sent out by Jesus during his ministry and later confirmed by the resurrected Christ, and (2) those “apostles” sent out by churches. Such missionaries received their authority from the other apostles and the sending churches. Paul was unique in that he stood in, or between, these classes (see Ac 13:1–3). But this combination caused him problems. Those rejecting his apostleship denied his calling by the resurrected Christ and discredited his authority.
Greece in Paul’s day was divided into two Roman provinces: Achaia in the south (which included Athens and the capital city of Corinth; see the note on 1 Corinthians 1:2) and Macedonia in the north (which included Berea, Philippi and the capital city of Thessalonica).

1:8 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
Asia was a Roman province in western Asia Minor, now Turkish territory.

1:15 Originally Paul had planned to cross by sea from Ephesus to Corinth, visiting the Corinthians before traveling north to Macedonia, and then, returning from Macedonia, to visit them a second time, thus giving them the benefit of two short visits. What probably occurred was that he paid the Corinthians a quick visit directly from Ephesus, a visit he had not contemplated and that proved to be “painful” (2:1). See “Paul’s Visits and Letters to Corinth.”

1:16 For “Macedonia,” see the note on 1:1.

1:17 Paul’s opponents in Corinth had been attempting to persuade the Christians there that Paul’s change of plan was evidence that his word was not to be trusted and that he was fickle and unreliable.

1:20 “Amen” was uttered by the congregation at the end of an offering of prayer or praise.

1:22 A seal denoted ownership and security (see “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”).
A deposit was a part given as a guarantee that the whole would be forthcoming. The first installment of an inherited sum of money, for example, assured the recipient that the entire amount would be forthcoming.

2:1 The former, “painful” visit mentioned here could not have been the one Paul had made to Corinth at the time when the church there was founded in response to the preaching of the gospel (cf. Ac 18). Therefore he must have paid the church a second visit; this is confirmed by 12:14 and 13:1, in which he stated that the visit he was about to make would be his third. The second probably took place between the writing of 1 and 2 Corinthians, although some scholars hold that it occurred before 1 Corinthians was written. See “Paul’s Visits and Letters to Corinth,.”

2:7–9 For commentary on excommunication, see the note on 1 Timothy 1:20.

2:12 For “Troas,” see the note on Acts 16:8.

2:14 In Roman times a magnificent procession would be hosted in honor of a victorious general, the highest military honor he could obtain. He would enter the city in a chariot, followed by the senate and magistrates, musicians, the spoils of his victory and the captives in chains. Sacrifices were made to Jupiter, and incense was burned by the priests. Paul undoubtedly had such a triumphal procession in mind when he wrote these words.

2:17 False teachers who were insincere, self-sufficient and boastful had artfully presented themselves in a persuasive manner to the Corinthian church. Their chief interest was to obtain money from gullible church members. Paul, by contrast, had preached the gospel sincerely and free of charge, taking care not to be a financial burden to the Corinthian believers (see 1Co 9:11–15).

3:1 The appearance of vagrant impostors led to the need for “letters of recommendation.” Paul needed no such confirmation; but others, including the Corinthian intruders, did need authentication and often resorted to unscrupulous methods for obtaining or forging such letters.

3:3 The ink written on parchment or papyrus documents faded and was easily erased or blocked out (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World”).

4:7 Treasures were frequently concealed in clay jars, which had little value or beauty in themselves and did not attract attention. Here they represent Paul’s human frailty and unworthiness.

5:4 Paul reversed the age-old imagery of death and the grave as being the great swallower (see Ps 49:14 and its note; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”).

5:11 See “Debate and Rhetoric in the Ancient World.”

5:18 Some scholars believe that Paul’s use of the word “reconciliation” came from the ancient secular world, where it was a diplomatic term referring to the harmony established between enemies by peace treaties. As “Christ’s ambassadors” (v. 20), Christians are sent to announce that God has established a “peace treaty” with his enemies.

5:20 The word ambassador(s) in the New Testament comes from the Greek presbeuein, meaning “to be, work or travel as an envoy.” Today’s concept of an ambassador as a resident representative of a foreign state is somewhat alien to the Biblical concept of an ambassador as a messenger. See also Ephesians 6:20.

6:5 See “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”

6:14 Paul pleaded with the Corinthians not to be “yoked together” with unbelievers. He was referring to any kind of association that might significantly form an individual’s identity. Determining whether someone is “yoked together” with another is a judgment call. The answer depends upon the degree, significance, purpose and level of self-identification involved in one person’s relationship with another.

6:15 Belial is Satan.

6:16 This verse contains terminology used in the supreme Old Testament affirmation of the covenant relationship between God and his people (see “Deuteronomy and the Covenant Treaty Form”).

7:5 For “Macedonia,” see the note on 1:1.

7:8 See “Paul’s Visits and Letters to Corinth.”

8:23 These “representatives” were duly elected delegates of the churches at large (so that they could not be dismissed as cronies chosen by Paul alone).

9:2 For information on Macedonia and Achaia, see the note on 1:1.

10:10 Paul’s adversaries used a professional type of oratory designed to extract money from their gullible audiences. But Paul’s manner of speaking was plain, straightforward and free from artificiality—as well as “free of charge” (11:7).

10:13 The assigned “field” may be a picture of an athletic contest in which lanes are marked out for the different runners.

10:16 “Regions beyond” may be a reference to Spain.

11:5 “Super-apostles” were the false apostles who had infiltrated the Corinthian church and who were in reality not apostles at all (see “Early Christian Heresies”).

11:6 Paul intentionally remained an “amateur” when it came to public speaking. He viewed his calling to be proclamation, not persuasion or manipulation. He did whatever it took not to be confused with the professional rhetoricians of the ancient world (see “Debate and Rhetoric in The Ancient World”).

11:7 The false teachers’ method of operation was to demand payment for their “professional” services. Paul, his enemies accused, was lowering himself by breaking the rule that teachers should receive payment in proportion to the worth of their performance.

11:10 For “Achaia,” see the note on 1:1.

11:22 The claims implied here on the part of the false apostles indicate that they were Jews who felt superior to Gentile Christians. It is probable, in fact, that they were Judaizers (see the note on Gal 1:7), who wished to impose distinctive Jewish practices on Gentile converts.

11:24–25 Eight floggings are mentioned here, five at the hands of Jewish authorities and three at the hands of Romans. The three floggings by the Romans were beatings with rods (not the scourge) that took place despite the fact that Paul, a Roman citizen, was legally protected from such punishment (see “Roman Citizenship”).

11:25 Stoning was a traditional manner of Jewish execution.
Only one shipwreck is recorded in Acts, but it took place after the writing of this letter. The three shipwrecks referred to here must have occurred during earlier voyages (see “Travel in the Greco-Roman World”).

11:32 For “Damascus,” see the note on Acts 9:2.
Aretas IV, the father-in-law of Herod Antipas, ruled over the Nabatean Arabs from about 9 B.C. to A.D. 40 (see the note on Ac 9:23, as well as “Aretas IV of Nabatea and Petra”). The Roman emperor Caligula may have given Damascus back to Aretas, since it was once part of his territory.

11:33 See “The Ancient City.”

12:2 “Fourteen years ago” refers to a point early in Paul’s ministry, before his first missionary journey.
The “third heaven” apparently designates a place beyond the immediate “heaven” of Earth’s atmosphere and the farther “heaven” of outer space—into the presence of God himself. See the note on ancient cosmology at Ezekiel 32:7–8.

12:4 A word of Persian origin, the Greek paradeisos, meaning “park” but transliterated “paradise” three times in the New Testament (here; Lk 23:43; Rev 2:7), refers in each instance to heaven. There was a similar word in the Hebrew Old Testament, pardçs, translated “forest,” “orchard” or “park” (Ne 2:8, Ecc 2:5; SS 4:13).

12:14 For commentary on the parent-child relationship, see the note on Ephesians 6:4.

12:16 Paul sarcastically echoed the accusation of the false teachers that he had organized the collection for the poverty-stricken Christians in Jerusalem only so that the monies could end up in his own pocket.

12:20 The church at Corinth was immature, unspiritual, disorganized and schismatic.

13:11 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

13:12 For “holy kiss,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 16:20.

1:1 For “apostle,” see the note on 2 Corinthians 1:1.

1:2 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
This was a circular letter to several congregations (“churches”).
The term “Galatia” is uncertain. In 1 Peter 1:1 it refers to the northern area of Asia Minor, occupied by the Gauls. Here (and in 1Co 16:1) Paul probably used the term to refer to the Roman province of Galatia (in modern central Turkey) and an additional area to the south, through which he traveled on his first missionary journey. See “Which Galatia?.”

1:7 “Some people” refers to the Judaizers, Jewish Christians who believed, among other things, that a number of the ceremonial practices of the Old Testament were still binding on the New Testament church. They insisted that Gentile converts to Christianity abide by certain Old Testament rites, especially circumcision. They may have been motivated by a desire to avoid the persecution of Zealot Jews who objected to their fraternizing with Gentiles (6:12). The Judaizers argued that Paul was not an authentic apostle and that out of a desire to make the message more appealing to Gentiles he had removed from the gospel certain legal requirements. (see “Early Christian Heresies.”)

1:8–9 For expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on Psalm 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

1:8 “Eternally condemned” comes from the Greek word anathema, which originally referred to a pagan temple offering in payment for a vow. Later it came to represent a curse.

1:13 Judaism is the term for the Jewish faith and way of life that developed during the period between the Old and New Testaments (see “The Intertestamental Period”). The term is derived from Judah, the southern kingdom that came to an end in the sixth century, B.C. with the exile into Babylonia.

1:14 For “the traditions of my fathers,” compare “the tradition of the elders” (see the note on Mt 15:2).

1:16 “Gentiles” (lit., “nations” or “peoples”) was a common designation for foreigners—pagans. The term was applied indiscriminately to the entire non-Jewish world.

1:17 Jerusalem played just as crucial a role in first-century Christianity as it did in ancient Judaism. The apostles were based there much of the time, and in that city resided much of the authority and knowledge needed for the development of Christian thinking.
Damascus (see the note on Ac 9:2) was the capital of ancient Syria. Paul had been converted en route from Jerusalem to Damascus.

1:19 For information on James, see the note on Acts 21:18.

1:20 An oath is an appeal to God to witness the truth of a statement or of the binding character of a promise (see also Ge 21:23; 31:53; Heb 6:16). By the time of Christ the Old Testament law regarding oaths (Ex 22:11) had been much perverted by the scribes, and our Lord therefore condemned indiscriminate and light oath taking, stating that people should be so transparently honest that oaths between them are unnecessary. The lawfulness of oaths was recognized by the apostles, who called on God to witness to the truth of what they said (see also 2Co 11:31, as well as “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice”).

1:21 Syria and Cilicia were provinces in Asia Minor. Specifically, Paul went to Tarsus, his hometown (see the note on Ac 22:3).

1:22 See “Before the Gentile Expansion: The Jewish Churches in the Holy Land.”

2:1–10 The meeting of delegates of the church in Antioch with the apostles and elders in Jerusalem (see also Ac 15) is usually called the “Council of Jerusalem,” although the text does not contain the word council.

2:1 For information on Barnabas, see the note on Acts 13:1–2.
Titus, one of Paul’s converts, was an uncircumcised Gentile Christian who served as Paul’s delegate to Corinth. He was later left in Crete to oversee the church there. The last word we hear about him in the New Testament is that he went on an assignment to Dalmatia (see 2Ti 4:10), also known as Illyricum (see the note on Ro 15:19).

2:4 “False brothers” refers to the Judaizers (see the note on 1:7).

2:7 Paul’s ministry was not exclusively to the Gentiles. In fact, he regularly went first to the synagogue when arriving in a new location (see the note on Ac 13:14). He did, however, consider himself to be foremost an apostle to the Gentiles (see Ro 11:13).

2:9 For information on James, see the note on Acts 21:18. His name may have been mentioned first because he played a dominant role in the Jerusalem council (Ac 15:12–21).
“Pillars” is a common metaphor for those who represent and strongly support an institution.
A common practice among both Jews and Greeks, the “right hand of fellowship” indicated a pledge of friendship.

2:11–12 Antioch (see the note on Ac 11:19, as well as “Antioch of Syria, Center of Christianity”) was the leading city of Roman Syria and the third leading city of the empire (after Rome and Alexandria).
Peter was “in the wrong” because, although he had been willing to shed the laws of Judaism (food and table restrictions) in Antioch in order to enjoy a newfound fellowship with Gentile Christians, he had later abandoned this stance to pacify the Judaizers (see the note on 1:7). The sharing of a common meal (see “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs”) was a visible and powerful symbol of what Paul was teaching young churches: “You are all one in Christ Jesus” (3:28). But this symbol was publicly damaged by Peter’s return to an insistence that Gentile Christians live like Jews.
The “circumcision group” refers to the Judaizers (see the note on 1:7 and “Circumcision in the Ancient World”).

2:13 “Other Jews” refers to Jewish Christians not associated with the circumcision party but whom Peter’s behavior had led astray.

2:14 To “live like a Gentile” meant to disregard Jewish customs, especially dietary restrictions.

3:1 See “Which Galatia?.”

3:7 Abraham was the physical and spiritual father of the Jewish race. Here all believers (Jews and Gentiles alike) are called his spiritual children.

3:13 “Tree” is used in classical Greek of stocks and poles on which bodies were impaled (cf. Est 2:23 and its note); here it refers to the cross.

3:15 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
The Greek word translated “human covenant” normally indicates a last will or testament, which is probably the legal instrument Paul was referring to here. But in the Septuagint it had been widely used of God’s covenant with his people.

3:17 God did not give the law to Moses until 430 years after his original covenant with Abraham. So the Abrahamic covenant had been established solely by faith.

3:19 For “through angels,” see the note on Acts 7:38.

3:24 The expression “put in charge” translates the Greek paidagogos (from which pedagogue is derived). It refers to the personal slave-attendant who accompanied a freeborn boy wherever he went and exercised a certain amount of discipline over him. His function was more like that of a baby-sitter than a teacher. (The Greek term is translated “guardians” in 1Co 4:15.)

3:26–29 Faith in Christ makes a person a “son of God.” This gives people, regardless of race, class or gender (v. 28; see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”), a new identity—that of Jesus Christ, with whom they share “sonship.” By adoption (see “Adoption in the Roman World”), the justified believer is an heir in God’s family, with all the attendant rights and privileges. (see “Genealogies in Ancient Israel.”)

4:2 “Guardians” is a broader term than “[those] put in charge” in 3:24.

4:5 For “full rights of sons,” see the note on 3:26–29.

4:6 Abba is the Aramaic word for “father,” transliterated into Greek and thence into English. The corresponding Hebrew word is Ab. Abba is found three times in the New Testament (see also Mk 14:36; Ro 8:15). For the use of the Aramaic language in New Testament times, see the note on Mark 5:41. Jewish children used the term Abba to show both intimacy with and respect toward their fathers.

4:10 “Special days” refers to days such as the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement (see “The Day of Atonement”).
“Months and seasons” refers to New Moons (see the note on 1Sa 20:5), Passover (see “The Passover”) and Firstfruits (see “The Festivals of Israel”).
“Years” refers to the sabbath year (see “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee”).
The Pharisees (see the notes on Mt 3:7; Lk 5:17) meticulously observed all of these in an attempt to gain merit before God.

4:12 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

4:13 Paul’s “illness” has not been identified. Some suggest that it was eye trouble, while others have suggested malaria or epilepsy.

4:17 “Those people” refer to the Judaizers (see the note on 1:7).

4:22–23 The “two sons” were Ishmael, born to the slave woman, Hagar (Ge 16:1–16); and Isaac, born to the free woman, Sarah (Ge 21:2–5).

4:24 The Sarah-Hagar account is an allegory, not because it was non-historical but in the sense that Paul used the events to illustrate a theological truth.
Mount Sinai is the site at which the old covenant was established (see “The Location of Mount Sinai”).

4:25 Jerusalem can be equated with Mount Sinai because it represents the center of Judaism.

4:26 Rabbinical teaching held that the “Jerusalem that is above” was the heavenly archetype that in the Messianic period would be let down to Earth. Here it refers to the heavenly city of God, in which Christ reigns and of which Christians are citizens, in contrast to the “present city of Jerusalem” (v. 25).

4:30 Sarah’s words in Genesis 21:10 were used by Paul as the Scriptural basis for teaching the Galatians to put the Judaizers (see the note on 1:7) out of the church. (For information on excommunication, see the note on Jn 9:22.)

5:1 The freedom spoken of here is freedom from the yoke of the law (see the note on Mt 11:28–30).

5:6 See “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”

5:7 For “[foot] race,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 9:24–27.

5:9 For “yeast,” see the note on Mark 8:15.

5:11 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

5:23 For a discussion of asceticism in the believer’s life, see the note on Leviticus 10:9.

5:24 For the heresy of antinomianism (the view that the moral law does not apply to Christians, who are under the law of grace), see the note on Romans 3:8.

6:7–8 Reaping in ancient times consisted in either pulling up the grain by the roots or cutting it with a sickle. The stalks were then bound into bundles and taken to the threshing floor (see “The Threshing Floor”). In Bible lands cutting and binding are still practiced. The reaper sometimes wears pieces of cane on his or her fingers to prevent being cut by the sharp spears of wheat or the sickle. Strict laws for reaping were imposed on Israel (Lev 19:9; 23:10; 25:11; Dt 16:9). Samuel cautioned that reaping would be a duty that the nation’s newly chosen king, Saul, would demand of the people (1Sa 8:12). The figurative usage of the term speaks of deeds that produce their own harvest (see also Pr 22:8: Hos 8:7; 1Co 9:11).

6:10 The practice of assisting the poor was so ingrained in the early Christian church that it often required only the briefest of reminders in the Epistles.

6:11 The letter up to this point had probably been dictated to a scribe, after which Paul took the pen in his own hand and finished the writing (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World”). The “large letters” may have been for emphasis or, as some have suggested, because Paul struggled with poor eyesight (see the note on 4:13).

6:17 In ancient times the Greek word for “mark” was used for the brand that identified slaves or animals.

6:18 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
“Amen” is a word of confirmation often used at the close of a doxology or benediction.

1:1–2 Letters in the ancient world followed a set form (see “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World”). Instead of the standard greeting (chairein), through a play on words Paul here changed his greeting to read “grace” (charis).

1:1 The book of Ephesians may have been intended as a circular letter to several churches, including the one at Ephesus. Ephesus was at the time a city of 200,000, renowned for its traders and silversmiths. Today the Turkish city of Selcuk occupies the site. (see “Early History of Ephesus” and “Ephesus During the Time of Paul.”)

1:3 Jewish people used the word “bless” to express both God’s kindness to them and their thanks and praise to him.

1:5 For “adopted,” see the note on Romans 8:15.

1:7 The Ephesians were familiar with the Greco-Roman practice of redemption. Slaves were freed by the payment of a ransom. Similarly, the ransom necessary to free sinners from the bondage of sin and the resulting curse imposed by the law (Gal 3:13) was the death of Jesus Christ (“his blood”).

1:9 For “mystery,” see the note on Romans 11:25.

1:13 In those days a seal denoted ownership and security (see “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”).

1:20 The right hand was the symbolic place of highest honor and authority (see “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking”).

1:22 For “under his feet,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 15:25.

2:10 The Greek word translated “workmanship” sometimes carries the connotation of a “work of art.”

2:11 Most of the Ephesians were Gentiles. The rite of circumcision was applied to all Jewish male babies; so this physical act (“done in the body by the hands of men”) was a clear mark of distinction between Jew and Gentile, in which Jewish people naturally took pride (see “Circumcision in the Ancient World”).

2:14 The “dividing wall” may be an allusion to the barricade in the Jerusalem temple area that marked the limit to how far a Gentile might go (see “The Dividing Wall of the ‘Court of the Gentiles’ in Herod’s Temple”). Paul used it here to describe the total religious isolation Jews and Gentiles experienced from each other.

2:19 The household in ancient times included what we today might call an “extended family.”

3:1 Apparently Paul was under house arrest—possibly in Rome—at this time (see Ac 28:16, 30; see also “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest”).

3:3 For “mystery,” see the note on Romans 11:25.

3:14 Kneeling expressed deep emotion and reverence; people in Paul’s day ordinarily stood to pray.

3:15 The Greek word translated “family” is similar to the word for “father,” so it can be said that the “family” derives its name (and being) from the father.

3:17 The heart was for people of Paul’s day synonymous with an individual’s whole inner being (see the note on Ps 4:7).

4:1 For “prisoner,” see the note on 3:1.

4:2 Ancient Greek culture often viewed humility, meekness, gentleness and self-sacrifice in negative terms, as weaknesses. But Paul taught that the love experienced in Christ is to be extended to others.

4:5 “Baptism” in this context probably refers to water baptism, not to the baptism of the Spirit. (see “Baptism in the Ancient World.”)

4:14 There were many distorted teachings and heresies that might easily have thrown the immature off course (see “Early Christian Heresies”).

4:22–23 Because some ancient Greeks believed that desires corrupted and destroyed life, they sought to be free of desire. In fact, they viewed passions as diseases of the mind. Living free of desire was considered the mark of wisdom and maturity. But no one can achieve this status. The solution is not the rejection of desires but their subjection to God.

4:30 For “sealed,” see the note on 1:13.

5:2 In the Old Testament the offering of a sacrifice pleased the Lord so much that it was described as a “pleasing aroma” (Ge 8:21; Ex 29:18, 25, 41).

5:14 This quotation may well be from a hymn used by early Christians (see “Early Christian Hymnody”).

5:18 See “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World.”

5:22–6:9 “House codes” is the label assigned to those sections of Ephesians, Colossians and 1 Peter that give instructions to wives and husbands, children and parents, and slaves and masters. Unlike secular “house codes” of the day, those in the New Testament focused on the responsibilities of the more powerful persons in society (husbands, parents and masters) toward the dependent and vulnerable. (see “Husbands and Wives: Family Life in the Greco-Roman World” and “The Demeanor of Wives.”)

5:23 For Jesus as Savior, see the note on Luke 2:11.

5:32 The Latin Vulgate translates the word “mystery” here as sacramentum. In classical times sacramentum was used in two chief senses: (1) as a technical legal term to denote the sum of money that the two parties to a suit deposited in a temple, of which the winner had his part returned, while the loser forfeited his to the temple treasury; or (2) as a technical military term to designate the oath of obedience of a soldier to his commanding officer. In the Greek New Testament there is no word corresponding to sacrament, nor do we find the word used in the earliest history of Christianity to refer to certain rites of the church. Pliny the Younger (c. A.D. 112) used the term in connection with Christianity in a famous letter in which he stated that the Christians of Bithynia bound themselves “by a sacramentum to commit no kind of crime,” but it is doubtful that he was using the word with any special Christian nuance of meaning. The word sacramentum was used with a distinctively Christian meaning for the first time in the Old Latin Bible and in Tertullian (end of the second century). In the Old Latin and in the Vulgate it was employed, as here, to translate the Greek mystçrion, “mystery” (see also 1Ti 3:16; Rev 1:20; 17:7). For a long time the word was used to refer not only to religious rites but also to doctrines and facts. For “mystery,” see also the note on Romans 11:25.

6:1 In the Bible, “parents” (Greek: goneis) is a distinctly New Testament word, occurring only in the plural. Although this English word occurs only infrequently in the NIV Old Testament (and not at all in the KJV), there is much instruction there about the parent-child relationship. Children were to honor their parents (Ex 20:12) and to obey and reverence them (Lev 19:3; Dt 5:16). Failure to do so on the child’s part could be punished by death (Dt 21:18–21). The same high regard for parents was expected of children in the New Testament (see also Col 3:20). Parents were in turn to love their children, to care and provide for them and to avoid provoking them to wrath (see also 2Co 12:14; Col 3:21).

6:5–9 In the Greek and Roman world, slavery was considered an economic and practical necessity, an assumed part of life. It is possible that up to one-third of the people living in Greece and Rome were slaves in Paul’s day. People became slaves through birth, parental sale or abandonment, captivity in war, inability to pay debts or voluntary attempts to better their situations. Race was not a factor.
Both the Old and New Testaments included regulations governing societal realities such as slavery and divorce (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World” and “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel”). Such regulations did not encourage or condone such situations but were divinely-given, practical ways of dealing with them.
The directions Paul gave to slaves did not upset the cultural order but nevertheless subverted the concept of slavery. Slave owners were losing control, as Christian slaves now held to a higher allegiance than to their owners. They had become slaves of Christ, serving him and doing God’s will. Furthermore, Christian owners were to treat their slaves the same way the slaves were to treat their masters.

6:13–14 Standing firm in this context is imagery not of a massive invasion of the domain of evil but of individual soldiers withstanding assault.

6:15 Whereas the description of the messenger’s feet in Isaiah 52:7 reflects the custom of running barefoot, here the message of the gospel is picturesquely connected with the protective and supportive footgear of the Roman soldier.

6:16 This verse describes the large Roman shield covered with leather, which could be soaked in water and used to extinguish flame-tipped arrows.

6:17 The helmet protected the soldier and, under certain circumstances, provided a striking symbol of military victory.

6:19 For “mystery,” see the note on Romans 11:25.

6:20 For “ambassador,” see the note on 2 Corinthians 5:20.

6:21 Tychicus was an associate of Paul who traveled as his representative.

6:23 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

1:1–2 As in all his epistles, Paul basically followed the conventional letter format of his day (see “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World”).

1:1 For information on Timothy, see the note on Acts 16:1. He is identified as Paul’s associate, but not as the coauthor of this letter.
Philippi was a wealthy town because of nearby gold and silver mines. Today the Greek city of Kavalla is located 9 miles (14.5 km) from its ruins. (see “Philippi.”)
For “overseers,” see the note on 1 Timothy 3:1–7 and for “deacons” the note on 1 Timothy 3:8–13.

1:12 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
It is evident that Paul wrote this letter from prison (see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest”). Some have argued that this imprisonment took place in Ephesus, perhaps about A.D. 54–57. Others place it in Caesarea in about 58–60. The best evidence, however, favors Rome as the place of origin and the date as about 60–63 (see the book introduction).

1:13 Praetorium, sometimes spelled Pretorium, was the Latin term for the Greek praitôrion, which among the Romans could refer to a number of things. Originally it identified the general’s tent in the camp of an army station, although sometimes the reference was to the military headquarters in Rome itself or in the provincial capitals. The word also denoted the staff of men in such an establishment or even the session of a planning council. In the Gospels (Mt 27:27; Mk 15:16; Jn 18:28, 33), the term refers to the temporary palace or headquarters (“judgment hall”) of the Roman governor or procurator while he was in Jerusalem, which was either Herod’s Upper Palace, near the modern Jaffa Gate, or the fortress Antonia, located beside the temple. This was the scene of Jesus’ trial before Pontius Pilate. No doubt the debated reference in this verse (cf. “Caesar’s household,” Php 4:22) refers to the headquarters of the emperor’s bodyguard, which could have been either in Rome or in one of the provincial capitals.
The “whole palace guard” was a contingent of soldiers numbering several thousand, many of whom would have had personal contact with Paul or would have been assigned individually to guard him during the course of his imprisonment.

1:15–16 See the note on 2 Timothy 1:15.

2:6–11 Many view these verses as an early Christian hymn (see “Early Christian Hymnody”), perhaps modified by Paul.

2:8 Crucifixion was the most degrading form of execution that could be inflicted on a person at the time (see “Crucifixion”).

2:16 For commentary on running a “[foot] race,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 9:24–27.

2:17 A “drink offering” was wine poured out as a sacrifice to the Lord. The reference may be to Paul’s entire ministry as one large thanksgiving sacrifice. However, it is more probable that Paul was referring to his present imprisonment, which could have ended in a martyr’s death. His life would then have been poured out as a drink offering accompanying the sacrificial service of the Philippians. See also the note on 2 Timothy 4:6.

2:19–23 Paul planned to send Timothy (see the note on Ac 16:1), who was with him in Rome, to discover and report on conditions in the Philippian church.

3:2 “Dogs” is a harsh word for Paul’s opponents. Their teaching was probably similar to that of the Judaizers (see the note on Gal 1:7). They had so distorted the meaning of circumcision (see “Circumcision in the Ancient World”) that the practice had become nothing more than a useless cutting of the body (a mutilation).

3:5 Paul was born a Jew and was not a proselyte (see “Proselytes in Second Temple Judaism”). His Jewish roots were deep and unambiguous; in language, attitudes and lifestyle, he was a Hebrew. He had also been a Pharisee (see the note on Mt 3:7, as well as “The Pharisees”).

3:12–14 For commentary on the Isthmian games, see the note on 1 Corinthians 9:24–27.

3:14 The winner of the Greek races received a wreath of leaves and sometimes a cash award (see the note on 1 Co 9:24–27).

3:20 Paul stated that he had become a Roman citizen by birth. Either his father or some other ancestor had acquired this right and had transmitted it to his son. Paul was proud of his Roman citizenship and, when occasion demanded, availed himself of his rights. When writing to the Philippians, who were members of a Roman colony and therefore also Roman citizens, Paul emphasized that Christians are citizens of a heavenly commonwealth and ought to live accordingly.

4:3 The Greek syzygos (“yoked together”) was common among Greek writers in referring to those united by close bonds, as in marriage, labor, etc. It is found only here in the New Testament, and its meaning is not clear. Some feel that Paul was referring here to a fellow worker, while others think the word was the proper name of the man he was addressing, Syzygus.

4:7 This verse depicts a military sentry standing guard.

4:8 See “Speech Ethics.”

4:14–15 The church at Philippi in ancient Macedonia was the first European church founded by Paul and thus represents the first major penetration of the gospel into Europe. The events leading to the founding of the congregation are related in Acts 16:9–40. The apostle Paul, accompanied by his coworkers Silas, Timothy and Luke, was on his second missionary journey through Asia Minor. Forbidden by the Holy Spirit to preach in Asia and in Bithynia to the north, they made their way to Troas, the farthest port of Asia on the Aegean Sea. In Troas Paul received a vision from the Lord, instructing him to take the gospel to Europe. A man stood before him, a Greek from Macedonia, begging him, “Come over to Macedonia and help us” (Ac 16:9). Paul and his companions immediately answered this divine call and set sail for the nearest port—Neapolis of Philippi, named after Phillip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great.
Philippi had been thoroughly colonized by the Romans after 30 B.C., but the city was still more Greek than Roman in culture. Also, it was the first station on the Egnatian Way and the gateway to the West. Luke described the city as follows: “From there we traveled to Philippi, a Roman colony and the leading city of that district of Macedonia” (Ac 16:12).

4:15 Macedonia was the northern part of modern-day Greece, where Berea, Philippi and the capital city of Thessalonica were located.

4:16 See “Thessalonica.”

4:18 The “fragrant offering” has its background is the Old Testament sacrifice—not a sacrifice of atonement for sin, but one of thanksgiving and praise (see the notes on Ro 12:1; Eph 5:2).

4:22 Those “who belong to Caesar’s household” were not blood relatives of the emperor but those employed (as slaves or freedmen) in or around the palace area (cf. “palace guard,” 1:13).

1:1–2 Ancient letters typically began with a simple identification of the sender and the recipients, followed by a greeting (see “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World”).

1:1 For “apostle,” see the note on 2 Corinthians 1:1.
For “Timothy,” see the note on Acts 16:1.

1:2 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.
Colosse was known for its soft wool and dyed cloth. The site housing the city’s ruins is located near the modern-day Turkish village of Honaz (see “Colosse”).

1:15–20 These verses may have been the lyrics to an early Christian hymn on the supremacy of Christ (see “Early Christian Hymnody”).

1:15 Just as the firstborn son had certain privileges and rights in the Biblical world (see “The Rights of the Firstborn”), so also Christ has certain rights in relation to all creation—priority, preeminence and sovereignty (see vv. 16–18).

1:16 The terms “thrones,” “powers,” “rulers” and “authorities” are references to angels. An angelic hierarchy figured prominently in the Colossian heresy.

1:26 In the pagan religious environment of Colosse, the word “mystery” referred to rites and symbols hidden from the uninitiated (see “The Mystery Religions”). Paul used the word in a more Jewish sense, with reference to God’s secret plans for the last days. The Christian mystery is not secret knowledge for a few. It is a revelation of divine truths—once hidden but now openly proclaimed.

1:27 Paul summed up the secret of the cosmos, which all philosophers, sages, wise men and religious seekers have pursued since the beginning: “Christ in you, the hope of glory.”

1:28 “Perfect,” or “fully mature,” was a term employed by the mystery religions (see “The Mystery Religions”) and the Gnostics (see “Early Christian Heresies” and “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”) to describe those who had become possessors of the secrets or knowledge boasted of by adherents to the particular religion.

2:1 This letter was to have been read to the church in Laodicea (near present-day Denizli, Turkey).

2:2 For “mystery,” see the note on 1:26.

2:3 Paul stressed knowledge in this letter because he was refuting a heresy that emphasized knowledge as the means of salvation

2:6–8 A certain contingent in the Colossian church was promoting a philosophy of asceticism (strict self-denial as a form of spiritual discipline).

2:8–23 Within the New Testament there are references to claims of knowledge and wisdom (e.g., 1Co 1:17–31; 8:1; 13:8) that could have been the roots that led to the development of Gnosticism (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”). There was a heresy in the church of Colosse, as well as false teaching in the churches Timothy knew (1Ti 1:3–11; 4:3–16; 2Ti 2:18; 3:5–7), that may be termed a false gnôsis (1Ti 6:20). Then in the epistles of John there are references to false teaching about the reality of Jesus’ humanity (1Jn 4:3; 2Jn 7). But there is nothing in the New Testament of the developed kind of Gnostic doctrines that the teachers of the church would face a century or so later.

2:8 The Greek termstoicheia, translated “basic principles of this world” (“elementary truths” in Heb 5:12), in this context denotes false, worldly, elementary teachings (see “Greek Philosophical Schools”). Paul was counteracting the Colossian heresy, which, in part, taught that for salvation one needed to combine faith in Christ with secret knowledge and with human regulations concerning such physical and external practices as circumcision, eating and drinking and observance of the religious festivals. See the note on “philosophy” at 1 Corinthians 1:18–2:16.

2:9 The declaration that the very essence of deity was present in totality in Jesus’ human body was a direct refutation of Gnostic teaching.

2:11 See “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”

2:12 See the note on Romans 6:3–4.

2:14 The “written code” is a business term, meaning a certificate of indebtedness in the debtor’s own handwriting. Paul used this language to designate the Mosaic Law, with all its regulations, under which everyone is a debtor to God.

2:15 Disarming the enemy is a picture of conquered soldiers stripped of their clothing, as well as of their weapons, to symbolize their total defeat.
The triumphal procession is a metaphor that recalls a victorious Roman general leading his captives through the streets of his city for all the citizens to see.

2:18 Second-century Gnosticism conceived of a list of spirit beings who had emanated from God and through whom the Gnostics believed God might be approached.
In the New Testament the word “mind” frequently occurs in an ethical sense, as here and in Romans 7:25. See “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”

2:19 The central error of the Colossian heresy was a defective view of Christ, in that he was believed to be less than deity.

2:20 For “basic principles of this world,” see the note on verse 8.

2:21 The strict ascetic nature of the Colossian heresy is seen here. These prohibitions seem to carry Old Testament ceremonial laws to the extreme.

2:23 This verse contains a detailed analysis of the Colossian heresy: (1) It appeared to set forth an impressive system of religious philosophy. (2) It was a system created by the false teachers themselves (“self-imposed”), rather than being of divine origin. (3) The false teachers paraded their humility. (4) This may have been accomplished through a harsh asceticism that brutally misused the body.

3:1 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

3:11 A “barbarian” referred to someone who did not speak Greek and was on that basis thought to be uncivilized.
The name “Scythian” was used by classical writers as a general term for the barbarians of the steppes. In common parlance it was a term for the savage and uncivilized. Scythia was the name given by the Greeks to an ill-defined area between the Carpathians and the Don, the western portion of which included the black earth wheatlands of the modern Ukraine. The steppe land was wide open to nomadic invasion, and the Indo-European tribes who occupied it in the seventh century B.C. are those to whom the term Scythian is most properly applied. There must have been a considerable “folk-wandering” about this time, because Scythians appeared in upper Mesopotamia and Syria between 650 and 620 B.C., and another force reached the middle Danube. South Russia, to speak in modern geographical terms, was firmly occupied. The nomads were formidable soldiers, swift archer cavalry versed in the tactics of desert warfare and mobile strategy. By a “scorched-earth” policy and by their elusive defense they frustrated an attack by Darius in 512 B.C. and similarly beat off Alexander’s general Zopyrion in 325. They exploited the labor of the earlier inhabitants and were exporters of large quantities of wheat to the Greek Black Sea colonies. Greek pottery and metal work were given in exchange, and the tombs of the chiefs have produced a rich profusion of such articles. The Celts and Samaritans seem to have displaced the Scythians during the last three centuries before Christ.

3:16 Some of the most important early Christian doctrines were expressed in hymns (see “Early Christian Hymnody”).

3:18–4:1 See the note on Ephesians 5:22–6:9.

3:20–21 For commentary on the parent-child relationship, see the note on Ephesians 6:1.

3:22–4:1 Paul neither condoned slavery nor sanctioned revolt against masters. Rather, he called on both slaves and masters to demonstrate Christian principles in their relationship and thus to attempt to transform the institution from within (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”).

4:3 For “mystery,” see the note on 1:26.

4:6 For “salt,” see the note on Matthew 5:13.

4:9 Onesimus, a slave belonging to Philemon, had apparently stolen from his master (Phm 18) and then run away, a crime that under Roman law was punishable by death. But Onesimus met Paul and through his ministry became a Christian (Phm 10). When Onesimus agreed to return to his master, Paul wrote a letter to Philemon requesting that he accept Onesimus back as a Christian brother (Phm 16).

4:10 Aristarchus, a Macedonian, was with Paul during the Ephesian riot (Ac 19:29) and therefore was known in Colosse. He also accompanied the apostle to Greece (Ac 20:4), as well as on his trip to Rome (Ac 27:2).
Mark, also called John Mark, wrote the second Gospel. He was a close associate of Peter and a cousin of Barnabas (see the note on Ac 13:1–2). Although Mark was at the center of a dispute between Paul and Barnabas (see Ac 15:36–40), Paul later asserted that he was “helpful to [him] in [his] ministry” (2Ti 4:11).

4:13 For “Laodicea,” see the note on 2:1.
Hierapolis was a town in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), about 6 miles (9.7 km) from Laodicea and 14 miles (22.5 km) from Colosse. Its church may have been founded during Paul’s three-year stay in Ephesus (Ac 19), but probably not by Paul himself.

4:14 Luke wrote about Paul in the book of Acts, having often accompanied him on his travels (see the note on Ac 16:10). He was with Paul in Rome during his imprisonment (Ac 28), from which this letter was written.

4:15 New Testament examples of individuals hosting home churches are Priscilla and Aquila (Ro 16:5; 1Co 16:19), Philemon (Phm 2) and Mary the mother of John (Ac 12:12). See “House Churches and Early Church Buildings”, as well as the note on 1 Corinthians 16:19.

4:16 The practice of the early church was to read Paul’s letters aloud to the assembled congregation.

4:18 Paul’s custom was to dictate his letters and then to add a few greetings himself. His personal signature guaranteed the genuineness of the letter. (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”)

1:1 This verse forms a complete unit, identifying the senders and recipients and conveying Paul’s greeting (see “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World”).
For “Paul,” see the note on Philippians 3:5, for “Silas” the note on Acts 15:22 and for “Timothy” the note on Acts 16:1.
Thessalonica was a thriving metropolis of 200,000 (see “Thessalonica”). The city still exists today as the Greek city of Thessaloníki, population 750,000.

1:7–8 In New Testament times Achaia was a Roman province that included the Peloponnesus and northern Greece south of Illyricum, Epirus and Thessaly, which were districts of Macedonia. Corinth was the capital. Used together, “Macedonia and Achaia” generally meant all of Greece (see also Ac 19:21; Ro 15:26, as well as the note on 2 Co 1:1).

2:3 The Greek for “trick” was originally used of a lure for catching fish, but the term came to be used of any sort of cunning used for profit.

2:4 For “hearts,” see the note on Psalm 4:7.

2:9 Greeks despised manual labor and viewed it as fit only for slaves, but Paul was not ashamed of doing any sort of work that would help further the gospel.

2:14 At the time of Paul’s initial visit to Thessalonica, persecution instigated by the Jews was apparently being carried out against the church by unbelieving Gentiles (see Ac 17:5–9; see also “Before the Gentile Expansion: The Jewish Churches in the Holy Land”).

2:17–3:5 In Paul’s day, a “superior” could write a letter to an “inferior” as a basis for making a request. Thus Paul’s words not only expressed to the Thessalonians his feelings for them but also prepared the way for the rest of his letter.

2:19 The “crown” was a wreath used on festive occasions or as a prize in the Greek games.

3:1 See “Athens.”

3:2 In Greek classical literature the word “strengthen” was generally used in the literal sense of putting a buttress on a building. In the New Testament it is mainly used figuratively, as here.

3:3 “Trials” is a reference to the opposition and persecution suffered by the Thessalonian converts (see “The Early Persecution of the Church”).

4:3 A wide range of sexual values and practices existed in Paul’s day in Greek and Roman society; moral standards were generally low, and chastity was regarded as an unreasonable restriction. Paul offered people from diverse backgrounds a sexual standard based on what they shared—a relationship with God.

4:11 The Greeks in general thought manual labor degrading and fit only for slaves (see the note on 2:9). Christians took seriously the need for earning their own living, but some of the Thessalonians, perhaps as a result of their belief in the imminent return of Christ (see 2Th 3:11), were neglecting work and relying on others to support them.

4:13 For the Christian, sleep is a particularly apt metaphor for death, since death’s finality and horror are removed by the assurance of resurrection. Inscriptions on tombs and references in literature show that first-century pagans viewed death with horror, as the end of everything.

4:16–17 The only named archangel in the Bible is Michael (Jude 9; see Da 10:13). In Scripture, Gabriel is simply called an angel (Lk 1:19, 26). See “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
See “Trumpets in the Ancient World.”
See also “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany.”

5:8 Paul did not consistently attach a particular virtue to each piece of armor; the general idea of equipment for battle is pictured.

5:11 The verb “build up” was basically applied to building houses, but Paul frequently used it for Christians being edified.

5:14 See the note on 4:11.

5:26 For “holy kiss,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 16:20 and “The Jewish Custom of Kissing.”

1:7 “Powerful angels” may refer to a class of angels (such a group is mentioned in apocalyptic writings) endowed with special power to do God’s will (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

1:12 In ancient times one’s name was often more than a personal label; it summed up what a person was.

2:2 The Greek for “unsettled” was often used of a ship adrift from its mooring, suggesting lack of stability.

2:15 “Teachings” is literally “traditions.” Until the New Testament was written, essential Christian teaching was passed on in the “traditions,” just as was Rabbinic law (see the note on Mt 15:2).

3:2 These “wicked and evil men” were people who maliciously obstructed the gospel, like those in Thessalonica who had instigated a riot to hinder Paul from preaching the gospel when he had first visited the city (see Ac 17:5).

3:5 For “hearts,” see the note on Psalm 4:7.

3:6 For “the name,” see the note on 1:12. For “idle,” see the note on 1 Thessalonians 4:11.

3:15 For “brother,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

3:17 Paul normally dictated his letters, but toward the end of some of them he added a brief word in his own handwriting. Here he stated that this practice was his distinguishing mark. (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”)

1:1 For “Paul,” see the note on Philippians 3:5 and for “apostle” the note on 2 Corinthians 1:1.

1:2 The ancient Greek usage of the word “grace” implied a “superior” welcoming and accepting of a “subordinate” into intimate relationship and favor.

1:3–11 For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

1:3 For “Macedonia,” see the note on Philippians 4:15 and for “Ephesus” the note on Ephesians 1:1; see also “Early History of Ephesus” and “Ephesus During the Time of Paul.”

1:4 “Myths” may refer to mythical stories built upon Old Testament history (“genealogies”) that later developed into intricate Gnostic philosophical systems (see “Early Christian Heresies” and “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).

1:18 In the early church God revealed his will in various matters through prophets (see Ac 13:1–3, where prophets had an active role in sending Paul and Barnabas on their mission to the Gentiles). In Timothy’s case a prophecy may have occurred at the time of or before his ordination (1 Ti 4:14), perhaps about 12 years earlier on Paul’s second missionary journey (see Ac 16:1–3).

1:20 The Jews had two forms of excommunication (disciplinary exclusion from church fellowship), apparently alluded to in Luke 6:22 by Jesus: “Blessed are you … when they exclude you [the Jewish middûy, for 30, 60 or 90 days] and … reject your name as evil [the Jewish hçrem, a formally pronounced, perpetual cutting off from the community], because of the Son of Man.” Christian excommunication was both commanded by the Lord (Mt 18:15–18) and followed by apostolic precept and practice (1Co 5:11; Tit 3:10). “Being handed over to Satan” (see also 1Co 5:5) seems to mean being cast out of the church into the world that lies in the power of the wicked one (Eph 6:12; 1Jn 5:19). The object of excommunication is the good of the offender (1Co 5:5) and the moral well-being of the sound church members (2Ti 2:17). Its subjects are those guilty of heresy or great immorality (here and in 1Co 5:1–5). This penalty is inflicted by the church and its representative ministers (1Co 5:1, 3–4; Tit 3:10). Paul’s inspired words, however, give no warrant for uninspired ministers claiming the same right to direct the church to excommunicate at will (2Co 2:7–9).

2:1–2 The notorious Roman emperor Nero (A.D. 54–68) was in power when Paul wrote these words (see “Nero, Persecutor of Christians”).

2:5 The belief that “there is one God” is the basic tenet of Judaism, which every Jew confessed daily in the Shema (see the notes on Dt 6:4–9; Mk 12:29).

2:6 For “ransom,” see the note on Matthew 20:28.

2:7 For “apostle,” see the note on 2 Corinthians 1:1.

2:8 In this case the Greek word for “men” refers not to humankind in general but to males, as distinct from females. Women also prayed in public, however.

2:9 This was not a total ban on the wearing of jewelry or on braided hair. Rather, Paul was expressing caution in a society in which such things were viewed as signs of extravagant luxury and proud personal display (see “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World” and “The Demeanor of Wives”).

2:12–14 Some believe that Paul in these verses restricted women in all circumstances and cultures from teaching or exercising authority over men, while others hold that Paul prohibited teaching only by women who had not themselves been properly instructed (i.e., by the women at Ephesus). Still others maintain that Paul’s teaching here was historically conditioned.
Paul’s restriction on women teaching certainly made sense in a world that refused to give women teachers a hearing and in which most women were uneducated. The New Testament had not yet been completed, so people were dependent on the authoritative, spoken word.

3:1–7 In Greek culture the word “overseer” was used of a presiding official in a civic or religious organization. Here it refers to a man who oversaw a local congregation. The equivalent word from the Jewish background of Christianity is “elder” (see the next paragraph for a discussion of the related terms “presbyter” and “bishop”). The terms “overseer” and “elder” are often used interchangeably in the Bible (see Ac 20:17, 28; Tit 1:5–7; 1Pe 5:1–2). The duties of an overseer were to teach and preach (1 Ti 3:2; 5:17), to direct the affairs of the church (3:5; 5:17), to shepherd (“pastor”) the flock of God and to guard the church from error (Ac 20:28–31).
The titles “elder” (“overseer”) or “presbyter” appear to apply to the same office, with “elder” referring to the bearer’s age and dignity and “bishop” to his work of superintendence. As the churches multiplied, the bishop of a larger church would often be given special honor, and so gradually there grew up a hierarchy, all the way from presiding elders to bishops (over groups of churches), to archbishops.

3:8–13 The diaconate, as a church office, is inferred from Acts 6:1–8, but at least two of the seven men in this instance were also evangelists. Ignatius, a contemporary of the apostle John, declared that the deacons were not mere servers of meat and drink, although the seven in Acts 6 did serve (diakonein) tables so that the apostles could devote themselves to the ministry (diakonia). First Timothy 3 shows that deacons were not considered ordinary lay members of the church, and Paul’s mention of deacons in connection with bishops (Php 1:1) supports this view. Clement of Rome based the office on the two classes of synagogue workers mentioned in Isaiah 60:17 in the Septuagint translation—“pastors and helpers.” The same Greek word, used of Phoebe in Romans 16:1, is translated as “servant” (“deaconess” in some versions). Certain women had ministered (diakonein) to Jesus (Lk 8:2–3). It does not appear from the Scripture or early church literature, however, that deaconesses were ever church officers.

3:11 The Greek for the phrase “their wives” simply means “the women” and therefore could refer either to the deacons’ wives or to deaconesses.

3:14 See “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World” and “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”

3:16 For “mystery,” see the note on Romans 11:25.
This verse includes a hymn (see “Early Christian Hymnody”).

4:3 This unbiblical asceticism arose out of the mistaken notion that the material world was evil—a central belief of the Gnostic heresy (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).

4:7 For “myths,” see the note on 1:4.

4:12 Timothy was probably in his mid-thirties or younger at this time, and in that day such an influential position was not usually held by a man so young. For this reason, his leadership ability had been called into question.
For the names by which early Christians were known (here “believers”), see the note on 1 Peter 4:16.

4:14 For a discussion of the rite of laying on of hands, see the notes on Acts 6:6 and 2 Timothy 1:6. Here it is an act of commissioning to service.

5:3–5 In ancient Rome life expectancy was much less than it is today. We may assume that there were more unmarried women than available men in the Ephesian congregation and that some of these women had become financially destitute. Widows were particularly vulnerable in ancient societies because pensions, government assistance, life insurance, and the like were not available. Paul defined widows who were “really in need” (v. 5) as those who had no family members to care for them, who trusted God and who did not live for worldly pleasure. (see “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”)

5:4 Paul gave instructions to Timothy about the care of widows by the church, but only those were included who were at least sixty years of age, had been married only once and had a reputation for good works (vv. 9–10). In the second and third centuries there was an order of widows in the church, assigned to look after the needs of women of the congregation. This order was abolished by the Synod of Laodicea in A.D. 364.

5:8 Apostolic teaching emphasized social responsibility. In the pagan world of that time people generally took care of their own family members.

5:9 The church in Ephesus seems to have maintained a “list of widows” supported by the church.

5:10 Washing the feet of guests was a menial task, the duty of the lowliest servant (see the note on Jn 13:5), but it was necessary in New Testament times because of dusty roads and the wearing of sandals.

5:14 The remarriage of widows was frowned upon by some during the apostolic period, although Paul here seems to have been more lenient on the matter.

5:17 All elders were to exercise leadership (3:4–5), teach and preach (3:2) and receive honor. But those who excelled in leadership were to be counted “worthy of double honor.”

5:18 The application of the term “Scripture” to both an Old Testament (Dt 25:4) and a New Testament (Lk 10:7) passage shows that by this time portions of the New Testament (or what would ultimately become the New Testament) were considered to be equal in authority to the Old Testament Scriptures. (see “The Old Testament Canon”, “The Old Testament of the Early Church” and “The New Testament Canon.”)

5:22 For “laying on of hands,” see the note on Acts 6:6. Paul was here speaking about the ordination of elders.

5:23 In view of Timothy’s physical ailments, and perhaps because safe drinking water was often difficult to find, Paul advised him to drink “a little wine” (see “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World”).

6:1 For “slavery,” see the notes on Ephesians 6:5–9 and Colossians 3:22–4:1; see also “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World.”

6:13 See “Pontius Pilate.”

6:17 Early Christian churches did not lack members of the upper, wealthier class. Regardless of how they had gained their wealth, they needed instruction on how to use those resources in a Christian manner.

6:20 “Opposing ideas of what is falsely called knowledge” may be a reference to an early form of the heresy of Gnosticism (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”, as well as the note on Col 2:8–23), which taught that an individual may be saved on the basis of his or her knowledge.

1:1 For “Paul,” see the note on Philippians 3:5 and for “apostle” the note on 2 Corinthians 1:1.

1:5 According to Acts 16:1, Timothy’s mother was a Jewish Christian. Here we learn that his grandmother, too, had been converted to Christianity. Timothy’s father, however, was a Greek and apparently an unbeliever.

1:6 Ordination in the sense of setting aside officers of the church for a certain work by the laying on of hands was practiced in apostolic times (see also 1Ti 4:14), but it is nowhere described or enjoined. No great emphasis was placed on this rite. See also the note on Acts 6:6.

1:7 Apparently lack of confidence was a serious problem for Timothy.

1:10 This verse implies that before Jesus came, the certainty of life after death was somewhat shrouded in darkness. For information on the ancients’ view of the afterlife, see the note on Psalm 6:5 and “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

1:15 Timothy was then in Ephesus (see the note on Eph 1:1), the capital of the province of Asia.
Paul mentioned Phygelus and Hermogenes by name as being among those Christians of Asia (the western province of Asia Minor) who had turned away from the apostle. From the context (2 Ti 1:13–14) we may assume that their apostasy included the repudiation of Paul’s doctrine. If we connect Phygelus with 4:16 (“at my first defense, no one came to my support”), we may infer that he, being in Rome, forsook Paul’s personal cause in the Roman courts at a crucial time when his testimony could have meant much for the future of the church. Some scholars feel that Phygelus may also have been one of the leaders of a group of wayward Christians in Rome (Php 1:15–16).

1:17 See “Rome.”

2:5 For “victor’s crown,” see the note on 1 Thessalonians 2:19.

2:9 Apparently Paul was awaiting execution.

2:11–13 These verses were probably an early Christian hymn (see “Early Christian Hymnody”).

2:14–18 The wording of these verses indicates that the heresy mentioned here was an early form of Gnosticism (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).

2:17 Like several other men named in the Scriptures—Judas Iscariot, Alexander, Demas and Hymenaeus, to name a few—Philetus is remembered only for the evil he did. Paul alone mentioned him as a false teacher in the church of Ephesus who, together with Hymenaeus, held that “the resurrection has already taken place” (v. 18); although Hymenaeus did not radically deny a doctrine of the resurrection, he allegorized it into a spiritual awakening or conversion and not a bodily resurrection, as Paul had taught in 1 Corinthians 15.
For commentary on excommunication, see the note on 1 Timothy 1:20.

2:18 For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

2:19 For “sealed,” see the note on Ephesians 1:13.

3:8 According to Jewish tradition Jannes and Jambres were the Egyptian court magicians who had opposed Moses (see Ex 7:11).

3:11 For “Antioch,” see the note on Acts 11:19 and for “Iconium” the note on Acts 13:51. For “Lystra,” see the note on Acts 14:6. All three cities were in the Roman province of Galatia, which Paul visited on his first and second missionary journeys.

3:15 A Jewish boy formally began studying the Old Testament when he was five years old. Timothy had been taught at home by his mother and grandmother even before he reached this age.

3:16 “All Scripture” is primarily a reference to the Old Testament, since some of the New Testament books had not even been written at this time. But Peter’s mention of Paul’s writings among the “Scriptures” (2Pe 3:16) shows that the early church already viewed such apostolic letters to be as authoritative as the Old Testament. (see “The Old Testament Canon”, “The Old Testament of the Early Church” and “The New Testament Canon.”)

4:4 For “myths,” see the note on 1 Timothy 1:4.

4:6 A “drink offering” or libation involved the pouring out of a liquid, such as wine, water or oil (but generally wine) as an offering to a deity. Libations were common among the heathen nations (Dt 32:38), and drink offerings accompanied many Old Testament sacrifices (Ex 29:40–41; Lev 23:13, 18, 37; Nu 15:4–10, 24; 28:7–10). Here and in Philippians 2:17 (see the note there), Paul pictured his death as a drink offering, a pouring out of his life as an offering to Christ.

4:7 For “[foot] race,” the note on 1 Corinthians 9:24–27.

4:8 For “crown,” see the note on 1 Thessalonians 2:19.

4:10 For “Thessalonica,” see the note on 1 Thessalonians 1:1.
“Galatia” was either the northern area of Asia Minor (Gaul) or a Roman province in what is now central Turkey (see the note on Gal 1:2, as well as “Which Galatia?”).
Titus, an uncircumcised Gentile (Gal 2:3), was one of Paul’s converts and a considerable help to the apostle in his ministry. After Paul’s release from his first Roman imprisonment (Ac 28), he and Titus worked together briefly in Crete, after which Paul commissioned Titus to remain there as his representative. Titus is here said to have left on a mission to Dalmatia (this is the last word we hear about him in the New Testament).
For information on Dalmatia, also known as Illyricum, see the note on Romans 15:19.

4:11 For information on Mark, also known as John Mark, see the note on Colossians 4:10.

4:12 Tychicus was Paul’s trusted coworker, who on various occasions traveled with or for Paul (see Ac 20:4; Eph 6:21).
For “Ephesus,” see the note on Ephesians 1:1.

4:13 A cloak was worn for protection against cold and damp weather conditions. This was probably a heavy, sleeveless outer garment, circular in shape, with a hole in the middle for the head (see “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World”).
For “Troas,” see the note on Acts 16:8.
Scrolls were made either of leather parchment or of papyrus, while parchments were made of the skins of animals (see the note on Ex 17:14 and “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”). The latter may have been copies of parts of the Old Testament.

4:17 Since, as a Roman citizen (see “Roman Citizenship”), Paul could not have been thrown to the lions in the amphitheater, this must be a figurative way of saying that his first hearing did not result in an immediate “guilty” verdict. For commentary on persecution in the arena, see the note on 1 Corinthians 4:9.

4:19 Priscilla and Aquila were close friends of Paul who worked in the same trade of tentmaking. They helped Paul found the church at Corinth and ministered to the church at Ephesus.

4:20 For information on Erastus, see the note on Romans 16:23 and “The Erastus Inscription.” For “Corinth,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 1:2.
Miletus was a seaport off the coast of Asia Minor about 35 miles (56 km) south of Ephesus.

4:21 Early tradition says that Linus was bishop of Rome after the deaths of Peter and Paul.
For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

1:1 For “Paul,” see the note on Philippians 3:5 and for “apostle” the note on 2 Corinthians 1:1.

1:4 Paul had left Titus (see the note on 2Ti 4:10) on the island of Crete to organize the church there and deal with a crisis situation of false teachers who had infiltrated its ranks. Titus, like Timothy (see the notes on Ac 16:1), had been converted through Paul’s ministry.

1:5 Crete, the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, was a Roman province populated primarily by farmers and fruit growers. Today this Greek island, which is 156 miles (252 km) long and lies directly south of the Aegean Sea (see “Crete”), is home to approximately 600,000 people.

1:6 Since elders, by definition, were chosen from among the older men of the congregation, Paul assumed that most of these individuals were already married and had children. A qualified unmarried man was not necessarily barred.

1:7 The terms “overseer” and “elder” were used interchangeably (see the note on 1Ti 3:1)3:7. “Elder” indicates qualification (maturity and experience), while “overseer” connotes responsibility (watching over God’s flock).

1:8 For a discussion of asceticism in the believer’s life, see the note at Leviticus 10:9.

1:10–16 These verses introduce the false teachers who had to be opposed by doctrinally informed elders. The presence of Jews throughout the ancient world, many of whom bought into “Jewish myths” (v. 14; see also the note on 1Ti 1:4), provided a network through which those who taught nonbiblical stories and other deviant teachings could circulate their errors.
These troublemakers had three main characteristics: (1) They belonged to the “circumcision group” (Tit 1:10), like the Judaizers (see the note on Gal 1:7; see also “Circumcision in the Ancient World”). (2) They held to unscriptural “Jewish myths” (v. 14; see the note on 1Ti 1:4). (3) They promoted a philosophy of asceticism (strict self-denial as a form of spiritual discipline).

1:12 The quotation is from the poet Epimenides, a sixth-century B.C. native of Crete, who was held in high esteem by the Cretans. He was credited with several predictions that were in fact later fulfilled.

2:3 See “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World.”

2:9–10 Slavery was a basic element of Roman society (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”), and the impact of Christianity upon slaves was a vital concern. Guidance for the conduct of Christian slaves was essential.
The Greek for “masters” (v. 9), from which our English term “despot” is derived, indicates the owner’s absolute authority over his slave. Roman slaves had no legal rights, their fates being entirely in their masters’ hands.

3:9 For “genealogies,” see the note on 1 Timothy 1:4.

3:10 For commentary on excommunication, see the note on 1 Timothy 1:20.

3:12 Artemas is mentioned only here in the Bible, but tradition has it that he was a bishop of Lystra. For “Tychicus,” see the note on 2 Timothy 4:12.
Several cities of Paul’s day bore the name Nicopolis, but the reference here is apparently to the city in the district of Epirus on the western shore of Greece. An ancient city, Nicopolis (“city of victory”), which is situated on the Gulf of Actium (modern Gulf of Arta), was founded by Augustus Caesar to celebrate his decisive victory over Mark Antony in 31 B.C. At the time Paul wrote his letter to Titus, in the interval between the apostle’s first and his final imprisonment under Nero at Rome, he had determined to winter there.

3:13 If “Zenas the lawyer” was a Jewish convert, “lawyer” implies that he was an expert in the Mosaic Law. If he was a Gentile convert, “lawyer” indicates that he was a Roman jurist.
For “Apollos,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 1:12.

1 For “Paul,” see the note on Philippians 3:5 and for “Timothy” the note on Acts 16:1.
Philemon, a member of the church at Colosse, was a slave owner (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World” and “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World”).

2 Apphia was probably Philemon’s wife.
House churches were common in this early period (see “House Churches and Early Church Buildings”, as well as the note on 1Co 16:19).

7 There is a celebrated letter of the Roman writer Pliny on a similar subject, written perhaps 40 years after Paul’s appeal to Philemon. It is interesting to compare Pliny’s language of humane generosity with Paul’s words of brotherly affection. Pliny voiced his plea for forgiveness on humanitarian and philosophical grounds, while Paul focused on Christian fellowship (vv. 16, 20). Paul wrote with exquisite tact and with words of praise before referring to obligation. The word “brother” comes like a friendly handclasp at the end of this verse, and “my son Onesimus” adds a curiously poignant appeal at the close of verse 10.
Paul, the ambassador, might well have spoken of duty. An imperial legate had a right to speak for the emperor, and the analogy would not have been lost on Philemon. Instead, Paul reminded Philemon that, in respect to bondage, Paul’s own position was similar to that of the man for whom he pleaded. Onesimus was both a fellow bondsman and a son. The Talmud states, “If one teaches the son of his neighbor the Law, this is the same as if he had begotten him.” Paul evidently had this rabbinical saying in mind.

10 Onesimus was one of Philemon’s slaves. He had apparently stolen from Philemon and then run away, which under Roman law was punishable by death. But Onesimus met Paul and through his ministry became a Christian. Now Onesimus was willing to return to his master, and Paul wrote this personal appeal to ask that he be accepted as a Christian brother (v. 16).

11 The name Onesimus (most likely a common nickname for a slave) means “useful,” and Paul made a play on the word here, proceeding immediately to point to the sacrifice he himself was making. Onesimus was “briefly” parted from Philemon, Paul pointed out, going on to strongly hint that manumission might be the truest mark of brotherliness. With a closing touch of humor Paul offered to pay Philemon back for anything the runaway owed, discounting, as he returned to seriousness, Philemon’s own deep debt.

12 In sending Onesimus back to his owner, Paul appeared at first glance to be endorsing the practice of slavery (see “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”). With possibly one-third of the Roman population enslaved, Paul had to be tactful in how he approached this subject. In a few brief words, Paul effectively undermined the entire system of slavery, stressing that he, too, was a prisoner in chains (v. 10), accused of violating the laws and subject to the authority of Rome. The reconciliation of a disloyal slave with his master as brothers in Christ recasts all relationships and reflects Christ’s reconciliation of all things.

14 The Roman imperial economy depended on slaves for labor. Any concern for a slave’s welfare was usually practical, motivated by the owner’s self-interest.

19 The letter up to this point had probably been dictated to a scribe, after which Paul took the pen in his own hand and finished the letter (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World”).

22–25 The letter ends on a note of intimacy. There was something truly Greek about Paul. The great Greek orators and authors seldom placed the climax of their speech or writing in their closing words, ending on a minor note designed to bring the excited audience back to a state of normalcy and rest.

24 For “Mark,” see the note on Colossians 4:10.
Rome was the frequent goal of fugitives such as Onesimus; the city was called by the aristocratic historian Sallust “the common cesspool of the world.” Some Ephesian or Colossian individual in Rome, perhaps Aristarchus (Ac 27:2; Col 4:10–14; Phm 24) or Epaphras (Col 1:7; 4:12–13; Phm 23), seems to have recognized the man and brought him to Paul in his captivity. Onesimus became a Christian and was persuaded to return to his master. From that incident came this exquisite letter, which demonstrates so vividly the social solvent that Christianity had brought into the world. It appears that Onesimus left Rome in company with Tychicus, carrying the letter to Philemon, along with Paul’s letters to the Ephesian and Colossian churches. Nothing more is known about Onesimus, and a tradition that he became the martyr bishop of Berea is of doubtful authenticity.

1:1–14 Hebrews may well have been a sermon crafted by someone accustomed to worshiping in a Greek-speaking synagogue and educated in the Greek and Roman institutions of the day. Both the Greek and Roman traditions emphasized an appropriate beginning, in which the speaker was to present the main topic(s) of his speech or sermon and seek to rivet the audience’s attention.

1:3 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

1:4 To most Jews angels were exalted beings, especially revered because they had been involved in the giving of the Law, which to the Jews was God’s supreme revelation. According to some Jewish writings, four archangels (Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Phanuel) are always present before the throne of God. (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”)

1:7 Psalm 104:4 speaks of the wind and the lightning as agents of God’s purposes (see the note on Eze 1:4; see also “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany”). The Septuagint, which the author of Hebrews quoted as the version familiar to his readers, reflects the developing doctrine of angels during the period between the Old Testament and New Testament (see “The Septuagint and Its Use in the New Testament”).

2:10 The Greek word for “author” often expresses the idea of “originator” or “founder.” This term was also applied to a leader, ruler or prince. In the present context it may have had the sense of “champion”—of one who came to the aid of the enslaved.

2:17 For “high priest,” see the note on 6:19.

3:11 See “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice.”

4:12 The word “soul” is commonly used in the Bible to designate the inner self of a human being in its ordinary relationships with earthly and physical things. The “mind” (nous) is used to refer to the self in its rational functions. Another word, phronçma (also “mind”), focuses on the mind in the process of thinking. “Heart” (kardia) is used in the sense of the self manifesting a complex of attitudes. The precise meaning of “spirit” (pneuma) is difficult to determine. The term’s most basic meaning is “breeze,” but here it represents a nonmaterial life force. God is spirit, and angelic beings can be called “spirits.” Used of humans, the term may represent an individual’s life and selfhood, as received from God. See “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”

5:1 See “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

6:2 “Instruction about baptisms” probably had in mind different forms of baptism with which the readers were familiar, such as Jewish baptism of proselytes, John the Baptist’s baptism and the baptism commanded by Jesus (see Mt 28:19). See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”
For “laying on of hands,” see the note on Acts 6:6.

6:13–17 See the note on Galatians 1:20; see also “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice.”

6:19 “The inner sanctuary behind the curtain” refers to the Most Holy Place, the place of God’s presence. Under the old covenant only the high priest could step behind the curtain in the tabernacle (later temple) separating the outer area of the Holy Place from the inner—and then only once a year on the Day of Atonement. This barrier was torn away in the new covenant.

7:1–2 For “Melchizedek,” see Genesis 14:18–20, as well as the note on Genesis 14:19. Salem was the name of the city of which Melchizedek was king (Ge 14:18). Josephus noted that Jewish writers generally regarded “Salem” as a synonym for Jerusalem, and it is apparently so regarded in Psalm 76:2.

7:4 Since Melchizedek was a priest of the Most High, we can be certain that by Abraham’s day the giving of tithes had been recognized as a holy deed.

7:16 In the Law of Moses the priestly function was restricted to the family of Aaron from the tribe of Levi (see “The Levites and the Priests”), but Jesus came from the non-priestly tribe of Judah.

7:21–22 See “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice.”

7:27 “Day after day” is a reference to the endless repetition of sacrifices throughout the year (see Ex 29:36–42), recognition that these sacrifices never effectively and finally atoned for sin.

8:1 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

8:3 For “sacrifices,” see “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

8:4 The present tense of the verb “offer,” here and elsewhere in this letter, indicates that the temple in Jerusalem was still standing. The book of Hebrews, therefore, must have been written prior to the temple’s destruction in A.D. 70.

9:1 The “first covenant” refers to the covenant made at Sinai.

9:2 The lampstand was composed of hammered gold and placed at the south side of the Holy Place (see Ex 40:24). Its seven lamps were kept burning day and night.
The table, constructed of acacia wood overlaid with gold (see Ex 25:23–30), stood on the north side of the Holy Place (see Ex 40:22). On it were twelve loaves, replaced every Sabbath and arranged in two rows of six each (see Lev 24:5–8).
See “The Tabernacle and the Ark.”

9:4 Although the altar of incense stood in the Holy Place, the author described it as belonging to the Most Holy Place. His evident purpose was to indicate its close relationship to the inner sanctuary and to the ark of the covenant. On the Day of Atonement (see “The Day of Atonement”) the high priest took incense from this altar, along with the blood of the sin offering, into the Most Holy Place (see Lev 16:12–14).
The ark was a chest made of acacia wood, overlaid inside and out with gold (see Ex 25:10–16).

9:5 The “cherubim of the Glory” were two winged figures made of pure gold, of one piece with the atonement cover, or mercy seat, and standing at either end of it. Between them the glory of God’s Presence appeared (see Ex 25:17–22; Lev 16:2; Nu 7:89; see also the note on Ex 25:18 and “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).
The atonement cover, or mercy seat, was a slab of pure gold on which the blood of the sin offering was sprinkled by the high priest on the Day of Atonement (see Lev 16:14–15).

9:7 The high priest entered the Most Holy Place only once a year, on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), the tenth day of the seventh month (see Lev 16:29, 34).

9:13 For “ashes of a heifer,” see “The Red Heifer.”

9:15 For “ransom,” see the note on Matthew 20:28.

9:16 “Will” translates the same Greek word elsewhere rendered “covenant” (e.g., v. 15), but here and in verse 17 it is used in the sense of a last will and testament. (Verse 18 returns to the concept of covenant.) A will may be defined as a testament, oral or written, which a law court puts into effect, by which property may be disposed of after the testator’s death. Covenants between living persons can be bilateral, with each party making promises, or unilateral, an agreement by one party that the other may accept or reject but may not alter. Wills grew out of the latter. In early times among the Hebrews, as among others, property descended according to the laws of inheritance, without wills. The only clear Biblical reference to a will is in this passage.

9:19 For “branches of hyssop,” see “Hyssop and the Rituals of Cleansing.”

9:28 The Israelites on the Day of Atonement waited for the high priest to reappear after ministering in the Most Holy Place, so that they could receive assurance that their sins had been atoned for.

10:5–6 The different terms used for Levitical sacrifices represent four of the five types of offerings prescribed by the Mosaic Law, namely, fellowship, grain, burnt and sin (see Lev 1–7; see also “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

10:12 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

10:22 Very likely both “hearts sprinkled” and “bodies washed” allude to Christian baptism (see “Baptism in the Ancient World”).

11:14 “Country” and “city” were virtually interchangeable, since a country was viewed as an extension of the royal city.

11:21 For “on the top of his staff,” see “The Septuagint Use in the New Testament.”

11:26 The priceless treasures of King Tutankhamen’s tomb alone included several thousand pounds of pure gold.

11:30 See “The Walls of Jericho.”

11:31 For “prostitute,” see “Prostitution in the Ancient World.”

11:36 For “prison,” see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”

12:1–2 For commentary on running a “[foot] race,” see the note on 1 Corinthians 9:24–27.

12:1 The Greek word translated “witnesses”—the origin of the English martyr—means “testifiers.” These individuals bear testimony to the power of faith and to God’s faithfulness.

12:2 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

12:16–17 See “The Rights of the Firstborn.”

12:22 “Mount Zion” is a reference not to the literal Zion (Jerusalem, or its southeast portion) but to the heavenly city of God and to those who dwell there with him.

13:2 Travelers in ancient times depended on the hospitality of strangers (see Ex 2:20; Jdg 19:15–21; 2Ki 4:8; Ac 28:7), as inns in the modern sense were uncommon. The Hebrew word for “inn” means a “night resting place” and could apply to any place where there was encampment for the night, whether by caravans, individuals or even armies. The presence of a building was not implied (the same situation held true during the New Testament era). A very early “inn” was in all likelihood only a piece of level ground near a spring where carriers of merchandise could, with their animals, pass the night.

13:3 For “prison,” see “Imprisonment in the Roman World: In Prison Versus House Arrest.”

13:4 See “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel.”

13:9 “Ceremonial foods” is a reference to the legalistic teachings of the Judaizers (see the note on Gal 1:7). The old Mosaic order was rendered obsolete at the cross.

13:10 The “altar” of this text is probably Christ as received through the Eucharist (Lord’s Supper or communion).

13:22 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

13:23 For information on Timothy, see the note on Acts 16:1.

13:24 The Greek term for “leaders,” or rulers, is hoi hemgoumenoi (see also vv. 7, 17), a technical phrase not found elsewhere in the New Testament, but other writings coming from Rome and the West use the same terminology (cf. 1 Clement 1:3; 21:6; Shepherd of Hermas 2:6; 9:7 [where proemgoumenoi is used]). The original leaders seem to have died (13:7), and their successors were continually engaged in the task of watching over the flock (v. 17). To these the writer sent greetings.
This letter was first known in Rome and the West. Its original readers were probably Jewish Christians who both spoke and wrote Greek. The brief statement “Those from Italy send you their greetings” certainly favors the suggestion of the readers’ being located there. If the writer had personally been in Italy, he would no doubt have named his precise location. Hence, it appears that there were Italian Christians with the writer somewhere outside of Italy as he penned this letter—and that the writer knew his future readers well (see 5:11–14; 6:9–10; 10:32–36).
Many roads led to Rome. The believers to whom this letter was addressed may have been in a city nearer or farther from the capital. Paul himself spent seven days with the brothers in Puteoli (Ac 28:13–14), which could have been near Rome or in its suburbs. As the writer penned this letter, Timothy had departed from him and was absent—very likely on some tour of churches. Were he to return soon, the writer and Timothy together intended to pay a visit to the recipients of this letter (Heb 13:23).

1:1 The author of this letter referred to himself as “James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ.” The New Testament mentions five men who bore the name of James, but tradition attributes the authorship of this letter to James the brother of the Lord, who had probably been favored with a special appearance of the risen Christ (1Co 15:7) and who from a very early date occupied a leading position in the church at Jerusalem (Ac 12:17; Gal 1:19). Paul named him first among the three pillars of the church whom he saw on his second visit to the city after his conversion (Gal 2:9), and in Acts 15 James is described as the leader and chief spokesman of the apostolic council. All that is known of him reflects that he was highly esteemed not only by Christians but also by Jews. According to Josephus, James was put to death by the high priest during the period between the death of Festus and the arrival of his successor, Albinus, in A.D. 62. See the note on James at Acts 21:18.
For the names by which early Christians were known (here “servant[s]”), see the note on 1 Peter 4:16.
James addressed his letter to “the twelve tribes scattered among the nations.” This ambiguous expression could conceivably be interpreted in a number of ways: (1) The Jews of the Diaspora in general, who were living throughout the Mediterranean world outside Palestine. This meaning is ruled out, for the writer was addressing Christians. (2) The Jewish Christians of the Diaspora. (3) The Christian church as the new people of God, living far from their heavenly homeland. Early Christians regarded themselves as the true Israel (Gal 6:16), the true circumcision (Php 3:3) and the seed of Abraham (Ro 4:16; Gal 3:29), so it would not be surprising if they also thought of themselves as “the twelve tribes.” We cannot however, be certain of James’s intended meaning.

1:2 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.