1 PETER

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The authorship of 1 and 2 Peter is disputed today, with many denying that Peter wrote either epistle. However, substantial evidence, both internal and from the early church, favors Petrine authorship of these letters (see “The Authorship of Peter’s Epistles”).

Fairly strong tradition asserts that Peter was martyred under Nero about A.D. 66 (after the great fire in Rome of A.D. 64 but before Nero’s death in A.D. 68). In addition, Peter demonstrated familiarity with Colossians and Ephesians (see 2Pe 3:15; cf. 1Pe 1:1–3 with Eph 1:1–3 and 1Pe 2:18 with Col 3:22). These letters of Paul are dated to A.D. 60 at the earliest; thus 1 Peter must be dated between 60 and 64, before the beginning of the persecutions under Nero.

First Peter 5:13 states that Peter wrote from “Babylon.” Although several places have been suggested as Peter’s “Babylon,” only two seem reasonable: the actual Babylon, in Mesopotamia (a premier center of Jewish culture), or a metaphorical Babylon (Rome), although the context of 5:13 does not appear to be figurative or cryptic.

Audience

The letter was addressed to Christians in “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia” (1:1). This would seem to include most of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), although Peter may have used the terms in a more restricted sense. Believers in those areas were suffering persecution for their faith (1:6; 4:12–19; 5:9–10), and Peter described his recipients as God’s elect in Diaspora (1:1), terms normally reserved for Jews. On the other hand, he stated that his recipients had formerly followed the empty manner of life they had inherited from their forefathers (1:18; cf. 4:3–5). From this it appears that Peter’s original readers were Gentiles who had come to Christ and were therefore metaphorically strangers and aliens (2:11) in this world.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Peter did not address some specific issue or crisis but offered counsel regarding the fundamentals of the Christian life. The letter is in effect a pamphlet on Christian living, written for the benefit of believers in many different places and circumstances.

Timeline

As You Read

Watch for general principles regarding the problematic issues of pain, suffering and persecution, and note Peter’s reason for hope. Observe Peter’s style and his blending of doctrine and practical guidelines for Christian living. Study his teaching on submission to authority and its ramifications.

Did You Know?

• In the language of the first century, “prepare … for action” literally suggested that the readers should gather up their long, flowing garments and be ready for physical activity (1:13).
• In the Greek world slaves could be redeemed by a monetary payment, made either by someone else or by the slave on his or her own behalf (1:18).
• “Slaves” referred to household servants, whatever their particular training or functions (2:18).

Themes

First Peter includes the following themes:

1. The believer’s new identity. Peter’s goal was to encourage Christians enduring persecution. Because of God’s great mercy (1:3), believers have been given new life (1:3), a “living hope” (1:3; see also 1:13, 21; 3:15) and an eternal inheritance (1:4). They are now “the people of God” (2:10). As such they are to rejoice (1:6, 8; 4:13) and be encouraged in the midst of suffering.
2. Suffering for doing good. Although believers may experience “all kinds of trials” (1:6), they are to stand firm in the faith (5:9). Suffering acts as a purifying fire to prove the genuineness of faith (1:7). It also gives Christians an opportunity to give witness to their hope (3:15). When they suffer unjustly, they are to follow Christ’s example (2:21).
3. Christian living. Christians are to live lives befitting their conversion. Peter pictured salvation as a process (1:9; 2:2) into which believers grow from their daily faithfulness under pressure. They are to strive toward personal holiness (1:13–21) out of reverent fear of God (1:17–21) and to display their faith by loving others (1:22).

Outline

I. Greeting (1:1–12)

II. Exhortations to Holy Living (1:13–5:11)

A. Self-Control and Holiness (1:13–2:3)

B. The Conduct of the People of God (2:4–12)

C. Submission to Authority (2:13–3:7)

D. Suffering for Doing Good (3:8–17)

E. Armed With the Attitude of Christ (3:18–4:6)

F. Conduct in View of the End of All Things (4:7–11)

G. Suffering for Being a Christian (4:12–19)

H. Exhortations to Elders (5:1–4)

I. Exhortations to Young Men (5:5–11)

III. The Purpose of the Letter (5:12)

IV. Closing Greeting (5:13–14)

1 Peter 1

¹Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ,^†

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The Authorship of Peter’s Epistles

1 Peter 1 First and Second Peter both claim authorship by Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ (1Pe 1:1; 2Pe 1:1, 17–18) and “a fellow elder, a witness of Christ’s sufferings and one who also will share in the glory to be revealed” (1Pe 5:1). The early church unhesitatingly received 1 Peter as authentic. Some examples:

• Papias (A.D. 60–135) noted that “Mark is mentioned by Peter in his first epistle” (Eusebius, History, 2.15).

• Clement of Rome (A.D. 30–101); The Didache (an anonymous, early-second-century A.D. work dealing with a variety of doctrinal and practical matters of import to the early Christian church); and Polycarp (A.D. 69–156) all quoted from 1 Peter.

• Irenaeus (A.D. 130–200) cited 1 Peter, using the apostle’s name (Against Heresies, 4.9.2; 4.16.5).

• Eusebius summarized the canonical¹ discussion by placing letters in four categories (History, 3.25):

those recognized as genuine by all Christians (e.g., 1Pe);

those that, though disputed, were still recognized as authentic by the church as a whole and were familiar to most Christians (e.g., 2Pe);

spurious, noncanonical works that were yet familiar;

and those that were generally acknowledged as outright heretical.

Despite strong historical evidence supporting Peter as the author of the two letters that bear his name, some commentators hesitate to accept Petrine authorship for several reasons:

• Nero’s persecution of Christians in Rome (Tacitus, Annals, 15.44) set a precedent for Roman officials in all the provinces to consider Christians as criminals.² First Peter includes several references to the persecution of Christians outside Rome (1:6; 2:15; 3:15–16; 4:12–13; 5:8–9). Since all scholars agree that Peter died during Nero’s reign (A.D. 64–68; cf. Eusebius, History, 2.25), and since persecution outside of Rome began after Nero’s reign,³ many New Testament commentators hold that both 1 and 2 Peter are pseudonymous works (falsely attributed to Peter). Their language, however, does not necessarily refer to a large-scale, official persecution and thus does not demand a date subsequent to Nero’s reign. The suffering Peter referred to was local and sporadic rather than universal and under imperial mandate. Indeed, Peter spoke more of Christians suffering verbal abuse and social ostracism than he did of martyrdom.

• The enormous geographical area represented by the audience addressed in 1 Peter 1:1 (i.e., believers in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia) suggests to many scholars that these epistles were not composed until well after the 60s. They argue that enough time would have had to elapse after Paul’s missionary journeys to allow for the growth of Christianity in these areas (especially since we have no record that Paul even visited Pontus, Cappadocia or Bithynia). As reflected in the book of Acts and in Paul’s letters, however, Christian churches were often founded in short periods of time, and Peter may have first met some of his readers when they came to Jerusalem at Pentecost (Ac 2:9–10).

• First and Second Peter demonstrate a refined vocabulary and rich literary style. Since Peter and John are called “unschooled, ordinary men” in Acts 4:13, many think it unlikely that Peter would have possessed the skill to write these epistles. However, the Greek word used in Acts 4:13 (agrammatos) most likely means something like “without an advanced education” rather than “illiterate.” The Jews prided themselves upon the education of their children (cf. Josephus, Against Apion, 1.12; 2.26). Peter evidently lacked the Talmud or “college” level of training. However, as a businessman in the fishing industry, he would have had to know how to read and probably would have been fluent in Greek, the language of common, public discourse. The picture of Peter that is frequently put forth today in popular expositions of Scripture—the notion that he was something of a buffoon—is most certainly invalid. In addition, 1 Peter 5:12 tells us that Silas assisted in the writing of the letter, indicating that Peter was not above seeking to make certain his letters read well.

The weight of evidence is in favor of the authenticity of these two letters. In addition, the early church did not on principle approve of books written under false names. For example, the church father Tertullian (On Baptism, 17) indicated that the elder who wrote the pseudonymous Acts of Paul in order to augment “Paul’s fame” was defrocked, and the so-called Gospel of Peter was criticized as false (Eusebius, History, 6.12). Moreover, pseudonymous materials tend to be drastically different from 1 and 2 Peter.

1. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

2. See “Nero, Persecutor of Christians.”

3. See “The Early Persecution of the Church.”

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To God’s elect,^† strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia,^{† 2}who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge^† of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit,^† for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood:^†

Grace and peace be yours in abundance.

Praise to God for a Living Hope

³Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ!^† In his great mercy^† he has given us new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead,^{† 4}and into an inheritance that can never perish, spoil or fade— kept in heaven for you,^{† 5}who through faith are shielded by God’s power^† until the coming of the salvation that is ready to be revealed in the last time. ⁶In this you greatly rejoice,^† though now for a little while^† you may have had to suffer grief in all kinds of trials.^{† 7} These have come so that your faith— of greater worth than gold, which perishes even though refined by fire^†— may be proved genuine^† and may result in praise, glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed.^{† 8}Though you have not seen him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him^† and are filled with an inexpressible and glorious joy, ⁹for you are receiving the goal of your faith, the salvation of your souls.^†

¹⁰Concerning this salvation, the prophets, who spoke^† of the grace that was to come to you, searched intently and with the greatest care,^{† 11}trying to find out the time and circumstances to which the Spirit of Christ^† in them was pointing when he predicted the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would follow. ¹²It was revealed to them that they were not serving themselves but you, when they spoke of the things that have now been told you by those who have preached the gospel to you^† by the Holy Spirit sent from heaven. Even angels long to look into these things.

Be Holy

¹³Therefore, prepare your minds for action; be self-controlled; set your hope fully on the grace to be given you when Jesus Christ is revealed. ¹⁴As obedient children, do not conform^† to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance.^{† 15}But just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do;^{† 16}for it is written: “Be holy, because I am holy.”^{[1] †}

¹⁷Since you call on a Father who judges each man’s work impartially,^† live your lives as strangers here in reverent fear.^{† 18}For you know that it was not with perishable things such as silver or gold that you were redeemed^† from the empty way of life handed down to you from your forefathers, ¹⁹but with the precious blood of Christ, a lamb^† without blemish or defect.^{† 20}He was chosen before the creation of the world,^† but was revealed in these last times^† for your sake. ²¹Through him you believe in God,^† who raised him from the dead and glorified him, and so your faith and hope are in God.

²²Now that you have purified^† yourselves by obeying the truth so that you have sincere love for your brothers, love one another deeply,^† from the heart.^{[2] 23}For you have been born again,^† not of perishable seed, but of imperishable, through the living and enduring word of God.^{† 24}For,

“All men are like grass,

and all their glory is like the flowers of the field;

the grass withers and the flowers fall,

²⁵but the word of the Lord stands forever.”^{[3] †}

And this is the word that was preached to you.

1 Peter 2

¹Therefore, rid yourselves^† of all malice and all deceit, hypocrisy, envy, and slander^† of every kind. ²Like newborn babies, crave pure spiritual milk,^† so that by it you may grow up^† in your salvation, ³now that you have tasted that the Lord is good.^†

The Living Stone and a Chosen People

⁴As you come to him, the living Stone^†— rejected by men but chosen by God and precious to him— ⁵you also, like living stones, are being built^† into a spiritual house^† to be a holy priesthood,^† offering spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ.^{† 6}For in Scripture it says:

“See, I lay a stone in Zion,

a chosen and precious cornerstone,^†

and the one who trusts in him

will never be put to shame.”^{[4] †}

⁷Now to you who believe, this stone is precious. But to those who do not believe,^†

“The stone the builders rejected

has become the capstone,^[5] ”^{[6] †}

⁸and,

“A stone that causes men to stumble

and a rock that makes them fall.”^{[7] †}

They stumble because they disobey the message— which is also what they were destined for.^†

⁹But you are a chosen people,^† a royal priesthood, a holy nation,^† a people belonging to God, that you may declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light.^{† 10}Once you were not a people, but now you are the people of God;^† once you had not received mercy, but now you have received mercy.

¹¹Dear friends, I urge you, as aliens and strangers in the world, to abstain from sinful desires,^† which war against your soul.^{† 12}Live such good lives among the pagans that, though they accuse you of doing wrong, they may see your good deeds^† and glorify God^† on the day he visits us.

Submission to Rulers and Masters

¹³Submit yourselves for the Lord’s sake to every authority^† instituted among men: whether to the king, as the supreme authority, ¹⁴or to governors, who are sent by him to punish those who do wrong^† and to commend those who do right.^{† 15}For it is God’s will^† that by doing good you should silence the ignorant talk of foolish men.^{† 16}Live as free men,^† but do not use your freedom as a cover-up for evil; live as servants of God.^{† 17}Show proper respect to everyone: Love the brotherhood of believers,^† fear God, honor the king.^†

¹⁸Slaves, submit yourselves to your masters with all respect,^† not only to those who are good and considerate,^† but also to those who are harsh. ¹⁹For it is commendable if a man bears up under the pain of unjust suffering because he is conscious of God.^{† 20}But how is it to your credit if you receive a beating for doing wrong and endure it? But if you suffer for doing good and you endure it, this is commendable before God.^{† 21}To this^† you were called, because Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example,^† that you should follow in his steps.

²²“He committed no sin,

and no deceit was found in his mouth.”^{[8] †}

²³When they hurled their insults at him, he did not retaliate; when he suffered, he made no threats.^† Instead, he entrusted himself^† to him who judges justly. ²⁴He himself bore our sins^† in his body on the tree, so that we might die to sins^† and live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed.^{† 25}For you were like sheep going astray,^† but now you have returned to the Shepherd^† and Overseer of your souls.

1 Peter 3

Wives and Husbands

¹Wives, in the same way be submissive^† to your husbands^† so that, if any of them do not believe the word, they may be won over^† without words by the behavior of their wives, ²when they see the purity and reverence of your lives. ³Your beauty should not come from outward adornment, such as braided hair and the wearing of gold jewelry and fine clothes.^{† 4}Instead, it should be that of your inner self,^† the unfading beauty of a gentle and quiet spirit, which is of great worth in God’s sight. ⁵For this is the way the holy women of the past who put their hope in God^† used to make themselves beautiful. They were submissive to their own husbands, ⁶like Sarah, who obeyed Abraham and called him her master.^† You are her daughters if you do what is right and do not give way to fear.

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The Demeanor of Wives

1 Peter 3 First Peter 3:1–7 develops the theme that Christians are to conduct themselves honorably among the Gentiles by being submissive to human institutions, so that Gentiles may observe Christian behavior, be converted and glorify God. A woman who was married to an unbelieving husband was to use her Christian demeanor to win over her husband to Christ.

Hand-mirror from Qumran

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Israel Museum/Shrine of the

Peter specifically exhorted women to a beauty that exuded from the heart rather than one based solely upon external appearance. Verse 3 may be translated simply as “gold-braided hair” rather than “braided hair and the wearing of gold jewelry.” Women in Peter’s day would often braid their hair, interweaving into it golden spangles and threads that glittered and tinkled with every movement of the head. One ancient writer, Xenophon of Ephesus, described women with hair braided in such a way in a procession for the goddess Artemis as erotically attractive.¹ This was not to be the way of Christian women.

The theme of Christian conduct continues as the discussion turns to Sarah, “who obeyed Abraham and called him her master” (v. 6). The same word rendered here as “master” is translated in John 12:21 as “sir,” a common, deferential mode of address. Husbands were likewise expected to demonstrate respect for their wives (1Pe 3:7).²

1. See “Artemis of the Ephesians.”

2. See also “Husbands and Wives: Family Life in the Greco-Roman World.”

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⁷Husbands,^† in the same way be considerate as you live with your wives, and treat them with respect as the weaker partner and as heirs with you of the gracious gift of life, so that nothing will hinder your prayers.

Suffering for Doing Good

⁸Finally, all of you, live in harmony with one another; be sympathetic, love as brothers,^† be compassionate and humble.^{† 9}Do not repay evil with evil^† or insult with insult,^† but with blessing, because to this^† you were called so that you may inherit a blessing.^{† 10}For,

“Whoever would love life

and see good days

must keep his tongue from evil

and his lips from deceitful speech.

¹¹He must turn from evil and do good;

he must seek peace and pursue it.

¹²For the eyes of the Lord are on the righteous

and his ears are attentive to their prayer,

but the face of the Lord is against those who do evil.”^{[9] †}

¹³Who is going to harm you if you are eager to do good?^{† 14}But even if you should suffer for what is right, you are blessed.^† “Do not fear what they fear^[10]; do not be frightened.”^{[11] † 15}But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer^† to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect, ¹⁶keeping a clear conscience,^† so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander.^{† 17}It is better, if it is God’s will,^† to suffer for doing good^† than for doing evil. ¹⁸For Christ died for sins^† once for all, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body^† but made alive by the Spirit,^{† 19}through whom^[12] also he went and preached to the spirits in prison^{† 20}who disobeyed long ago when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built.^† In it only a few people, eight in all, were saved^† through water, ²¹and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you^† also— not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge^[13] of a good conscience toward God. It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ,^{† 22}who has gone into heaven and is at God’s right hand^†— with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.^†

1 Peter 4

Living for God

¹Therefore, since Christ suffered in his body, arm yourselves also with the same attitude, because he who has suffered in his body is done with sin. ²As a result, he does not live the rest of his earthly life for evil human desires,^† but rather for the will of God. ³For you have spent enough time in the past^† doing what pagans choose to do— living in debauchery, lust, drunkenness, orgies, carousing and detestable idolatry. ⁴They think it strange that you do not plunge with them into the same flood of dissipation, and they heap abuse on you.^{† 5}But they will have to give account to him who is ready to judge the living and the dead.^{† 6}For this is the reason the gospel was preached even to those who are now dead,^† so that they might be judged according to men in regard to the body, but live according to God in regard to the spirit.

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Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World

1 Peter 4 Wine, the most widely used fermented drink in the ancient world, was present at religious rituals, in festive celebrations and in everyday life in Mediterranean culture. It was, in fact, celebrated in pagan culture. Libations of wine were commonly poured out to gods, and deities such as Dionysus (the god of wine) had many followers.¹ Even in Israel, however, wine was used in religious rituals (Nu 15:7), and viticulture (the cultivation of grapes for wine making) continues to be a significant agricultural industry for the modern nation of Israel.

Then as now, there were many varieties of wine, including red, white and mixed wines. The Old Testament employs a number of words for different kinds of wine. Precise translations for the Hebrew words are elusive since we do not know exactly how they differ from each other, but translators regularly use terms such as “wine,” “new wine,” “spiced wine” and “sweet wine.” Passages such as Hosea 4:11 make clear that these wines were alcoholic and intoxicating; there is no basis for suggesting that either the Greek or the Hebrew terms for wine refer to unfermented grape juice.

The production of wine, of course, required vineyards. Watchtowers were constructed to protect the vines (Isa 5:1–2; Mk 12:1); of particular concern were foxes, who were prone to eat the grapes (SS 2:15). In the Greek world boys would hunt foxes to keep them from the vineyards. After the grapes had been harvested, the must (grape juice for fermenting) would be produced by treading out the grapes in a vat.² The must would be strained and the fermentation process begun. The mixed wines were created by combining the fermented juice of the grape with other elements, including other wines, spices, honey or strong drink created from other fruits or grains. Wine diluted with water was obviously considered to be of inferior quality (Isa 1:22), although the Greeks, considering the drinking of pure wine to be an excess, routinely diluted their wine. Mixed wines served in a number of applications: Wine mixed with barley made good vinegar and, when blended with myrrh, served as an anesthetic. This last type was offered to Jesus on the cross (Mk 15:23).

Mosaic from Paphos (inscription says “The First Winedrinkers”)

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin

Priests were not to drink wine while ministering at the sanctuary (Lev 10:9), and ordinary people were to avoid wine and grape products in any form while under the restrictions of a Nazirite vow (Nu 6:4). Other than these few exceptions, however, Biblical references make it clear that wine was a common, everyday part of a regular diet (Ge 14:18; 1Sa 16:20). Scripture, however, repeatedly emphasizes moderation and the dangers of excess (Pr 20:1; 23:20; Isa 5:11). See also “Food and Agriculture.”

1. See “The Cult of Dionysus.”

2. See “The Winepress.”

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⁷The end of all things is near.^† Therefore be clear minded and self-controlled so that you can pray. ⁸Above all, love each other deeply,^† because love covers over a multitude of sins.^{† 9}Offer hospitality to one another without grumbling.^{† 10}Each one should use whatever gift he has received to serve others,^† faithfully^† administering God’s grace in its various forms. ¹¹If anyone speaks, he should do it as one speaking the very words of God. If anyone serves, he should do it with the strength God provides,^† so that in all things God may be praised^† through Jesus Christ. To him be the glory and the power for ever and ever. Amen.

Suffering for Being a Christian

¹²Dear friends, do not be surprised at the painful trial you are suffering,^† as though something strange were happening to you. ¹³But rejoice that you participate in the sufferings of Christ, so that you may be overjoyed when his glory is revealed.^{† 14}If you are insulted because of the name of Christ, you are blessed,^† for the Spirit of glory and of God rests on you. ¹⁵If you suffer, it should not be as a murderer or thief or any other kind of criminal, or even as a meddler. ¹⁶However, if you suffer as a Christian, do not be ashamed, but praise God that you bear that name.^{† 17}For it is time for judgment to begin with the family of God;^† and if it begins with us, what will the outcome be for those who do not obey the gospel of God?^{† 18}And,

“If it is hard for the righteous to be saved,

what will become of the ungodly and the sinner?”^{[14] †}

¹⁹So then, those who suffer according to God’s will should commit themselves to their faithful Creator and continue to do good.

1 Peter 5

To Elders and Young Men

¹To the elders among you, I appeal as a fellow elder,^† a witness^† of Christ’s sufferings and one who also will share in the glory to be revealed:^{† 2}Be shepherds of God’s flock^† that is under your care, serving as overseers— not because you must, but because you are willing, as God wants you to be; not greedy for money,^† but eager to serve; ³not lording it over^† those entrusted to you, but being examples^† to the flock. ⁴And when the Chief Shepherd appears, you will receive the crown of glory^† that will never fade away.

⁵Young men, in the same way be submissive^† to those who are older. All of you, clothe yourselves with humility toward one another, because,

“God opposes the proud

but gives grace to the humble.”^{[15] †}

⁶Humble yourselves, therefore, under God’s mighty hand, that he may lift you up in due time.^{† 7}Cast all your anxiety on him^† because he cares for you.^†

⁸Be self-controlled and alert. Your enemy the devil prowls around^† like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. ⁹Resist him,^† standing firm in the faith,^† because you know that your brothers throughout the world are undergoing the same kind of sufferings.^†

¹⁰And the God of all grace, who called you to his eternal glory^† in Christ, after you have suffered a little while, will himself restore you and make you strong,^† firm and steadfast. ¹¹To him be the power for ever and ever. Amen.^†

Final Greetings

¹²With the help of Silas,^{[16] †} whom I regard as a faithful brother, I have written to you briefly,^† encouraging you and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand fast in it.

¹³She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark.^{† 14}Greet one another with a kiss of love.^†

Peace^† to all of you who are in Christ.

2 PETER

Author, Place and Date of Writing

Second Peter explicitly claims to have been written by the apostle Peter, yet today this claim is widely rejected in scholarship. Those who reject Petrine authorship do so for the following reasons: (1) There is a lack of early support for 2 Peter by the church fathers. (2) The letter draws heavily on the epistle of Jude. (3) Its content deals with second-century A.D. problems and issues, such as Gnosticism and the delay in Christ’s return. (4) Second Peter 3:15–16 mentions that a collection of Paul’s letters was already known in the churches. (5) Some argue that 2 Peter is so transparently not by Peter that the early readers would have seen this claim as no more than a literary device.

There are other reasons, however, for maintaining Peter’s authorship: (1) While 2 Peter 2 and Jude have a great deal in common, the fact that their texts are similar has no bearing on the inspiration or authorship of either. (2) Second Peter contains no direct reference to any second-century church issue or institution, and concern over the delay of Christ’s return appears already in 1 Thessalonians (written c. A.D. 50–51). (3) The passing reference to Paul’s letters may only indicate that the practice of circulating his letters had begun. (4) Early Christians were quick to repudiate pseudo-apostolic texts and in particular renounced books falsely claiming to have been from Peter (e.g., the Apocalypse of Peter, the Gospel of Peter, the Acts of Peter, and the Letter of Peter to Philip).

Peter, according to strong tradition, died about A.D. 64–68 under Nero. Thus, his authorship requires a date earlier than this. It has been suggested that Peter wrote this letter from Rome.

Audience

This epistle was addressed to Christians to warn them against false teaching (2:1). If 3:1 is a reference to 1 Peter, then Christians in Asia Minor were the recipients of both letters. Otherwise, the identity of 2 Peter’s addressees is uncertain.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Second Peter is an appeal to faith and godliness from the apostle to the churches. Its message does refer to enemies of the faith, but in such broad terms that it is hard to imagine that Peter had a specific heresy in view. The letter is probably a general exhortation to the churches from the apostle as he approached his death.

Timeline

As You Read

Note Peter’s instruction to grow in godly virtues and Christian character. Watch for his repeated emphasis on truth, which includes not only his warning against false teachers but also his certainty of Christ’s return.

Did You Know?

• New Testament authors adapted literary forms from their culture as they communicated the gospel (1:5–7).
• The Greek term for “seduce” depicts a fisherman who attempts to lure and catch fish with bait (2:14).
• In the first century A.D. the term “elements” referred to such entities as earth, air, fire and water (3:10).

Themes

Second Peter includes the following themes:

1. Spiritual Growth. As Peter faced the end of his life (1:13–15), he predicted impending calamities and expressed concern about his readers remaining faithful and continuing to grow in discipleship.
2. False teaching. Peter sounded the alarm about false teachers, who posed a major threat to the faithfulness of believers.
3. The certainty of Christ’s return. Peter warned against scoffers who abandon the hope of Christ’s coming in judgment (3:3–4). The delay of divine judgment is a revelation of God’s patience, in that he is allowing time for repentance (3:9). Since the return of the Lord Jesus is certain, believers are to prepare themselves through faithful, ethical living (3:11–16).

Outline

I. Introduction (1:1–2)

II. Knowing God (1:3–21)

A. Know Your Calling (1:3–11)

B. Know the Scriptures (1:12–21)

III. Warning Against False Teachers (2)

A. Their Coming Predicted (2:1–3a)

B. God Will Judge Them (2:3b–9)

C. Some Characteristics (2:10–22)

IV. The Fact of Christ’s Return (3:1–16)

A. Peter’s Purpose in Writing Restated (3:1–2)

B. The Coming of Scoffers (3:3–7)

C. The Certainty of Christ’s Return (3:8–10)

D. Exhortations Based on the Fact of Christ’s Return (3:11–16)

V. Concluding Remarks (3:17–18)

2 Peter 1

¹Simon Peter, a servant^† and apostle of Jesus Christ,^†

To those who through the righteousness^† of our God and Savior Jesus Christ^† have received a faith as precious as ours:

²Grace and peace be yours in abundance through the knowledge of God and of Jesus our Lord.^†

Making One’s Calling and Election Sure

³His divine power^† has given us everything we need for life and godliness through our knowledge of him who called us^† by his own glory and goodness. ⁴Through these he has given us his very great and precious promises,^† so that through them you may participate in the divine nature^† and escape the corruption in the world caused by evil desires.^†

⁵For this very reason, make every effort to add to your faith goodness; and to goodness, knowledge;^{† 6}and to knowledge, self-control;^† and to self-control, perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness;^{† 7}and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love.^{† 8}For if you possess these qualities in increasing measure, they will keep you from being ineffective and unproductive^† in your knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ. ⁹But if anyone does not have them, he is nearsighted and blind,^† and has forgotten that he has been cleansed from his past sins.^†

¹⁰Therefore, my brothers, be all the more eager to make your calling and election sure. For if you do these things, you will never fall,^{† 11}and you will receive a rich welcome into the eternal kingdom of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.

Prophecy of Scripture

¹²So I will always remind you of these things,^† even though you know them and are firmly established in the truth you now have. ¹³I think it is right to refresh your memory as long as I live in the tent of this body,^{† 14}because I know that I will soon put it aside,^† as our Lord Jesus Christ has made clear to me.^{† 15}And I will make every effort to see that after my departure^† you will always be able to remember these things.

¹⁶We did not follow cleverly invented stories when we told you about the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of his majesty.^{† 17}For he received honor and glory from God the Father when the voice came to him from the Majestic Glory, saying, “This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased.”^{[1] † 18}We ourselves heard this voice that came from heaven when we were with him on the sacred mountain.^†

¹⁹And we have the word of the prophets made more certain, and you will do well to pay attention to it, as to a light^† shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star^† rises in your hearts. ²⁰Above all, you must understand that no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation. ²¹For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God^† as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.^†

2 Peter 2

False Teachers and Their Destruction

¹But there were also false prophets^† among the people, just as there will be false teachers among you.^† They will secretly introduce destructive heresies, even denying the sovereign Lord^† who bought them^†— bringing swift destruction on themselves. ²Many will follow their shameful ways and will bring the way of truth into disrepute. ³In their greed these teachers will exploit you^† with stories they have made up. Their condemnation has long been hanging over them, and their destruction has not been sleeping.

⁴For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but sent them to hell,^[2] putting them into gloomy dungeons^[3] to be held for judgment;^{† 5}if he did not spare the ancient world^† when he brought the flood on its ungodly people, but protected Noah, a preacher of righteousness, and seven others;^{† 6}if he condemned the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah by burning them to ashes,^† and made them an example^† of what is going to happen to the ungodly; ⁷and if he rescued Lot,^† a righteous man, who was distressed by the filthy lives of lawless men^{† 8}(for that righteous man, living among them day after day, was tormented in his righteous soul by the lawless deeds he saw and heard)— ⁹if this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue godly men from trials^† and to hold the unrighteous for the day of judgment, while continuing their punishment.^{[4] 10}This is especially true of those who follow the corrupt desire^† of the sinful nature^[5] and despise authority.

Bold and arrogant, these men are not afraid to slander celestial beings;^{† 11}yet even angels, although they are stronger and more powerful, do not bring slanderous accusations against such beings in the presence of the Lord.^{† 12}But these men blaspheme in matters they do not understand. They are like brute beasts, creatures of instinct, born only to be caught and destroyed, and like beasts they too will perish.^†

¹³They will be paid back with harm for the harm they have done. Their idea of pleasure is to carouse in broad daylight.^† They are blots and blemishes, reveling in their pleasures while they feast with you.^{[6] † 14}With eyes full of adultery, they never stop sinning; they seduce^† the unstable; they are experts in greed^†— an accursed brood!^{† 15}They have left the straight way and wandered off to follow the way of Balaam^† son of Beor, who loved the wages of wickedness. ¹⁶But he was rebuked for his wrongdoing by a donkey— a beast without speech— who spoke with a man’s voice and restrained the prophet’s madness.^†

¹⁷These men are springs without water^† and mists driven by a storm. Blackest darkness is reserved for them.^{† 18}For they mouth empty, boastful words^† and, by appealing to the lustful desires of sinful human nature, they entice people who are just escaping from those who live in error. ¹⁹They promise them freedom, while they themselves are slaves of depravity— for a man is a slave to whatever has mastered him.^{† 20}If they have escaped the corruption of the world by knowing^† our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ and are again entangled in it and overcome, they are worse off at the end than they were at the beginning.^{† 21}It would have been better for them not to have known the way of righteousness, than to have known it and then to turn their backs on the sacred command that was passed on to them.^{† 22}Of them the proverbs are true: “A dog returns to its vomit,”^{[7] †} and, “A sow that is washed goes back to her wallowing in the mud.”

2 Peter 3

The Day of the Lord

¹Dear friends, this is now my second letter to you. I have written both of them as reminders^† to stimulate you to wholesome thinking. ²I want you to recall the words spoken in the past by the holy prophets and the command given by our Lord and Savior through your apostles.

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The New Testament Canon

2 Peter 3 The process of determining which texts would comprise the Biblical canon¹ (the standard of authoritative and normative teaching for the church) took place over several centuries. Beginning in the first century A.D., Christian communities recognized the authority of texts that they gathered into collections for circulation and use in public worship.² Second Peter already suggests a familiarity with multiple letters of Paul and goes so far as to place them on par with the Hebrew Scriptures (3:16). Evidence reveals that during public worship Christians in the earliest centuries read from the texts that would become the New Testament, just as they did from the Hebrew Scriptures.

Scholars often attribute the creation of the New Testament canon to the heretic Marcion, who accepted only the authority of Paul’s letters and of Luke. In reality, the churches already accepted these texts as authoritative, and Marcion was attempting to exclude the acceptance of any others. The Muratorian Canon (date uncertain), an early attempt to establish a list of canonical books, did not include most of the general epistles. By the fourth century the churches were seeking to compile a definitive list of New Testament books. Eusebius, Athanasius and the Councils of Laodicea (363), Hippo (393) and Carthage (397) created such lists (both of the latter two accepted the 27 books of the New Testament the church now acknowledges). In some sense these lists merely ratified the church’s practice by identifying the texts that were already functioning in an authoritative manner. Twenty-seven writings, including the Gospels, Acts and the New Testament letters, formed the New Testament canon and ultimately defined the church’s identity.

The selection process considered three key criteria for the acceptance of a particular text as canonical:

• Writings in the canon had to reflect orthodox teaching. Texts that were determined to contain teaching incongruent with that of the earliest Christians were not to be included.³

• The canon sought to include the earliest, most accurate accounts about Jesus and about the early church by selecting texts that had been written either by the apostles themselves or by those who were closely associated with them. Texts claiming apostolic authorship were critically inspected, and if the authorship claim was suspect, they were rejected. The Gospels of Mark and Luke received canonical status because they were written by a companion of Peter and a coworker of Paul, respectively. The book of Acts, also written by Luke, was also accepted as canonical. The other two Gospels, the Epistles and the book of Revelation all have clear apostolic connections.⁴

• Texts that were popular in only one region were viewed as doubtful, while those that had found widespread acceptance, both in the east and in Rome, were included in the canon. The writings chosen for the canon were understood to have universal application. For instance, although Paul addressed his letters to specific communities, others quickly acknowledged that his teaching was relevant to them as well.

Facsimile leaf of the second letter of Peter on papyrus (p72); c. A.D. 200

© Dr. James C. Martin

Other Christian writings circulated alongside the canonical texts. Among these, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle to Barnabas were held in high esteem by some Christians but were eventually rejected from the canon because of their distance from the apostles and the apostolic age. Although these texts were not canonized for reading in the public assembly of the church, they were not condemned as heretical. Texts of this sort continued to be used by Christians for personal devotions and reflections, but without the same authority as the canonical writings.⁵

1. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

2. See “The New Testament Texts.”

3. See “Early Christian Heresies.”

4. See “The Historical Value of Luke—Acts”, “Can John’s Gospel Be Trusted?” and “Who Wrote Revelation?.”

5. For other noncanonical texts by early Christians, see also “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature.”

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³First of all, you must understand that in the last days^† scoffers will come, scoffing and following their own evil desires.^{† 4}They will say, “Where is this ‘coming’ he promised?^† Ever since our fathers died, everything goes on as it has since the beginning of creation.”^{† 5}But they deliberately forget that long ago by God’s word^† the heavens existed and the earth was formed out of water and by water.^{† 6}By these waters also the world of that time was deluged and destroyed.^{† 7}By the same word the present heavens and earth are reserved for fire,^† being kept for the day of judgment and destruction of ungodly men.

⁸ But do not forget this one thing, dear friends: With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like a day.^{† 9}The Lord is not slow in keeping his promise,^† as some understand slowness. He is patient^† with you, not wanting anyone to perish, but everyone to come to repentance.^†

¹⁰But the day of the Lord will come like a thief.^† The heavens will disappear with a roar; the elements will be destroyed by fire, and the earth and everything in it will be laid bare.^{[8] †}

¹¹Since everything will be destroyed in this way, what kind of people ought you to be? You ought to live holy and godly lives ¹²as you look forward^† to the day of God and speed its coming.^{[9] †} That day will bring about the destruction of the heavens by fire, and the elements will melt in the heat.^{† 13}But in keeping with his promise we are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth,^† the home of righteousness.

¹⁴So then, dear friends, since you are looking forward to this, make every effort to be found spotless, blameless^† and at peace with him. ¹⁵Bear in mind that our Lord’s patience^† means salvation,^† just as our dear brother Paul also wrote you with the wisdom that God gave him.^{† 16}He writes the same way in all his letters, speaking in them of these matters. His letters contain some things that are hard to understand, which ignorant and unstable^† people distort, as they do the other Scriptures,^† to their own destruction.

¹⁷Therefore, dear friends, since you already know this, be on your guard^† so that you may not be carried away by the error^† of lawless men and fall from your secure position.^{† 18}But grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.^† To him be glory both now and forever! Amen.

1 JOHN

Author, Place and Date of Writing

First John does not name its author but has an enormous number of similarities to the Gospel of John (e.g., cf. 1Jn 1:1 and Jn 1:1; 1Jn 1:4 and Jn 16:24; 1Jn 2:7 and Jn 13:34–35; 1Jn 4:6 and Jn 8:47; 1Jn 5:12 and Jn 3:36). Although some scholars have sought to point out differences between the Gospel and the epistle, the commonalities far outweigh the dissimilarities. In addition, the author of the epistle declared himself to have seen and touched Jesus (1:1).

There is no indication of when the book was written. However, since the author appears to have been elderly (note his repeated reference to his original readers as “children”; see 2:1; 3:7), many believe that this letter was written near the end of the first century. The possibility that the epistle was written to oppose an early form of Gnosticism, a second-century heresy, supports this dating. Ephesus has been suggested as the place of writing.

Audience

First John was apparently intended to be a circular letter; it does not specify any recipients or refer to any geographic locations. The earliest confirmed use of 1 John was in the Roman province of Asia (in modern Turkey), where Ephesus was located.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

First John 4:2 is the clearest indication that a kind of proto-Gnostic teaching may have been the heresy John was confronting. Because Gnostics considered physical matter to be innately evil, they could not comprehend the incarnation. For them, the divine Logos (“Word”) could not possibly have become flesh. Gnosticism denies the need for an incarnation or an atonement (the implied assertion that Jesus had a physical body in 1Jn 1:1 may also be set against Gnostic teaching; see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).

If John were confronting Gnosticism, however, readers might expect a more complete refutation of its doctrines. First John is surely nothing like the anti-Gnostic texts we see from the second century (such as Irenaeus’s Against Heresies). It seems best to suggest that John was aware of a rising tendency toward anti-incarnational thinking among some who called themselves Christians but that his letter is a general exhortation toward godliness.

Timeline

As You Read

Look for John’s call for Christians to live in a godly manner: turning from sin, obeying God’s commands, showing love to other believers, abandoning worldly glory and holding fast to orthodox teachings about Jesus Christ.

Did You Know?

• The Gnostics denied that their immoral actions were sinful (1:10).
• The Gnostics insisted that the teaching of the apostles was to be supplemented with the “higher knowledge” they claimed to possess (2:27).
• The Gnostics taught that the divine Christ came upon the human Jesus at his baptism and then left him at the cross, so that it was only the man Jesus who died (4:2).

Themes

First John includes the following themes:

1. The incarnation. John wrote this epistle to warn Christians of false teachers, or “antichrists” (2:18), from within the church who denied that Jesus had come in the flesh (2:22; 4:2–3). John insisted that Christ is not some supernatural apparition disguised as a human but a historical person, Jesus of Nazareth. The test of Biblical Christianity is belief in the full humanity and full divinity of Jesus Christ.
2. Love. The key command of this beautiful little book is the call to love (3:11, 23; 4:11, 21). Christians are to follow Christ’s example by loving one another (3:10–11) and caring for those in need (3:17), even to the point of laying down their lives for one another (3:16). Since “love comes from God” (4:7), genuine love can only be expressed as God lives in us (4:12) and we in him (4:16).
3. Christian certainties. John asserted that Christians can be certain of the following: (1) Jesus is the Son of God (5:5). (2) Believers have eternal life through him (5:11). (3) God hears and answers their prayers (5:14). (4) They are no longer in bondage to sin but are kept safe by God from the evil one (5:18). (5) They are children of God (5:19). (6) They can know God through his Son, Jesus Christ (5:20). (7) Jesus is “the true God” (5:20).

Outline

I. The Reality of the Incarnation (1:1–4)

II. Fellowship With the Father and the Son (1:5–2:28)

A. Walking in the Light as the Basis of Fellowship (1:5–2:11)

B. A Digression (2:12–14)

C. Love of the World as a Hindrance to Fellowship (2:15–17)

D. Denial of Christ as a Hindrance to Fellowship (2:18–28)

III. Children of God (2:29–4:6)

A. What a Child of God Looks Like (2:29–3:24)

B. What a Child of God Knows (4:1–6)

IV. God Is Love (4:7–5:12)

V. Great Christian Certainties (5:13–21)

1 John 1

The Word of Life

¹That which was from the beginning,^† which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes,^† which we have looked at and our hands have touched^†— this we proclaim concerning the Word of life. ²The life appeared;^† we have seen it and testify to it, and we proclaim to you the eternal life, which was with the Father and has appeared to us. ³We proclaim to you what we have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us. And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ.^{† 4}We write this^† to make our^[1] joy complete.^†

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Ancient Voices

Some people make a habit of going about bearing the Name, but with evil deceit: They do things that are unworthy of God. You must turn from these as you would turn from wild beasts, for they are ravenous dogs that bite secretly. You must be on guard against them; they are almost incurable. There is one physician: He is both flesh and spirit; he is born and unborn; he is God in man; he is true life in death; he is from Mary and from God; he first suffered and then was beyond suffering; he is Jesus Christ our lord.

—Ignatius of Antioch on False Teachers and on the Doctrine That Christ Is Both God and Man

From Ignatius of Antioch (d. c. A.D. 107), Letter to the Ephesians, 6, trans. by Duane Garrett

See “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures” article.

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Walking in the Light

⁵This is the message we have heard^† from him and declare to you: God is light; in him there is no darkness at all. ⁶If we claim to have fellowship with him yet walk in the darkness,^† we lie and do not live by the truth.^{† 7}But if we walk in the light, as he is in the light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus, his Son, purifies us from all^[2] sin.^†

⁸If we claim to be without sin,^† we deceive ourselves and the truth is not in us.^{† 9}If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins^† and purify us from all unrighteousness. ¹⁰If we claim we have not sinned, we make him out to be a liar^† and his word has no place in our lives.^†

1 John 2

¹My dear children,^† I write this to you so that you will not sin. But if anybody does sin, we have one who speaks to the Father in our defense^†— Jesus Christ, the Righteous One. ²He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins,^† and not only for ours but also for^[3] the sins of the whole world.

³We know that we have come to know him if we obey his commands.^{† 4}The man who says, “I know him,” but does not do what he commands is a liar, and the truth is not in him.^{† 5}But if anyone obeys his word,^† God’s love^[4] is truly made complete in him.^† This is how we know we are in him: ⁶Whoever claims to live in him must walk as Jesus did.^†

⁷Dear friends, I am not writing you a new command but an old one, which you have had since the beginning.^† This old command is the message you have heard. ⁸Yet I am writing you a new command;^† its truth is seen in him and you, because the darkness is passing^† and the true light^† is already shining.^†

⁹Anyone who claims to be in the light but hates his brother is still in the darkness. ¹⁰Whoever loves his brother lives in the light,^† and there is nothing in him^[5] to make him stumble. ¹¹But whoever hates his brother is in the darkness and walks around in the darkness; he does not know where he is going, because the darkness has blinded him.^†

¹²I write to you, dear children,

because your sins have been forgiven on account of his name.

¹³I write to you, fathers,

because you have known him who is from the beginning.

I write to you, young men,

because you have overcome the evil one.^†

I write to you, dear children,

because you have known the Father.

¹⁴I write to you, fathers,

because you have known him who is from the beginning.

I write to you, young men,

because you are strong,^†

and the word of God lives in you,^†

and you have overcome the evil one.^†

Do Not Love the World

¹⁵Do not love the world or anything in the world.^† If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him.^{† 16}For everything in the world— the cravings of sinful man,^† the lust of his eyes^† and the boasting of what he has and does— comes not from the Father but from the world. ¹⁷The world and its desires pass away,^† but the man who does the will of God lives forever.

Warning Against Antichrists

¹⁸Dear children, this is the last hour; and as you have heard that the antichrist is coming,^† even now many antichrists have come.^† This is how we know it is the last hour. ¹⁹They went out from us,^† but they did not really belong to us. For if they had belonged to us, they would have remained with us; but their going showed that none of them belonged to us.^†

²⁰But you have an anointing^† from the Holy One,^† and all of you know the truth.^{[6] † 21}I do not write to you because you do not know the truth, but because you do know it^† and because no lie comes from the truth. ²²Who is the liar? It is the man who denies that Jesus is the Christ. Such a man is the antichrist— he denies the Father and the Son.^{† 23}No one who denies the Son has the Father; whoever acknowledges the Son has the Father also.^†

²⁴See that what you have heard from the beginning remains in you. If it does, you also will remain in the Son and in the Father.^{† 25}And this is what he promised us— even eternal life.

²⁶I am writing these things to you about those who are trying to lead you astray.^{† 27}As for you, the anointing^† you received from him remains in you, and you do not need anyone to teach you. But as his anointing teaches you about all things and as that anointing is real, not counterfeit— just as it has taught you, remain in him.

Children of God

²⁸And now, dear children,^† continue in him, so that when he appears^† we may be confident^† and unashamed before him at his coming.^†

²⁹If you know that he is righteous,^† you know that everyone who does what is right has been born of him.

1 John 3

¹How great is the love^† the Father has lavished on us, that we should be called children of God!^† And that is what we are! The reason the world does not know us is that it did not know him.^{† 2}Dear friends, now we are children of God, and what we will be has not yet been made known. But we know that when he appears,^[7] we shall be like him,^† for we shall see him as he is.^{† 3}Everyone who has this hope in him purifies himself,^† just as he is pure.

⁴Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is lawlessness.^{† 5} But you know that he appeared so that he might take away our sins. And in him is no sin.^{† 6}No one who lives in him keeps on sinning.^† No one who continues to sin has either seen him^† or known him.^†

⁷Dear children,^† do not let anyone lead you astray.^† He who does what is right is righteous, just as he is righteous.^{† 8}He who does what is sinful is of the devil,^† because the devil has been sinning from the beginning. The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy the devil’s work. ⁹No one who is born of God^† will continue to sin,^† because God’s seed^† remains in him; he cannot go on sinning, because he has been born of God. ¹⁰This is how we know who the children of God are and who the children of the devil are: Anyone who does not do what is right is not a child of God; nor is anyone who does not love^† his brother.

Love One Another

¹¹This is the message you heard^† from the beginning: We should love one another.^{† 12}Do not be like Cain, who belonged to the evil one and murdered his brother.^† And why did he murder him? Because his own actions were evil and his brother’s were righteous. ¹³Do not be surprised, my brothers, if the world hates you.^{† 14}We know that we have passed from death to life,^† because we love our brothers. Anyone who does not love remains in death.^{† 15} Anyone who hates his brother is a murderer,^† and you know that no murderer has eternal life in him.^†

¹⁶This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down his life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers.^{† 17}If anyone has material possessions and sees his brother in need but has no pity on him,^† how can the love of God be in him?^{† 18}Dear children,^† let us not love with words or tongue but with actions and in truth.^{† 19}This then is how we know that we belong to the truth, and how we set our hearts at rest in his presence ²⁰whenever our hearts condemn us. For God is greater than our hearts, and he knows everything.

²¹Dear friends, if our hearts do not condemn us, we have confidence before God^{† 22}and receive from him anything we ask,^† because we obey his commands and do what pleases him.^{† 23}And this is his command: to believe^† in the name of his Son, Jesus Christ, and to love one another as he commanded us.^{† 24}Those who obey his commands live in him,^† and he in them. And this is how we know that he lives in us: We know it by the Spirit he gave us.^†

1 John 4

Test the Spirits

¹Dear friends, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world.^{† 2}This is how you can recognize the Spirit of God: Every spirit that acknowledges that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh^† is from God,^{† 3}but every spirit that does not acknowledge Jesus is not from God. This is the spirit of the antichrist,^† which you have heard is coming and even now is already in the world.

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The Gnostics and Their Scriptures

1 John 4 Gnosticism was one of the earliest Christian heresies. Gnostic writings are many and varied, frequently drawing upon Platonic concepts, imagery from the New Testament and pagan myth. A number of Gnostic texts were discovered at Nag Hammadi in Egypt in 1945. Many were pseudo-apostolic—falsely ascribed to apostles. Examples include the Gospel of Thomas, the Apocryphon of James and the Letter of Peter to Philip. Certain broad observations can be made of Gnostic literature:

• From the Greek word gnosis, meaning “knowledge,” Gnosticism was a movement that claimed to provide secret knowledge about God. Its adherents considered the Biblical God, the Creator of the world, to be an inferior god. In Gnostic teaching the material world was innately evil and thus its Creator a lesser deity.

• The Gnostic Savior, rather than providing atonement for sin, brought the knowledge of humanity’s “true” divine origins, thus freeing people from their ignorance and enslavement to the material world.

• Some Gnostics believed that “the Christ” (a kind of spiritual anointing or presence) came upon the man Jesus at his baptism and departed before his crucifixion—thus, that there was no lasting union of divine and human natures in Jesus. In their view, the true Christ had no physical body.

• One particular brand of Gnostics, called “Docetists,” believed that Jesus was actually a divine spirit who only appeared to be physical: His body, they argued, was not truly flesh but was only an illusion. First John 4:2 (“Every spirit that acknowledges that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God”) refutes this teaching. Possibly those whom John countered were forerunners of the groups that later wrote the Gnostic texts.

John’s warnings indicate that heresy can come in many forms, often in the guise of apostolic teaching. Those who deny the humanity of Jesus are equally as heretical as those who deny his deity. In addition, any doctrine that understands the created, material world to be intrinsically evil is dangerous and misguided.¹

1. See also “Early Christian Heresies.”

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⁴You, dear children, are from God and have overcome them, because the one who is in you^† is greater than the one who is in the world.^{† 5}They are from the world^† and therefore speak from the viewpoint of the world, and the world listens to them. ⁶We are from God, and whoever knows God listens to us; but whoever is not from God does not listen to us.^† This is how we recognize the Spirit^[8] of truth^† and the spirit of falsehood.

God’s Love and Ours

⁷Dear friends, let us love one another,^† for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God.^{† 8} Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love.^{† 9}This is how God showed his love among us: He sent his one and only Son^[9] into the world that we might live through him.^{† 10}This is love: not that we loved God, but that he loved us^† and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for^[10] our sins.^{† 11}Dear friends, since God so loved us,^† we also ought to love one another. ¹²No one has ever seen God;^† but if we love one another, God lives in us and his love is made complete in us.^†

¹³We know that we live in him and he in us, because he has given us of his Spirit.^{† 14}And we have seen and testify^† that the Father has sent his Son to be the Savior of the world.^{† 15}If anyone acknowledges that Jesus is the Son of God,^† God lives in him and he in God. ¹⁶And so we know and rely on the love God has for us.

God is love.^† Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in him.^{† 17}In this way, love is made complete^† among us so that we will have confidence on the day of judgment, because in this world we are like him. ¹⁸There is no fear in love. But perfect love drives out fear,^† because fear has to do with punishment. The one who fears is not made perfect in love.

¹⁹We love because he first loved us.^{† 20}If anyone says, “I love God,” yet hates his brother,^† he is a liar.^† For anyone who does not love his brother, whom he has seen,^† cannot love God, whom he has not seen.^{† 21}And he has given us this command: Whoever loves God must also love his brother.^†

1 John 5

Faith in the Son of God

¹Everyone who believes that Jesus is the Christ^† is born of God,^† and everyone who loves the father loves his child as well.^{† 2}This is how we know that we love the children of God: by loving God and carrying out his commands. ³This is love for God: to obey his commands.^† And his commands are not burdensome,^{† 4}for everyone born of God overcomes^† the world. This is the victory that has overcome the world, even our faith. ⁵Who is it that overcomes the world? Only he who believes that Jesus is the Son of God.

⁶This is the one who came by water and blood^†— Jesus Christ. He did not come by water only, but by water and blood. And it is the Spirit who testifies, because the Spirit is the truth.^{† 7}For there are three^† that testify: ⁸the^[11] Spirit, the water and the blood; and the three are in agreement. ⁹We accept man’s testimony,^† but God’s testimony is greater because it is the testimony of God,^† which he has given about his Son. ¹⁰Anyone who believes in the Son of God has this testimony in his heart.^† Anyone who does not believe God has made him out to be a liar,^† because he has not believed the testimony God has given about his Son. ¹¹And this is the testimony: God has given us eternal life, and this life is in his Son.^{† 12}He who has the Son has life; he who does not have the Son of God does not have life.^†

Concluding Remarks

¹³I write these things to you who believe in the name of the Son of God^† so that you may know that you have eternal life.^{† 14}This is the confidence^† we have in approaching God: that if we ask anything according to his will, he hears us.^{† 15}And if we know that he hears us— whatever we ask— we know^† that we have what we asked of him.

¹⁶If anyone sees his brother commit a sin that does not lead to death, he should pray and God will give him life.^† I refer to those whose sin does not lead to death. There is a sin that leads to death.^† I am not saying that he should pray about that.^{† 17}All wrongdoing is sin,^† and there is sin that does not lead to death.^†

¹⁸We know that anyone born of God does not continue to sin; the one who was born of God keeps him safe, and the evil one cannot harm him.^{† 19}We know that we are children of God,^† and that the whole world is under the control of the evil one.^{† 20}We know also that the Son of God has come and has given us understanding,^† so that we may know him who is true.^† And we are in him who is true— even in his Son Jesus Christ. He is the true God and eternal life.^†

²¹Dear children, keep yourselves from idols.^†

2 JOHN

Author, Place and Date of Writing

Ancient tradition holds that this letter was written by the apostle John. Second John identifies its author only as the “elder,” but the letter has clear affinities with the Gospel of John, as well as with 1 John (e.g., cf. 2Jn 14–23 with 1Jn 5:3). All in all, there is no reason to doubt John’s authorship.

The date of composition is unknown, but this short letter was probably written in the late first century A.D. Ephesus has been suggested as the place of writing.

Audience

This letter is addressed to “the chosen lady” (v. 1), also called “dear lady” (v. 5). This address may be a reference to a particular Christian woman and her family or to an individual, female leader of a house church (see Col 4:15). In the Greek text of verse 8, however, the author referred to the addressee using a masculine plural pronoun, which strongly suggests that the “chosen lady” of verse 1 may be a metaphorical reference to a sister church in a nearby town. In this case, the “children of your chosen sister” (v. 13) would refer to the members of another local church.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

During the first two centuries the gospel was spread by traveling evangelists and teachers. Since inns were not readily available, believers customarily took these missionaries into their homes and supplied them with provisions for their journey when they were about to leave. John asked his readers to refuse hospitality to false teachers moving about among the churches who did not “acknowledge Jesus Christ as coming in the flesh” (v. 7). This may refer to a very early form of Gnostic teaching (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).

Timeline

As You Read

Pay attention to John’s emphasis on truth and love, and note his warning against false teaching and deceivers.

Did You Know?

• In his later years the apostle John functioned as an elder, perhaps of the Ephesian church (v. 1).
• The paper of John’s day was made from papyrus reeds, which were readily available and inexpensive (v. 12).
• Ink (the Greek term comes from a word that means “black”) was made by mixing carbon, water and gum or oil (v. 12).

Themes

Second John includes the following themes:

1. Warning against false teaching. This epistle cautions Christians against the same false teaching John opposed in his first letter (see the introduction to 1Jn).
2. Truth. Truth is an important theme in the writings of John—mentioned 52 times in his Gospel and 22 times in his three short epistles.
3. Love. Like 1 John, this letter emphasizes the command to love one another—the test of a true believer. John’s command to love does not contradict his directive to refuse hospitality to false teachers. Issues of truth are too important to compromise.

Outline

I. Greeting (1–3)

II. Commendation (4)

III. Counsel and Warning (5–11)

IV. Conclusion (12–13)

2 John 1

¹The elder,^†

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House Churches and Early Church Buildings

2 John The earliest Christians gathered for worship and fellowship in private homes. Affluent Christians with more spacious homes generally opened them to their brothers and sisters in Christ. In a context in which Christians frequently faced persecution, there were obvious advantages to meeting in a private setting.¹ This practice is also consistent with kinship language found in the Bible.² The New Testament letters mention several of the house churches in which believers congregated:

• Romans 16:5 speaks of several house churches in Rome, and the households mentioned in Romans 16:10–11, as well as the groups in 16:14–15, might indicate the identities of the various homeowners.

• First Corinthians 16:19 tells of a church that met in the house of Aquila and Priscilla.

• Colossians 4:15 reveals that a church gathered in Nympha’s home.

• Philemon 2 contains Paul’s greetings to the church that met in the home of Philemon, Apphia or Archippus.

• Second John 10–11 warned its readers against bringing false teachers into their houses.This warning may have been a more comprehensive admonition to be cautious not to accept false teachers into the church.³

1. See “The Geographic Expansion of the Church Under Persecution” and “The Early Persecution of the Church.”

2. See “Adoption in the Roman World” and “The Love Feast.”

3. See “Early Christian Heresies.”

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To the chosen^† lady and her children, whom I love in the truth— and not I only, but also all who know the truth^†— ²because of the truth,^† which lives in us^† and will be with us forever:

³Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and from Jesus Christ,^† the Father’s Son, will be with us in truth and love.

⁴It has given me great joy to find some of your children walking in the truth,^† just as the Father commanded us. ⁵And now, dear lady, I am not writing you a new command but one we have had from the beginning.^† I ask that we love one another. ⁶And this is love:^† that we walk in obedience to his commands. As you have heard from the beginning, his command is that you walk in love.

⁷Many deceivers, who do not acknowledge Jesus Christ^† as coming in the flesh, have gone out into the world.^† Any such person is the deceiver and the antichrist.^{† 8}Watch out that you do not lose what you have worked for, but that you may be rewarded fully.^{† 9}Anyone who runs ahead and does not continue in the teaching of Christ does not have God; whoever continues in the teaching has both the Father and the Son.^{† 10}If anyone comes to you and does not bring this teaching, do not take him into your house or welcome him.^{† 11}Anyone who welcomes him shares^† in his wicked work.

¹²I have much to write to you, but I do not want to use paper and ink. Instead, I hope to visit you and talk with you face to face,^† so that our joy may be complete.

¹³The children of your chosen^† sister send their greetings.

Dr. Evans is a prolific writer known for his scholarly precision as well as his ability to pierce the fog of academia with uncharacteristic clarity. He is the author or editor of more than 50 books, including Noncanonical Writings and New Testament Interpretation; Studying the Historical Jesus; Early Christian Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel; Authenticating the Words of Jesus and Fabricating Jesus: How Modern Scholars Distort the Gospels. He has lectured at Cambridge, Durham, Oxford, Yale and other universities, as well as the Field Museum in Chicago and the Canadian Museum of Civilization in Ottawa, Canada.

From 1995 to 2005 Dr. Evans served as editor-in-chief of the Bulletin for Biblical Research. He is a member of the Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas (SNTS), the Institute for Biblical Research and the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies. Dr. Evans has also appeared as an expert on Dateline NBC, the History Channel and the BBC.

3 JOHN

Author, Place and Date of Writing

This brief letter, which is quite similar to 2 John, has traditionally been understood as the work of the apostle John, and there is no reason to doubt the validity of this tradition. Like 1 and 2 John, it was probably written in the late first century from Ephesus.

Audience

John addressed this letter to his friend Gaius. Gaius was a common Roman name, and it is not known whether the Gaius addressed here is to be identified with any other New Testament individual bearing that name (see Ac 19:29; 20:4; Ro 16:23; 1Co 1:14).

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Some of John’s aides had been commissioned by him to go out and teach in various churches, and they required lodging from the believers in the places where they ministered. Demetrius (v. 12), evidently one of those itinerant ministers, may have been the bearer of John’s letter.

In one church, however, a local leader named Diotrephes had refused to admit John’s emissaries. John was writing to Gaius, a believer whose loyalty he trusted, to contend that he expected better treatment of his disciples. If Gaius was part of the same congregation as Diotrephes, he was to speak up and put a halt to Diotrephes’ domination of the church. If, however, Gaius belonged to another congregation, he was to see to it that Diotrephes’ attitude did not gain a foothold in his own church. There is an implied warning that John might come and confront Diotrephes himself—no doubt a potential source of embarrassment to the church.

Timeline

As You Read

Look both for John’s commendation of Gaius for his past hospitality and his condemnation of Diotrephes for his mistreatment of fellow believers.

Did You Know?

• Modern Orthodox Jews often address God by the title Ha-Shem, meaning “The Name” (v. 7).

Themes

Third John includes the following themes:

1. Hospitality. John praised Gaius for his hospitality and condemned Diotrephes for refusing to show hospitality to “the brothers.” Diotrephes’ behavior may, in fact, have been part of what John had in mind when he referred in 1 John 3:15–17 to hating fellow Christians. Itinerant Christian preachers were dependent upon the hospitality of Christians among whom they ministered. This built up networks between the scattered churches and fostered a sense of solidarity. The local churches saw themselves as belonging to the one church, united around the foundational truth of the gospel.
2. Truth. Demetrius, who is otherwise unknown, was probably the bearer of this letter. He was to be received, stated John, because he manifested the truth (v. 12). We may assume that Demetrius had passed the ethical tests of faith outlined in 1 John. For further information on John’s theme of truth, see the themes listed in the introduction to 2 John.

Outline

I. Greeting (1–2)

II. Commendation of Gaius (3–8)

III. Exhortation to Gaius (9–12)

A. Diotrephes: a Bad Example (9–11)

B. Demetrius: a Good Example (12)

IV. Conclusion (13–14)

3 John 1

¹The elder,^†

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Writing Materials in the Ancient World

3 John John’s statement that he was writing “with pen and ink” (3Jn 13) sounds modern, but in fact ancient people used writing materials that were far removed from what we think of as pen and paper. Ancient texts were written on the following materials:

• Stone. This could be ordinary limestone or sandstone, or, for a small inscription, a semiprecious stone such as amethyst, turquoise or opal. The writing tool could be a chisel or metal stylus, but sometimes people wrote on stone with ink. In some instances the stone was covered with a coat of plaster, as in Deuteronomy 27:2–3. Stone, including marble, was widely used for monumental inscriptions describing the feats of kings,¹ but simple graffiti was also cut into stone.

• Metal. This material was primarily used for commemorative and decorative objects, such as for inscriptions on a silver bowl. Two silver amulets² inscribed with the text of Numbers 6:24–27 were discovered near Jerusalem,³ while a copper scroll was located at Qumran.

• Wooden Tablets. These could be coated with wax or stucco for the writing surface. Wax was especially useful since one could inscribe it with a pointed stylus and then rub out the writing and reuse the tablet.

• Clay Tablets. Clay was the medium for cuneiform. While still moist, it would be inscribed with a sharpened stick to create the distinctive, wedge-shaped cuneiform script. If baked, tablets became virtually indestructible, and thus many have survived through the centuries.⁴

• Ostraca. An ostracon is a common potsherd (a broken piece of pottery). It could be inscribed with a metal stylus or written on with ink.⁵ Ostraca were handy for short notes and letters. In Athens voters used them to write down the name of a citizen they wanted to send into exile or to “ostracize” (hence the name).

• Leather. Leather pages are often referred to as vellum or parchment. In Israel leather was the medium of choice for writing the books of the Scriptures. The Isaiah scroll from Qumran, for example, is composed of leather, with the writing done in black ink.⁶

• Papyrus. This was the closest thing to paper from the ancient world. The Egyptian papyrus plant was cut into strips and pressed into sheets that were then glued together. This made for a strong, smooth writing surface, and papyrus naturally became very popular in the ancient world.⁷ The ink on a papyrus could be erased and the papyrus reused; an erased and reused papyrus document is called a palimpsest.

• Scrolls and Codices. For almost all of Biblical history, papyrus or leather was formed into long strips and rolled up on scrolls. However, around the first century A.D. people began to stitch together one side of a group of papyrus or leather leaves to create the equivalent of the modern book, called a codex. The early Christians adopted the idea of the codex, and thus most early Christian Bibles are in the form of codices rather than scrolls.⁸

• Ink. John specifically mentioned “ink.” In the ancient world ink was usually black, made from carbon mixed with a natural gum. Red ink, however, was also widely used.

Inkwell from the Scriptorium of Khirbet, Qumran (site of the Dead Sea Scrolls); pre-A.D. 68

© The Schøyen Collection; photography courtesy of Mr. Martin Schøyen

The literacy rate was especially high in the Greco-Roman world, and writing materials, although difficult to work with by modern standards, were widely available. Letter writing was common,⁹ and the relative ease of communication facilitated the missionary and pastoral work of the apostles.

Ink pot from Qumran

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Amman Museum

1. See “The Mesha (Moabite) Stone.”

2. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

3. See “The Ketef Hinnom Amulets.”

4. See “Cuneiform and Clay Tablets in the Ancient Near East.”

5. See “The Samaria Ostraca.”

6. See “The Great Isaiah Scroll.”

7. See “John Rylands Papyrus (p⁵²).”

8. See “Scrolls, Seals and Codices.”

9. See “Letter Writing in the Greco-Roman World.”

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To my dear friend Gaius, whom I love in the truth.

²Dear friend, I pray that you may enjoy good health and that all may go well with you, even as your soul is getting along well. ³It gave me great joy to have some brothers^† come and tell about your faithfulness to the truth and how you continue to walk in the truth.^{† 4}I have no greater joy than to hear that my children^† are walking in the truth.

⁵Dear friend, you are faithful in what you are doing for the brothers, even though they are strangers to you.^{† 6}They have told the church about your love. You will do well to send them on their way in a manner worthy of God. ⁷It was for the sake of the Name^† that they went out, receiving no help from the pagans.^{† 8}We ought therefore to show hospitality to such men so that we may work together for the truth.

⁹I wrote to the church, but Diotrephes, who loves to be first, will have nothing to do with us. ¹⁰So if I come,^† I will call attention to what he is doing, gossiping maliciously about us. Not satisfied with that, he refuses to welcome the brothers.^† He also stops those who want to do so and puts them out of the church.^†

¹¹Dear friend, do not imitate what is evil but what is good.^† Anyone who does what is good is from God.^† Anyone who does what is evil has not seen God.^{† 12}Demetrius is well spoken of by everyone^†— and even by the truth itself. We also speak well of him, and you know that our testimony is true.^†

¹³I have much to write you, but I do not want to do so with pen and ink. ¹⁴I hope to see you soon, and we will talk face to face.^†

Peace to you. The friends here send their greetings. Greet the friends there by name.^†

JUDE

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The author of Jude called himself “a brother of James” (v. 1). The most well-known James of the early church was James, the Lord’s brother (see the introduction to the book of James). Mark 6:3 mentions both James and Jude (Greek “Judas”) among the members of Jesus’ immediate family (see “The Family of Joseph, Mary and Jesus”). It should be noted that neither James nor Jude ever referred to himself as Jesus’ brother (most likely a demonstration of reverence), but others did not hesitate to speak of them in this way (see Mt 13:55; Jn 7:3–10; Ac 1:14; 1Co 9:5; Gal 1:19).

Some Biblical scholars deny that Jude wrote this letter, primarily on the grounds that its Greek is too articulate to have come from a Galilean, but this falsely assumes that the Galileans were semiliterate and lacking in contact with Hellenistic culture. Tiberias, on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, was a thoroughly Hellenistic city, and its presence in the region illustrates that the broader culture of the Greco-Roman world was never far away.

Many believe that 2 Peter borrowed and modified material from Jude (see the introduction to 2Pe). If this was indeed the case, and if 2 Peter was written about A.D. 64–68, as appears probable, then Jude was obviously written before A.D. 68. The apparent borrowing, however, may have gone the other way around.

Audience

All that is known of the original recipients of this letter is that they were Christians (v. 1). Verse 3 may indicate that Jude knew them personally; from this some infer that the letter was more than simply a pamphlet addressed to a number of churches or to all Christians everywhere.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

The tone of the letter suggests that its author was alarmed, and verse 3 indicates that the epistle was written in some haste. Jude clearly wanted to warn his readers to beware of false brothers who were infiltrating the churches, creating an irreverent atmosphere, causing divisions and disseminating doubt and cynicism. Their motivation was greed and lust.

Interpreters have naturally tried to identify these false brothers, but Jude was not specific about them. It may be that he was dismayed over an increasing trend toward worldliness and the presence of a significant number of unconverted people within the churches.

As You Read

Notice the similarities between Jude and 2 Peter. Watch for references to the noncanonical works titled the Testament of Moses (also called the Assumption of Moses; v. 9) and the book of Enoch (v. 14). For a better understanding of these texts, see “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature.”

Did You Know?

• The book of Jude was regarded by the second-century church father Origen as “of but few verses yet full of mighty words of heavenly wisdom” (vv. 1–12).
• Jude, like his brothers, did not believe in Jesus during his earthly ministry but became his follower after the resurrection (v. 1).
• Both James and Jude in the opening of their New Testament lettters referred to themselves as servants of Jesus Christ rather than as his brothers in the flesh (v. 1).
• Two of Jude’s grandsons were brought before the emperor Domitian as descendants of David, but both were dismissed as harmless peasants (v. 1).

Themes

The book of Jude includes the following themes:

1. Warning against false teachers. Jude’s primary focus was the ethical dangers posed by false teachers who denied Christ’s lordship by using Christian freedom and God’s grace as a “license for immorality” (v. 4). These false teachers were “grumblers and faultfinders” (v. 16), scoffers who followed their own ungodly desires and natural instincts (vv. 18–19).
2. Christian behavior. Jude’s letter emphasizes the lordship of Christ (vv. 4, 9, 14–15, 25). Christian freedom is not a hall pass to do whatever one wishes. Christians are to build themselves up in the foundational teachings of the faith, pray, remain faithful to God and be merciful to others.

Outline

I. Introduction (1–2)

II. Occasion for the Letter (3–4)

III. Warning Against False Teachers (5–16)

IV. Exhortation to Believers (17–23)

V. Concluding Doxology (24–25)

Jude 1

¹Jude,^† a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James,