1:12 The Greek for “crown” was the usual term for the wreath placed on the head of a victorious athlete or military leader. For commentary on the Isthmian games, see the note on 1 Corinthians 9:24–27.

1:14 The words “dragged away” and “enticed” were commonly used to describe hunting methods. Here they metaphorically describe how evil desires operate.

1:18 Just as the first sheaf of the harvest (“firstfruits”) was an indication that the whole harvest would eventually follow, so the early Christians were a sign that a great number of people would eventually espouse the Christian faith.

1:23–24 Any smooth or polished surface that reflected images could be referred to as a mirror. The mirrors of the serving women were made of brass (Ex 38:8) and so could be used as material for the laver. Similarly, Elihu in Job 37:18 spoke of the sky as resembling “a mirror of cast bronze.” Paul mentioned the inadequacy of these ancient mirrors in 1 Corinthians 13:12.

1:26–27 Thrçskeia (“religious”) in the New Testament means the outward expression of religion and the content of faith. James here made a distinction between the sham and the reality of religious expression.

1:27 See “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

2:2 The Greek for “meeting” is the origin of the English word “synagogue” (see the notes on Mk 1:21; Lk 21:12; see also “Ancient Synagogues”).
For information on clothing, see “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World.”

2:19 “There is one God” is a declaration of monotheism that reflects the well-known Jewish creed called the Shema (see the notes on Dt 6:4–9; Mk 12:29).

2:25 See “Prostitution in the Ancient World.”

3:5 See “Speech Ethics.”

3:6 For “hell,” see the note on Matthew 5:22.

3:18 When James encouraged his readers to “sow in peace,” he was referring to the Old Testament notion of shalom, a state of wholeness, health and completion. As a common greeting or blessing, it expressed a wish for prosperity, physical health, salvation and harmonious relationships.

4:8 Before the Old Testament priests approached God at the tabernacle, they had to wash their hands and feet at the bronze basin as a symbol of spiritual cleansing (see Ex 30:17–21; see also “Bathing”).

4:9 See “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”

4:13–17 James addressed some traveling merchants within the church. He was not arguing against making money but against their arrogant attitudes.

5:1–6 These verses, which are similar to Old Testament declarations of judgment against pagan nations, are addressed to wealthy landowners and concern their improper use of wealth. In the ancient world, rural land holdings and their produce were the source of real wealth. A prosperous landowner in James’s culture was, by definition, an exploiter of the poor.

5:2 Clothes were a form of wealth in the ancient world (see “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry” and “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World”).

5:6 The injustice described here probably occurred through control of the courts by the rich and powerful.

5:7 In Israel the autumn rain comes in October and November, soon after the grain is sown, while the spring rain comes in March and April, just prior to the harvest.

5:12 See “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice.”

5:13 See “Early Christian Hymnody.”

5:14 For “elders,” see the note on 1 Timothy 3:1 and for “church” the note on Matthew 16:18.
Referred to by Philo, Pliny and the physician Galen, oil was one of the best-known ancient medicines (see “Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World”) and “Perfumes and Anointing Oils”). Some believe that James may have been using the term medicinally in this passage, while others regard its use here as an aid to faith.

5:19 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

1:1 The term “strangers” in this context refers to people in lowly conditions, those who reside in an area without the legal protection and rights provided to citizens or who stay in one place for only a brief time. The Christians of Asia Minor were considered strangers either because (1) they were from already marginalized social castes or (2) by becoming Christians they were joining a disenfranchised group.
Jewish and Gentile Christians were scattered throughout much of Asia Minor. People from this area were in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (see the note on Ac 2:9–11), and Paul preached and taught in some of these provinces.
The name Galatia also occurs in Acts 16:6 (“Galatian”), 18:23, 1 Corinthians 16:1, Galatians 1:2 and 2 Timothy 4:10. In Acts 16:6 and 18:23 the name is an adjective for the Galatian country or region. Luke was apparently referring to the region, not the province, since in Acts, when speaking of Asia Minor, he used the old ethnographic designations. The context in 1 Peter 1:1 seems clearly to indicate that the province was meant. Paul’s general practice of using political designations points to the usage also in 1 Corinthians 16:1 and Galatians 1:2.

1:10–12 See “Jewish Eschatology in the First Century A.D..”

1:13 In the language of the first century, “prepare … for action” meant that the readers should literally gather up their long, flowing garments and be ready for physical activity.

1:14 Christians, born into the family of God, are children of their heavenly Father. Believers are also described as being adopted into God’s family (see Ro 8:15 and its note).

1:18 In the Bible, to redeem means to free someone from something bad by paying a penalty or a ransom. Likewise, in the Greek world slaves could be redeemed by the payment of a price, either by someone else or by the slave on his or her own behalf.
Some maintain that “your forefathers” implies that the recipients must have been pagans, based upon the New Testament stress on the emptiness of pagan life (see Ro 1:21; Eph 4:17). Others think that the recipients were Jews, since Jews were traditionalists who stressed the influence of the father as teacher in the home. In the light of the context of the whole letter, it is probable that both Jews and Gentiles were being addressed.

1:19 The Old Testament sacrifices were types (foreshadowings) of Christ (see “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

1:22 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

2:6 The cornerstone, which determined the design and orientation of a building, was the most significant stone in the structure. Here it is an obvious reference to Christ.

2:13 The meaning of “submit” in the Greek is “to order oneself under, or according to, a given relationship” or “to live according to the governmental order.” Clearly here the notion of submitting to the government is secondary to that of obeying God (1:2, 14, 22) and doing his will (2:15).
When Peter wrote, the emperor (“king”) was the brutal Nero, who ruled from A.D. 54 to 68 (see “Nero, Persecutor of Christians”).

2:16 For the various names by which early Christians were known, see the note on 4:16.

2:18 “Slaves” is a reference to household servants, whatever their particular training and functions (see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient World” and “Slavery in the Greco-Roman World”). The context indicates that Peter was addressing Christian slaves.

2:25 Throughout the Old Testament and the ancient Near East, the term “shepherd” was often applied to rulers (see 2Sa 5:2; Jer 23:2; see also the note on Ps 23:1 and “Shepherding in the Ancient World”). Here it is a reference to Christ.
For “Overseer” (again a reference to Christ), see the note on 1 Timothy 3:1–7. Elders are to be both shepherds and overseers.

3:1 Peter no doubt encountered and associated with a large number of women whose husbands were not yet Christians. His call to “be submissive” was followed by the reason: to win their spouses to faith on the basis of their behavior. The same Greek verb translated “be submissive” is used in 2:13 and 18 as a call for submission to a recognized authority. Here the context is the hierarchical structure of the ancient household. When a woman joined a religion different from her husband’s, the action could be seen as evidence of insubordination. (see “Husbands and Wives: Family Life in the Greco-Roman World” and “The Demeanor of Wives.”)

3:3 Christian women, stated Peter, were not to rely on extreme coiffures, gaudy exhibits of jewelry or expensive garments for their beauty (see “Dress and Fashion in the Greco-Roman World”).

3:5–7 See “Husbands and Wives: Family Life in the Greco-Roman World.”

3:19 The familiar Apostles’ Creed affirmation that Jesus descended into hell is based chiefly on two references from 1 Peter, one of which (3:19) is more direct than the other (4:6), supported by implications to be taken from two other New Testament verses (Ac 2:27; Ro 10:7). The term is in harmony also with the language of Paul, where he spoke of Christ’s descending “to the lower, earthly regions” (Eph 4:9), and with John’s mention of “the First and the Last,” who holds “the keys of death and Hades” (Rev 1:17–18). The lowest regions were recognized as the habitation of the disembodied spirits of the dead, but 1 Peter 4:6 may instead refer to fallen angels (cf. Jude 6). See “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

3:21 See “Baptism in the Ancient World.”

3:22 See “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking.”

4:3 The terms “pagans” (lit., “the Gentiles”) and “idolatry” suggest that at least some of Peter’s readers were Gentiles who had converted from a pagan lifestyle (see “Proselytes in Second Temple Judaism”).

4:16 The Biblical meaning of the name “Christian” is “adherent of Christ.” The disciples were formally called Christians first in Antioch (Ac 11:26), and later Agrippa recognized that to believe what Paul preached would have made him a Christian (Ac 26:28). Peter accepted the name as in itself a basis for persecution. Thus gradually a name imposed by Gentiles was adopted by the disciples of Jesus. Some Jews had referred to Christ’s followers as “the Nazarene sect” (Ac 24:5), and Paul, when he was himself a persecutor, had identified them as those “who belonged to the Way” (Ac 9:2). The Latin suffix -ianus was often used with the name of the slave’s owner (e.g., a slave of Iulius might be called Iulianus). This implication occurs in the New Testament (e.g., Ro 6:22; 1Pe 2:16). The apostles wrote of themselves as “servants” (slaves) of Christ (Ro 1:1; Jas 1:1; 2Pe 1:1; Jude 1; Rev 1:1), and the New Testament variously calls the followers of Christ “brothers” (Ac 14:2), “disciples” (Ac 6:1–2), “saints” (Ac 9:13; Ro 1:7; 2Co 1:2), “believers” (1Ti 4:12), “the church of God” (Ac 20:28) and “all who call on the [Lord’s] name” (Ac 9:14; see Ro 10:12–13). See also the note on Christians at Acts 11:26.

5:1 By using the term “fellow elder,” Peter identified himself with the elders of the church. This would have been heartening to them in light of their great responsibilities and the difficult situation faced by the churches. The churches for which these elders were responsible were scattered across much of Asia Minor, so if Peter functioned as a local church officer, he must have been officially related to one of them.

5:2 For “shepherds” and “overseers,” see the note on 2:25. Here it applies to the elders of the church.

5:12 Silas (see the note on Ac 15:22) may have been the bearer of the letter. He may also have been the scribe who recorded what Peter dictated or who aided, as an informed and intelligent secretary, in the phrasing of Peter’s thoughts.

5:13 Because Old Testament Babylon was a notorious place of sin, that city’s name had become shorthand for any place known for its wickedness. Peter may also have used the name here to describe any place to which Christians had been deported from their homeland of Judea. In either case, the description fits Rome, and early Christian tradition indicates that Peter wrote from there.
Peter regarded Mark (see the note on Col 4:10) with such warmth and affection that he called him his son. It is possible that Peter had led Mark to Christ (cf. 1Ti 1:2). In any event, early Christian tradition closely associates the two.

1:1 For the various names by which early Christians were known, see the note on 1 Peter 4:16.

1:3 If 2 Peter was written to combat an incipient Gnosticism (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”), the apostle may have been insisting that the knowledge derived from the apostles was entirely adequate to meet their spiritual needs. No secret, esoteric knowledge is necessary for salvation.

1:5–7 New Testament authors adapted literary forms from their culture as they communicated the gospel. One of these, the sorites, linked together virtues or vices in a series (see, e.g., Ro 5:3–4). An ancient writer did not necessarily list the vices or virtues in any particular order. All of the virtues in these verses are important, and Christians were and are to exhibit each of them “in increasing measure” (2Pe 1:8).

1:6 For a discussion of asceticism in the believer’s life, see the note on Leviticus 10:9.

1:8 Christians’ knowledge should affect the way they live. It does not set them free from moral restraints, as the heretics taught. The heresy to which Peter referred may have been an early form of second-century Gnosticism (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”) that claimed to possess special, esoteric knowledge.

1:10 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

1:12–15 Many scholars classify 2 Peter as a “testament”—a book, or part of a book, in which a person makes a final speech from his or her deathbed.

1:16 Peter’s message was based on his eyewitness account of the supernatural events that marked the life of Jesus—not made up of myths and imaginative stories as was the message of the heretics (see 2:3).

1:18 For “sacred mountain,” see the note on Luke 9:28.

2:4 Some believe the angels’ sin was the one referred to in Genesis 6:2, where the sons of God are said to have intermarried with the daughters of men, meaning (according to this view) that angels married human women. The offspring of those marriages are said to have been the Nephilim (see “Who Were the Nephilim?”). Others believe the angels’ sin probably occurred before the fall of Adam and Eve. Those who fell became the devil and the evil angels (probably the demons and evil spirits referred to in the New Testament).
For “hell,” see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

2:5 “A preacher of righteousness” is a description of Noah found nowhere else in Scripture. However, similar descriptions are used of him in Josephus (Antiquities, 1.3.1), 1 Clement (7.6; 9.4) and the Sibylline Oracles (1.128–29).

2:6 See “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.”

2:13 “Feast” no doubt refers to “love feasts,” as in Jude 12 (see “The Love Feast”).

2:14 The Greek for “seduce” depicts a fisherman who attempts to lure and catch fish with bait. For a parallel use, see James 1:14 and its note.

2:17 For “blackest darkness,” see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

2:18 “People who are just escaping” refers to new converts who had just broken away from pagan friends. The depraved, false teachers preyed on new converts who had not yet had an opportunity to develop spiritual resistance.

2:21 In its early days, Christianity was known as “the Way” (see Ac 9:2).

3:3 These “scoffers” may have been the Gnostics (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”), who resisted the ideas of a time of judgment and of moral accountability.

3:10 In the first century A.D. the term “elements” referred to such entities as earth, air, fire and water.

3:15 It has been suggested that what Paul wrote to the recipients of 2 Peter may have been a copy of Romans, which would have been sent to the churches as a circular letter.

3:16 Peter placed Paul’s letters on the same level of authority as the inspired writings of the Old Testament. (see “The Old Testament Canon” and “The New Testament Canon.”)

1:1 At the outset, John counteracted the heresy of the Gnostics (see the note on 2:3) by testifying that the one who has existed from eternity “became flesh” (Jn 1:14).

1:10 The Gnostics (see the note on 2:3) denied that their immoral actions were sinful.

2:3 Forty-five times John used two Greek verbs ordinarily translated “know.” One of these verbs is related to the name of the Gnostics, the heretical sect that claimed to have a special knowledge (Greek gnosis) of God (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”).

2:7 We cannot be sure whether this letter was written before or after John’s Gospel. Tradition says that the Gospel was written late in the life of John, toward the end of the first century. Evidences of a late date for the letter are (1) that Christianity had apparently been so long in existence that its precepts could be spoken of as an “old command” and (2) signs that the Gnostic movement had begun, although it was not yet fully developed.

2:9 For “brother,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

2:12–14 “Dear children” (v. 12–13), as elsewhere in this letter, probably refers to all of John’s readers, including fathers and young men. The terms “fathers” and “young men” may, however, describe two different levels of spiritual maturity. Some hold that all three terms refer to degrees of maturity in the faith.

2:18 With other New Testament writers, John viewed the whole period beginning with Christ’s first coming as the last days (see “Jewish Eschatology in the First Century A.D.”).

2:23 See 2 John 9 and its note.

2:27 Gnostic teachers insisted that the teaching of the apostles was to be supplemented with the “higher knowledge” that they (see the note on 2:3) claimed to possess. John’s response was that what his readers had been taught under the Spirit’s ministry through the apostles was not only adequate but constituted the only reliable truth.

3:1 For “children of God,” see the note on Romans 8:15.

3:13 For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

4:1 False prophets, such as the Gnostics of John’s day (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”), speak under the influence of spirits alienated from God.

4:2 The Gnostics taught that the divine Christ came upon the human Jesus at his baptism and then left him at the cross, so that it was only the man Jesus who died.

4:3 For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

4:14 For Jesus as Savior, see the note on Luke 2:11.

5:1 John wrote at a time when members of a family were closely associated as a unit under the headship of the father. He therefore used the family as an illustration to show that anyone who loves God the Father will naturally love God’s children.

5:6 The majority of interpreters see water and blood as summing up the totality of Jesus’ humanity and ministry on Earth. His baptism (water) and crucifixion (blood) frame his ministry. John was reacting to the Gnostic heretics of his day who taught that the heavenly Christ descended upon the man Jesus at baptism but departed before he was crucified. Hence, John explained, Jesus came not only by baptismal water but also through the blood of the cross.

5:7 The Old Testament law required “two or three witnesses” (Dt 17:6). At the end of this verse, some older English versions add the words found in the NIV text note. But the addition is not found in any Greek manuscript or New Testament translation prior to the fourteenth century. (see “Early Scribal Emendation” and “Textual Criticism.”)

5:16 In the context of this letter, directed against Gnostic teaching, which denied the incarnation and threw off all moral restraints, it is probable that the “sin that leads to death” is a reference to the Gnostics’ adamant and persistent denial of the truth and to their shameless immorality.

1 For “elder,” see the note on 1 Timothy 3:1. In his later years John functioned as an elder, perhaps of the Ephesian church. The apostle Peter held a similar position (see 1Pe 5:1 and its note).
Second John is addressed to “the chosen lady and her children.” Many suppose that the reference is to a church and its spiritual children, while others hold that a particular individual named Kyria (Greek for lady) is intended.

7–11 This section deals with the basic Gnostic heresy attacked in 1 John (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”): that the Son of God did not become flesh but that he temporarily came upon the man Jesus between his baptism and crucifixion (see the notes on 1Jn 4:2; 5:6).

7 For false doctrines, see the note on Colossians 2:8–23.

9 “The teaching of Christ” probably refers not to teaching given by Christ but to true teaching about Christ.

10 See “House Churches and Early Church Buildings.”

12 Paper was made from papyrus reeds, which were readily available and cheap. The ink (the Greek comes from a word that means “black”) was made by mixing carbon, water and gum or oil. (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”

1 For “elder,” see the note on 2 John 1.
Gaius was a common Roman name. This particular Gaius, a Christian in one of the churches of the province of Asia, was standing firm while his community was struggling under the pressure of a single antagonist, Diotrephes, a powerful church leader who had gained control and rejected John’s authority. The Christian community under John’s influence was evidently made up of scattered congregations that had brought in some converts who had no knowledge of apostolic tradition. When a source of authority—like the apostle John—stepped forward, some resisted submitting.

4 “My children” may refer either to John’s converts or to believers currently under his spiritual guidance.

7 For “the Name,” see the note on Jeremiah 16:21. Today Orthodox Jews often address God by the title Ha-Shem (“The Name”).

9 John was alluding to a previous letter from himself that is now lost.
Diotrephes must have had considerable influence since he was able to exclude people from the church fellowship (see v. 10).

10 “Puts them out of the church” refers to excommunication (see the notes on Jn 9:22; 1Ti 1:20).

12 Demetrius may have been the bearer of this letter.

1–12 The book of Jude was regarded by the second-century church father Origen as “of but few verses yet full of mighty words of heavenly wisdom.”

1 There are six different persons named Judas (the Greek form of the Hebrew name Judah or Jude) in the New Testament, but the author of this letter was almost certainly Jesus’ brother (see Mk 6:3, where he is called “Judas”; see also “The Family of Joseph, Mary and Jesus”). Both James and Jude in the opening of their New Testament letters demonstrated their Christian humility and their faith in the deity of Jesus by referring to themselves as servants of Jesus Christ, rather than as his brothers in the flesh. Beyond this we know of Jude from Scripture only that, like his brothers, he did not believe in Jesus during his earthly ministry (Jn 7:5) but became his follower after the resurrection (Ac 1:14). Hegesippus (c. A.D. 11—c. 180) stated that two of Jude’s grandsons were brought before the emperor Domitian as descendants of David but that both were dismissed as harmless peasants.

4 Jude implied that the false teachers claimed to be Christian but noted that they somehow abused the grace of God in Christ. Accusations about their immoral lifestyle lay at the heart of his critique.

6 A popular tradition about angels who had sinned was associated with the reference in Genesis 6:1–4 to the “sons of God” who had come down to Earth and cohabitated with the “daughters of men” (see the note on 2Pe 2:4). Jewish interpreters had built an extensive story, identifying the “sons of God” as angels and attributing much evil in our world to their influence. These stories were elaborated in 1 Enoch, a pseudepigraphical book (see the note on vv. 14–15 and “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature”). Since Jude quoted from that book in verses 14–15, verse 6 is perhaps best interpreted in light of that passage.
Jude’s dependence upon Jewish sources apart from the Old Testament has been a cause of controversy. In addition to quoting 1 Enoch in verses 14–15, in verse 9 Jude cited a story from another noncanonical book (The Testament of Moses or The Assumption of Moses; see the note on v. 9). Jude may have viewed the story as legend and used it as illustration.

7 God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah by pouring down “burning sulfur” (Ge 19:24; see “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah”)—a foretaste of the eternal fire that is to come.

8 “Pollute their own bodies” may be a reference to the homosexual practices of Sodom and Gomorrah (see vv. 4, 7 and the note on v. 7; see also “Homosexuality in the Ancient World”).

9 According to several church fathers, this verse is based upon a noncanonical work called The Assumption of Moses or The Testament of Moses (from approximately the first century A.D.; see the note on v. 6 and “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature”). Other New Testament quotations from, or allusions to, nonbiblical works include Paul’s quotations of Aratus (see Ac 17:28 and its note), Menander (see 1Co 15:33 and its note) and Epimenides (see Tit 1:12 and its note). Such usage in no way suggests that the quotations, or the books from which they were taken, are divinely inspired. It only means that the Biblical author found the quotations to be a helpful confirmation, clarification or illustration.

12 For “love feasts,” see “The Love Feast.”
For “shepherds,” see the note on 1 Peter 2:25. Here it refers to the false teachers.

13 The ancient Hebrews were not a sea people. The sea in the Bible is symbolic of restlessness, instability and death (see also Isa 57:20; Jer 49:23; Jas 1:6; Rev 13:1).

14–15 This quotation is from the book of Enoch, which purports to have been written by the Enoch of Genesis 5 but actually did not appear until the first century B.C. (see “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature”).

1:1 Though an apostle, John identified himself not in terms of his authority over the churches but as a servant of God, a title often applied to Old Testament prophets (see, e.g., Jer 29:19; see also the note on 1Pe 4:16). This title could reflect honor as well as submission: Servants of powerful masters like Caesar often enjoyed more prestige than aristocrats. (see “Who Wrote Revelation?.”)

1:4 The leading council of Asiarchs (cf. “officials of the province” at Ac 19:31) met each year in a revolving succession of seven strategic Asian cities. These were the same cities to which John wrote, with the exception that he replaced Cyzicus, far to the north, with the more central Thyatira. These seven churches were located about 50 miles (80 km) apart, forming a circle in the Roman province of Asia (modern western Turkey), moving clockwise north from Ephesus and coming around full circle to Laodicea, east of Ephesus (see “The Seven Churches of Asia Minor”). They may have been postal centers serving seven geographic regions. Apparently the entire book of Revelation was sent to each church (see v. 11).
“Who is, and who was, and who is to come” is a paraphrase of the divine name from Exodus 3:14–15 (see “YHWH: The Name of God in the Old Testament”).

1:10 The “Lord’s Day” is a technical term for the first day of the week—so named because Jesus rose from the dead on that day. It was also the day on which the Christians met (see Ac 20:7) and took up collections (see 1Co 16:2).

1:11 A scroll contained pieces of papyrus or parchment sewn together and rolled on a spindle (see the note on Ex 17:14; see also “Writing Materials in the Ancient World” and “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”).

1:12 Throughout the Mediterranean world, a seven-branched lampstand, or menorah, stood as a recognizable symbol of Israel and Judaism. The fact that each of the seven local congregations (Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia and Laodicea) was symbolized by a lampstand likely suggested to John the larger church, the full people of God.

1:13 Why Jesus decided to call himself “son of man” (82 times in the Gospels; see also Ac 7:56; Rev 14:14) is not known, despite much scholarly debate on the question. Often he put his statements about himself in the third person, evidently to infuse his teachings with added force. Whenever he did this he used this phrase as a name for himself—no doubt taken from the prophecy in Daniel 7:13, with which the Jews were familiar. Jesus, in assuming this title, may in effect have been saying to the Jews, “I am the son of man in that prophecy.” This title emphasized his union with humankind and was also a name no one would criticize. Jesus could not openly refer to himself as the Son of God or as the Messiah, as the Jews would not have accepted him as such, but they did not object to the “son of man.” On the other hand, we have no record of anyone else ever calling Jesus by that name.
The high priest wore a full-length robe (Ex 28:4; 29:5). Reference to Christ as high priest is supported by the reference to the golden sash around his chest.

1:16 “Sword” here is likely a reference to a long Thracian sword (also in 2:12, 16; 6:8; 19:15, 21), while the one in 6:4 and 13:10 and 14 is a small sword or dagger. The sword symbolizes divine judgment.

1:17 To fall at someone’s feet was a sign of the greatest respect and awe.
The right hand represented the authority of an individual (see “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking”).

1:18 In ancient palaces, the one holding the keys was an important official—the only person controlling access into the king’s presence.
“Death and Hades” together represent death’s power (see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”). Because of his victory on the cross, Jesus holds these powerful keys. In the book of Revelation death and Hades are four times associated (see also 6:8; 20:13–14), being treated as almost synonymous terms. In the last verse mentioned, death and Hades are together to be cast into the lake of fire—doomed to utter destruction.

2:1–7 Proconsular Asia in New Testament times was the Roman province that contained the southwestern part of Asia Minor, and in particular “the seven churches in the province of Asia” (1:4) addressed in the first three chapters of Revelation. In the New Testament the word “Asia” occurs 19 times, always referring to this division, not to the whole continent or even to Anatolia. Its capital was Ephesus, where both Paul and John had labored. For information on the city of Ephesus, see “Early History of Ephesus” and “Ephesus During the Time of Paul.”

2:6 The Nicolaitans were a heretical sect within the church that had worked out a compromise with the pagan society. They apparently taught that spiritual liberty allowed them to practice idolatry and immorality. Tradition identifies them with Nicolas, the proselyte of Antioch who was purported to be one of the first seven deacons in the Jerusalem church (Ac 6:5), though the evidence for this claim is merely circumstantial. A similar group at Pergamum held to the teaching of the Old Testament Balaam (Rev 2:14–15) through whose influence the Israelites had eaten food sacrificed to idols and committed fornication; others at Thyatira were followers of the wicked queen Jezebel (v. 20). From their heretical tendencies it would appear that all three groups were Nicolaitans. A sect of Nicolaitans existed later among the Gnostics in the third century, as is known from church fathers of the time (Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian). It probably had its origin in the group condemned in Revelation.

2:7 See “The Tree of Life in Jewish Imagery.”
“Paradise” was originally a Persian word for a pleasure garden. In Revelation it symbolizes the eschatological state in which God and believers are restored to the perfect fellowship that existed before sin entered the world.

2:8–11 Most of the cities of Old Testament “Asia” (see the note on vv. 1–7) have disappeared, but Smyrna remains a great city even now (Izmir in modern Turkey), and Philadelphia remained in existence until the Middle Ages.
The Smyrna of John’s day was a port on the western coast of Asia Minor at the head of the gulf into which the Hermus River flows, a well-protected harbor and the natural terminal of a great inland trade route up the Hermus Valley. Smyrna’s early history was checkered. The city was destroyed by the Lydians in 627 B.C. and for three centuries was little more than a village. It was refounded in the middle of the fourth century before Christ, after Alexander’s capture of Sardis, and rapidly became the chief city of Asia. Smyrna was shrewd enough to mark the rising star of Rome. A common danger, the aggression of Antiochus the Great of Syria, united Smyrna with Rome at the end of the third century before Christ, and the bond then formed remained unbroken. Smyrna was, indeed, the handiest of the bridgeheads, balancing the naval power of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea. Smyrna referred to its ancient alliance with Rome when, in A.D. 26, the city petitioned Tiberius to allow the community to build a temple to his deity. Permission was granted, and Smyrna constructed the second Asian temple to the emperor. The city had worshiped Rome as a spiritual power since 195 B.C.; hence Smyrna’s historical pride in her Caesar cult (see “The Imperial Cult”).
Smyrna was famous for science, medicine and the majesty of its buildings. Apollonius of Tyana referred to its “crown of porticoes,” a circle of beautiful public buildings that ringed the summit of Mount Pagos like a diadem; hence John’s reference in v. 10. Polycarp, Smyrna’s martyred bishop of A.D. 155, had been a disciple of John.

2:9 For “synagogue of Satan,” see the note on 3:9 and “The Seven Churches of Asia Minor.”

2:10 See “The Early Persecution of the Church.”
“Crown” does not refer to a royal crown (12:3; 13:1; 19:12) but to the garland or wreath awarded to the winner in athletic contests (3:11; 4:4, 10; 6:2; 9:7; 12:1; 14:14; see the note on 1Co 9:24–27). For commentary on the meaning of the “crown” as it specifically applied to Smyrna, see the note on 2:8–11. For a comparison between the victory crown and the royal crown, see the note of 12:3.

2:11 In Smyrna “overcoming” meant withstanding persecution (see “The Early Persecution of the Church”). Jewish teaching already identified martyrdom with overcoming, but Revelation underlined the image of the triumphant Lion as a slain Lamb (5:5–6, 9, 12).

2:12–17 Pergamum (modern Bergama), was located in the Caicus Valley, 15 miles (25 km) inland. Royally situated on a cone-shaped hill rising 1,000 feet (305 m) above the surrounding valley, its name in Greek means “citadel.” Pergamum was the capital of the region until the last of the Pergamenian kings bequeathed his realm to Rome in 133 B.C., after which it became the chief town of the new province of Asia and the site of the first temple of the Caesar cult, erected to Rome and Augustus in 29 B.C. (see “The Imperial Cult”). A second shrine was later dedicated to Trajan, and the multiplication of such honor marked the prestige of Pergamum in pagan Asia. The worship of Asclepius and Zeus were also widespread (see “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans”). The symbol of the former was a serpent, and Pausanias described his cult image “with a staff in one hand and the other on the head of a serpent.” Pergamenian coins illustrate the importance that the community attached to this cult. Caracalla is shown on one coin, saluting a serpent twined around a bending sapling.
On the crag above Pergamum stood a thronelike altar to Zeus (v. 13), which is now in the Berlin Museum. It commemorated the defeat of a Gallic inroad and was decorated with a representation of the conflict between the gods and the giants, the latter depicted as monsters with snakelike tails. To deepen Christian horror at Pergamum’s obsession with the serpent-image, Zeus was called in this connection “Zeus the Savior.” It is natural that the “Nicolaitans” (see the note on v. 6) should have flourished in a place where politics and paganism were so closely allied (v. 15) and where pressure upon Christians to compromise must have been heavy.
Pergamum, an ancient seat of culture, possessed a library that rivaled Alexandria’s. Parchment (charta Pergamena) was invented at Pergamum to free the library from Egypt’s jealous ban on the export of papyrus.
The sword here is the long sword (see the note on 1:16).

2:13 Antipas was the first martyr of Asia. According to tradition he was slowly roasted to death in a bronze kettle during the reign of Domitian (A.D. 81–96).

2:15 For “Nicolaitans,” see the note on verse 6.

2:16 The sword here is the long sword (see the note on 1:16).

2:17 Certain kinds of stones were used as tokens for various purposes. In the context of a Messianic banquet, the white stone was probably for the purpose of admission.
For “new name,” see the notes on Genesis 1:5 and 17:5.

2:18–29 Thyatira (modern Akhisar), a city in the province of Asia on the boundary of Lydia and Mysia, has no illustrious history and is scarcely mentioned by ancient writers. It was founded by Seleucus I (311–280 B.C.) as a military outpost. Coinage suggests that, lying as it did on a great highway linking two river valleys, Thyatira was a garrison town for many centuries. Its ancient Anatolian deity was a warlike figure armed with a battle-ax and mounted on a charger. An odd coin or two depicts a female deity wearing a battlemented crown.
The city was a center of commerce, and its records preserve references to more trade guilds than those listed for any other Asian city. Lydia, whom Paul met in Philippi, was a Thyatiran seller of “turkey red,” the product of the madder root (Ac 16:14). It is curious to find another woman, Jezebel, nicknamed after the princess who by marriage sealed Ahab’s trading partnership with the Phoenicians, leading a party of compromise in the Thyatiran church (Rev 2:20–24; see the note on v. 20). The necessity of membership in a trade guild invited the Christians of Thyatira to compromise and opened the door to many temptations. Thyatira played a significant role in the later history of the church.

2:20 Shopkeepers or craftsmen risked loss of income by refusing to join guilds, whose meetings included common meals dedicated to patron deities (see “ ‘Temple Restaurants’ and Food Sacrificed to Idols” and “The Early Persecution of the Church”). Aspects of emperor worship also affected nearly every guild (see “The Imperial Cult”). This situation likely contributed to “Jezebel’s” appeal. This false prophetess, claiming to offer “deep secrets” (v. 24), deceived and misled God’s people, advocating participation in local civic and commercial life despite the inevitable compromise with paganism.

2:22 Disease was often considered an appropriate punishment for sin.

2:23 The “mind” (lit., “kidney”) often referred to the will and the affections, while the “heart” designated the center of rational life (see the notes on Ps 7:9; 139:13, as well as “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology”).

2:24 Later Gnosticism (see “The Gnostics and Their Scriptures”) taught that in order to defeat Satan one had to enter his stronghold—to experience evil deeply.

2:27 “Rule” is literally “shepherd,” a common metaphor for rulers (see the notes on Ps 23:1; Isa 44:28).

3:1–6 Sardis (modern Sart), the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, was a city of great wealth and fame. Its acropolis, a natural citadel on the northern spur of Mount Tmolus, rose 1,500 feet (457 m) above the lower valley. Sardis was full of sophisticated paganism. The lack of mention of persecution probably reflects the secure position of its Jewish community. Jesus’ followers evidently coexisted peacefully with the synagogue community and city establishment. Unaccustomed to opposition, they had grown comfortable in their relationship with the world. Their spiritual state (deadness) prevented them from realizing that Jesus’ resurrection power was available to them.

3:7–13 Philadelphia (modern Alashehir) was a Lydian city founded by Attalus II Philadelphus (159–138 B.C.), who was known for his devotion to his brother Eumenes. His name (meaning “brotherly love”) was perpetuated by the city. Philadelphia was a city of commercial importance, conveniently located as the gateway to the high central plateau of the Roman province of Asia in Asia Minor. Philadelphia, an outpost of Hellenism in native Anatolia, lay under Mount Tmolus in a wide vale that opens into the Hermus Valley and along which the post road ran. Its location on a broad, low, easily defended hill explains the city’s long stand against the Turks.
The district is disastrously seismic, and the great earthquake of A.D. 17 ruined it completely. Placed directly above the fault, Philadelphia was tormented by 20 years of recurrent quakes after that calamity. Hence, stated the Biblical historian Ramsay, is derived the imagery of verse 12. The “new name” in this verse is certainly a reference to the proposal to rename the city Neocaesarea in gratitude for Tiberius’s generous earthquake relief.
The district was an area of vine growing and wine production and therefore a center for the worship of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility (see “The Cult of Dionysus”).
The believers of the Philadelphian church were like the Jewish Christians for whom John wrote his Gospel. Many had likely been expelled from their synagogues (see the notes on Jn 9:22; 1Ti 1:20). A Christian witness, despite Muslim invasion and pressure, was maintained in Philadelphia through medieval and into modern times.

3:9 “Synagogue of Satan” is a bold metaphor directed against unbelieving and hostile Jews (see 2:9; see also “The Seven Churches of Asia Minor”). The Jewish synagogue was a gathering place for worship, study and communal activities (see the notes on Mk 1:21; Lk 21:12).
To fall at someone’s feet was an appropriate act of submission in the Near East.

3:12 For “pillar in the temple,” see the note on 7:15.
Names revealed character. Christ’s new name symbolizes all that he is by virtue of his redemptive work for humankind.

3:14–22 A city in Asia Minor founded by Antiochus II (261–246 B.C.), Laodicea (near modern Denizli) was the wealthiest city in Phrygia during Roman times and the head of the “circuit” of “the seven churches in the province of Asia” (1:4). The city lay on one of the great Asian trade routes, and this ensured its commercial prosperity. Laodicea was a leading banking center (in 51 B.C. Cicero, en route to his Cilician province, cashed drafts there), and it was no doubt the rich banking firms that in A.D. 60 financed the reconstruction of the city after the great earthquake that had destroyed it. Self-sufficient Laodicea refused the Senate’s earthquake relief.
The Lycus Valley produced a glossy black wool, the source of black cloaks and carpets, for which the city was renowned. Laodicea was also the home of a medical school and the manufacture of collyrium, a famous eye salve. The scornful imagery of the apocalyptic letter to Laodicea was obviously based on these activities. It also made reference to the soda-laden, lukewarm water piped in from Hierapolis, whose thermal springs ran into the Maeander.
Sir William Ramsay suggested that the city’s exposed position and easy wealth caused the growth in the community of that spirit of compromise and worldly mindedness castigated in Revelation. Under Diocletian, Laodicea, still prosperous, was made the chief city of the province of Phrygia.

3:16 “Hot” most likely refers to the tepid, medicinal waters of nearby Hierapolis (see “The Seven Churches of Asia Minor”, as well as the note on vv. 14–22). By the time the water was piped from Hierapolis to Laodicea, it was lukewarm.

3:18 This verse refers to the three items in which Laodicea took great pride: financial wealth, an extensive textile industry and a famous eye salve (see the note on vv. 14–22).

3:20 Jesus did not reject these believers. He wanted in fact to dine with them—an image associated with intimacy in the ancient world (see “Jewish Meals and Meal Customs”). Inviting Jesus in for a meal during his ministry years would have been a gesture of hospitality not uncommon even from an acquaintance.

4:2 The depiction of God ruling from his throne in heaven is a regular feature of the Old Testament (e.g., Ps 47:8; see “Thrones in the Ancient World”).

4:3 See “Precious Stones of the Biblical World.”

4:5 Awe-inspiring natural phenomena are symbolic of the majesty and power of God (see “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany”).

4:6 The “sea of glass” may be the basin in the heavenly temple, whose counterpart in the earthly temple was referred to as the Sea (1Ki 7:23–25). Other features of the temple in heaven are: the lamps (Rev 4:5), the altar (6:9), the altar of incense (8:3) and the ark of the covenant (11:19). (see “The Tabernacle and the Ark”, “Solomon’s Temple and Other Ancient Temples”, “The Horned Altar” and “Herod’s Temple.”)
For “clear as crystal,” see the note on Job 28:17.
Ezekiel in a vision also saw four living creatures (see Eze 1:6, 10 and the note on Eze 1:5), which he called cherubim in Ezekiel 10:15. Here in Revelation, the four living creatures are said to have six wings each (Rev. 4:8), a characteristic of the seraphs of Isaiah 6:2–3. The four living creatures, with features of the cherubim and the seraphs, are portrayed as an exalted order of angelic beings whose task it is to guard the heavenly throne and to lead in the worship and adoration of God (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

4:11 Jewish tradition suggested that God created the world for the sake of humanity or specifically for Israel, but Christians see his ultimate purpose in Christ’s saving work. The emperor Domitian expected worship as “lord and god,” but the heavenly choirs of angels and the redeemed people hail the true “Lord and God”—the One who created and rules over his universe.

5:1 For “scroll,” see the note on 1:11, “Writing Materials in the Ancient World” and “Scrolls, Seals and Codices.” Like the stone tablets of the Old Testament covenant law, this scroll had writing on both sides. The fibers of a papyrus scroll run horizontally on the inside, which makes writing easier than on the reverse side (where the fibers are vertical). For this reason, most ancient people wrote on the inside of a scroll, using the back only if they ran out of space. Legal documents were usually closed by listing witnesses and were sealed shut with wax over the threads that tied the scroll shut. The witnesses would press their seals into this wax. Seals reserved the contents for the rightful recipient(s)—as authenticated and attested by the witnesses.

5:6 The idea of the lamb as a victorious military leader seems to have come from the apocalyptic tradition (1 Enoch 90:9; Testament of Joseph 19:8). See “Apocalyptic Literature Outside the Bible.”
The horn is an ancient Jewish symbol for power or strength (cf. Dt 33:17). Seven horns would have symbolized full strength.

5:8 The ancient harp was a stringed instrument used especially to accompany songs (see Ps 33:2, as well as “Ancient Musical Instruments”).
The bowl referred to was a flat, shallow cup. Here it was used to hold incense, a normal feature of Hebrew ritual (see “Incense”).
In later Jewish thought, such as in Tobit 12:15 and 3 Baruch 11 (both Apocryphal books), angels were often depicted as presenting the prayers of the saints to God.

5:9–10 See “Early Christian Hymnody.”

6:4 For “sword,” see the note on 1:16.

6:5 The “pair of scales” was a balance beam with scales hung from either end. Weights were originally stones (see the note on Pr 16:11).

6:6 One quart of wheat would have been enough for only one person, while three quarts of the less nutritious barley would have been barely enough for a small family. Famine had inflated prices to at least ten times their normal level.

6:8 For “Hades,” see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.” See also the note on “death and Hades” at 1:18.
The sword referred to here is the long sword (see the note on 1:16).

6:9 In Old Testament ritual the blood of the slaughtered animal was poured out at the base of the altar (Ex 29:12; Lev 4:7).

6:10 For expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on Psalm 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

6:11 Jewish thought held that God rules the world according to a predetermined time schedule (2Es 4:35–37, an Apocyrphal book never accepted into the standard Protestant canon) and that the end awaits the death of a certain number of the righteous (1 Enoch 47:4).
For “brothers,” see the note on Romans 1:13.

6:12 See the note on sackcloth at Job 16:15, as well as “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”

6:13 Late figs are green figs appearing in the winter; they are easily blown from the tree, which at that season has no leaves.

6:15 A general was a Roman officer who commanded a cohort of about 1,000 men. For “freeman,” see “Labor and Welfare in the Ancient Word.”

7:2 Ancient documents were folded and tied, and a lump of clay was pressed over the knot. The sender would then stamp the hardening clay with his signet ring or roll it with a cylinder seal, which authenticated and protected the contents (see “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”). The sealing in chapter 7 results in the name of the Lord being stamped on the forehead of each of his followers (see 9:4; 14:1; cf. 22:4). For the background, see Ezekiel 9:4, where the mark was the Hebrew letter Taw, made like an x or + (see the note on this verse). Its primary purpose here is to protect the people of God in the coming judgments.

7:9 See “Palm Branches in Israel.”

7:11 For information on the four living creatures, see the note on 4:6.

7:15 All 16 references to the temple in Revelation use the word that designates the temple proper—the place where God’s presence dwelled—rather than its larger precincts. No longer may only one tribe (the Levites) enter into God’s presence, for all believers have been made priests in God’s service (see 1:6; 5:10; 20:6).

7:17 Ancient kings often referred to themselves as shepherds of their people (see Ps 23:1 and its note).

8:2 In Old Testament times the trumpet served to announce important events and to give signals in time of war (see “Trumpets in the Ancient World”).

8:3 A censer was a firepan used to hold live charcoal for the burning of incense (cf. Ex 27:3; 1Ki 7:50; see “Incense”).

8:4 see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

8:5 See the note on 4:5.

8:7–8, 10, 12–13 See “Trumpets in the Ancient World.”

8:11 Wormwood, a plant with a strong, bitter taste, is used here as a metaphor for calamity and sorrow. It is not poisonous, but its bitterness does suggest death.

9:1 The ancients believed that the Abyss was the subterranean abode of demonic hordes. This Greek word, meaning “very deep” or “bottomless,” is used in the Septuagint to translate the Hebrew word for the primeval deep (see Ge 1:2; 7:11; Pr 8:28; see also the note on Lk 8:31 and “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”).

9:3 Locusts traveling in enormous swarms could strip a land of all vegetation. As recently as 1866, 200,000 people died in a famine in Algiers following a locust plague. (see “Locusts in the Ancient Near East.”)
Scorpions are large, spider-like organisms that injure or kill by means of a poisonous barb in the tail.

9:4 For “the seal of God on their foreheads,” see the note on 7:2.

9:5 “Five months” is a limited period of time suggested by the life cycle of the locust or the duration of the dry season (spring through late summer, about five months), in which the danger of a locust invasion is always present in this part of the world.

9:6 Cornelius Gallus, a Roman poet living in the first century B.C., wrote: “Worse than any wound is the wish to die and yet not be able to do so.”

9:8 For a discussion of literal and figurative references to hair in the Bible, see the note on Psalm 40:12. See also “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”

9:9 The breastplate was a coat of mail that protected the wearer’s midsection. “Breastplates of iron” is a reference to thin iron pieces riveted to a leather base.

9:10 For “five months,” see the note on verse 5.

9:13 See “Trumpets in the Ancient World.”
The horns were projections at the four corners of an altar (Ex 27:2; see also “The Horned Altar”). Those fleeing judgment could seek mercy by taking hold of these horns (see 1Ki 1:50–51; 2:28; see also the note on Am 3:14).

9:14 See “The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.”

9:17 For “breastplates,” see the note on verse 9.

9:21 The magic arts involved the mixing of various ingredients for magical purposes. Believers at Ephesus publicly burned their books of magic, valued at 50,000 drachmas (Ac 19:19). (A drachma was a silver coin worth about a day’s wages.)

10:5–6 Raising one’s right hand was a part of oath taking (see Ge 14:22–23; Dt 32:40; see also “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking” and “Oaths in Jewish and Christian Practice”).

10:7 In apocalyptic thought mysteries were secrets preserved in heaven and revealed to the apocalyptist (see “Apocalyptic Literature Outside the Bible”). Here the mystery is that God has won the victory over the forces of evil and will reign for ever and ever.

10:9 Honey is used in the Bible as a standard of comparison for pleasant things, whether they are ultimately good or bad (see also Pr 5:3; 16:24; SS 4:11; 5:1; Eze 3:3).

11:1 “Reed” refers to a bamboo-like cane that often reached a height of 20 feet (6 m) and grew in abundance in the waters along the banks of the Jordan. Straight and light, the reed was a convenient measuring rod (see Eze 40:3; Zec 2:1–2).

11:2 The “outer court” was the court of the Gentiles, encompassing approximately 26 acres.

11:3 See the note on sackcloth at Job 16:15, as well as “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”

11:8–9 In the Near East the denial of burial was considered a flagrant violation of decency (see the note on Ps 63:10).

11:15 Trumpets were blown when a new king ascended his throne (see “Trumpets in the Ancient World”).

11:19 The Old Testament ark was a chest of acacia wood (see Dt 10:1–2, as well as “The Tabernacle and the Ark”) symbolizing the throne or presence of God among his people. It was probably destroyed when Nebuzaradan razed the temple in Jerusalem (see 2Ki 25:8–10). In the New Testament it symbolizes God’s faithfulness in keeping covenant with his people.
Awe-inspiring natural phenomena, such as lightning, thunder, earthquakes and hailstorms, are symbolic of the majesty and power of God (see “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany”).

12:1 For John the woman probably represented Israel or its faithful remnant, since the prophets often pictured righteous Israel as the mother of the restored future remnant (see Isa 54:1; 66:7–10; Mic 4:9–10; 5:3)—an image they mixed with that of Israel as a bride (see Isa 62:5). In Jewish tradition Zion or Jerusalem often appeared as a mother. In one passage God promised the suffering, pregnant Israel that she would truly bear new life in the time of the resurrection, the day of God’s wrath in which he would slay the serpent (see Isa 26:17–27:1).

12:3 Dragons abound in the mythology of ancient peoples (Leviathan in Canaanite lore and Set-Typhon, the red crocodile, in Egypt). In the Old Testament they were normally used metaphorically to depict the enemies of God and of Israel (see Ps 74:13–15; Isa 27:1; Eze 29:3 and their notes).
The word diadem does not occur in the NIV, but the Greek diadçma is used three times in Revelation (12:3; 13:1; 19:12) as an emblem of absolute power, distinguishable from the “crown” (Greek stephanos) mentioned elsewhere in the New Testament. The stephanos was awarded to victorious athletes, generals and early emperors of Rome, until Diocletian (c. A.D. 284–305) adopted the diadem as a symbol of his autocracy. Our Lord, too, will wear the diadem, as opposed to an ordinary crown (19:12).

12:7 Michael is an archangel who defeats Satan in heavenly warfare. In Daniel 12:1 he is the protector of Israel, who will deliver her from tribulation in the last days. (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”)

13:1 Multiple horns on one animal denote successive nations or rulers (see also Da 7:7–14; 8:3–22; Rev 17:3–16).
For “crown” (“diadem”), see the note on 12:3.
Roman emperors tended to assume titles of deity. Domitian, for example, was addressed as Dominus et Deus noster (“Our Lord and God”)—a “blasphemous name.” Emperor worship was compulsory (see “The Imperial Cult”).

13:10 The sword depicted here is the small sword or dagger (see the note on 1:16).

13:11–12 Most interpreters see a connection between the second beast and the emperor worship of John’s day (see “The Imperial Cult”).

13:14 The sword here is the small sword or dagger (see the note on 1:16).

13:15 Belief in statues that could speak is widely attested in ancient literature. Sometimes the image at a shrine would be hollow, enabling a priest to hide inside the statue and speak for the god. Ventriloquism and other forms of deception were also common.

13:16 Whatever its origin—possibly the branding of slaves or enemy soldiers, the sealing and stamping of official documents or the sign of the cross on the forehead of a new Christian—the mark of the beast apparently symbolized allegiance to the demands of emperor worship (see “The Imperial Cult”). In the final days of the antichrist it will be the ultimate test of loyalty.
The right hand had metaphorical significance in the ancient world (see “The ‘Right Hand’ in Ancient Thinking”).

13:17 In ancient times the letters of the alphabet served for numbers. Riddles using numerical equivalents for names were popular.

13:18 Some scholars surmise that the significance of the number associated with the beast was readily apparent to John’s original audience. The fact that the hearers were invited to interpret the riddle implies that the answer was available to believers in the seven churches. Various schemes for decoding these numbers result in such names as Euanthas, Lateinos and Nero Caesar. Others take 666 as a symbol for the trinity of evil and imperfection—each digit falls short of the perfect number 7.

14:1 In the Old Testament, Mount Zion was first the fortress of the pre-Israelite city of Jerusalem (see 2Sa 5:6–7 and the note on 2Sa 5:6) and later became a virtual synonym for Jerusalem (see “Jerusalem”). In Revelation, as in Hebrews 12:22–24, it signifies the heavenly Jerusalem, the eternal dwelling place of God and his people (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God”).

14:2 For “harps,” see “Ancient Musical Instruments.”

14:4 As a portrait of God’s army ready for holy war (see “Herem, Holy War”), the 144,000 resemble Israel’s troops who kept themselves from women prior to battle (cf. Dt 23:10; 1Sa 21:5; 2Sa 11:11). Revelation also portrays unrepentant humanity as a prostitute (Rev 17:1–5) and those faithful to Christ as a pure spouse (19:7; 21:2, 9). These 144,000 have refused to commit immorality with Babylon.

14:6 The term “gospel” may not simply refer to the “Good News.” In the prophetic tradition, “good news” included announcements of judgment on the enemies of God’s people (Na 1:15).

14:8 Ancient Babylon in Mesopotamia was the political, commercial and religious center of a world empire (see “Babylon”) noted for its luxury and moral decadence. The title “Babylon the Great” is taken from Daniel 4:30. According to some it is used in Revelation to signify Rome as the center of opposition to God and his people, while others believe that it represents the whole political and religious system of the world in general under the rule of the antichrist. In the view of still others it is to be understood as literal Babylon—rebuilt and restored.
The Greek word translated “maddening” here and in Revelation 18:3 can mean passion, but normally in Revelation it refers to anger (cf. 12:12; 15:1, 7; 16:1). God’s wine can be seen as righteous anger (judgment) against the “adulteries” Babylon has brought upon the nations. Ancients typically diluted every part of wine with two parts of water, except when their aim was to become drunk. But God administers this wine of his anger at “full strength” (14:10).

14:10 In the Old Testament God’s wrath is commonly pictured as a cup of wine to be drunk (see Ps 75:8; Isa 51:17; Jer 25:15; see also the note on v. 8).
Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by a rain of burning sulfur (see “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah”).

14:14 The “crown of gold” refers to a victory wreath of gold. See the notes on 2:10 and 12:3 for the comparison between the victory crown and the royal crown.
The Israelite sickle used for cutting grain was normally a flint or iron blade attached to a curved shaft of wood or bone (see the note on Mk 4:29).

14:18 This “sickle,” in contrast to the one of verse 14, refers to the smaller grape-knife with which the farmer cut the clusters of grapes from the vine.

14:19 See “The Winepress.” The treading of grapes was a common Old Testament figure for the execution of divine wrath (see Isa 63:3; La 1:15; Joel 3:13).

14:20 The approximate length of the Holy Land from north to south was 1,600 stadia or about 180 miles (300 km).

15:2 For “number of his name,” see the notes on 13:17–18; for “harps,” see the note on 5:8.

16:2 For “mark of the beast,” see the note on 13:16.

16:12 See “The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.”
The “kings from the East” were apparently Parthian rulers (17:15–18:24), to be distinguished from the “kings of the whole world” (16:14) who will wage the final war against Christ and the armies of heaven (19:11–21),

16:13 The frog is classified as an unclean animal (Lev 11:10). The imagery suggests the deceptive propaganda that will, in the last days, lead people to accept and support the cause of evil.

16:16 “Armageddon” probably stands for Har Mageddon, “the mountain of Megiddo” (see the note on Jdg 5:19; see also “Megiddo”). Many see no specific geographical reference in the designation and take it to be a symbol of the final overthrow of evil by God.

17:1 Ancient coins and other artwork depict many an ancient city as a wealthy goddess enthroned beside a river. Literal Babylon lived by “many waters” (Jer 51:13; see “Babylon”), as did most other ancient cities, including Rome. The “waters” may symbolize international power.

17:4 In more ways than one, Babylon was “dressed to kill.” Her purple and scarlet clothing indicated wealth, and the gold, precious stones and pearls further contributed to her splendor. John pictured a high-class prostitute who had intoxicated the nations with her hard-to-resist immorality (v. 2) but was herself drunk with the blood of the saints (v. 6).

17:7 For “mystery,” see the note on 10:7.

17:8 For “Abyss,” see the note on 9:1.

17:9 It may be significant that Rome began as a network of seven hill settlements on the eastern bank of the Tiber River. Her designation as the city on seven hills is commonplace among Roman writers (e.g., Virgil, Martial, Cicero).

18:1–24 The exiled Jewish Christian prophet John wrote a funeral dirge over the mightiest empire in the world. This thinly veiled attack on Rome could have brought the early church unwanted scrutiny and more persecution. John’s act must have appeared to his contemporary believers as courageous and full of faith—or as an invitation to mass martyrdom.

18:3 For “the maddening wine of her adulteries,” see the note on 14:8.
Rome’s mercantile empire had made it rich (see “Trade and Mercantilism in the Roman Empire”). Most of its people, though poor themselves, were seduced by its greatness.

18:12–13 Rome’s problem may have been not its wealth per se but unequal opportunity. The luxury items listed here represent status symbols or a squandering of resources at the expense of others’ essential needs.

18:12 Purple was an expensive dye since it was extracted a drop at a time from the murex shellfish.
Citron wood was a costly dark wood from north Africa—used for inlay work in luxurious furniture.
Marble was used to decorate public buildings and the homes of the very rich.

18:13 Myrrh and frankincense had been brought by the Magi as gifts for the infant Jesus (see Mt 2:11 and its note; see also “Incense”).

18:19 Throwing dust on one’s head was an act of sorrow and dismay (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).

18:20 For expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on Psalm 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

18:21 The “large millstone” here is reminiscent of the one in Mark 9:42 (see the note there). It was actually a “donkey millstone” (one large enough to require a donkey to turn it). A millstone cast into the sea was symbolic of absolute destruction.

19:1–6 For expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on Psalm 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

19:1 “Hallelujah” is a word of praise found in most of the languages into which the Bible has been translated. The word, often rendered “Praise the Lord,” was used by the writers of various psalms to invite all to join them in praising God (Ps 104:35; 105:45; 106:1, 48; 111:1; 112:1; 113:1, 9; 115:18; 116:19; 117:2; 135:1, 21; the first and last verses of Ps 146 to 150). The term in Revelation 19:1, 3, 4 and 6 is borrowed from these psalms.

19:7–8 The imagery of a wedding to express the intimate relationship between God and his people (“his bride”) has its roots in the prophetic literature of the Old Testament (e.g., Isa 54:5–7; Hos 2:19; see also “Weddings in Ancient Israel”). Compare the New Testament usage at Matthew 22:2–14 and Ephesians 5:32.

19:10 For “fell at his feet,” see the note on 1:17. The angel disallowed John’s worship and declared that he, too, was simply acting as God’s messenger. Many of John’s Jewish contemporaries believed that the Spirit of prophecy had been suppressed but would return during the Messianic age.

19:12 For “crown” (diadem), see the note on 12:3.

19:15 For “sharp sword,” see the note on 1:16. For “winepress,” see “The Winepress.”

19:20 Punishment by fire is prominent in both Biblical (see, e.g., La 1:13) and nonbiblical Jewish writings (e.g., 1 Enoch 54:1). Although the designation gehenna is not used here, this is what John was referring to (see the note on Mt 5:22).

19:21 The sword here is the long sword (see the note on 1:16).

20:1 For “Abyss,” see the note on 9:1.

20:4 For “his mark,” see the note on 13:16.

20:7 Some scholars have suggested that Satan’s release represents his own “second coming,” mocking Jesus’ future return to Earth. If so, in God’s providence it becomes merely the stage for his final destruction.

20:8 Gog and Magog symbolize the nations of the world as they band together for a final assault on God. The Old Testament background is Ezekiel 38–39 (see the note on Eze 38:2). Revelation draws on the warning in Ezekiel 39:6 that God will hurl fire on Magog, and especially on the threat of 38:22 that he will cast hailstones and burning sulfur on Gog’s army. Magog was a son of Japheth (Ge 10:2; 1Ch 1:5). Josephus applied this name to the Scythians (see the note on Col 3:11), but there is no evidence to support this identification.

20:13–14 See “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”, as well as the note on “death and Hades” at 1:18.

20:14–15 For “lake of fire,” see the note on 19:20.

21:6 For “the Alpha and the Omega,” etc., see the note on 1:8.

21:8 The magic arts in ancient times called for the mixing of various herbs to ward off evil.
For “fiery lake of burning sulfur,” see the note on 19:20.

21:11 See the note on crystal at Job 28:17.

21:16 The city was a perfect cube, as was the Most Holy Place of both the tabernacle and the later temple (see 1Ki 6:19–20). The entire city will be the place where believers will experience God’s presence.

21:18–21 See “Precious Stones of the Biblical World.”

22:1 See the note on crystal at Job 28:17.

22:2 For “tree of life,” see “The Tree of Life in Jewish Imagery.”

22:4 In ancient times criminals were banished from the presence of the king (see Est 7:8; cf. 2Sa 14:24).

22:8 See the note on 1:17.

22:10 See “Scrolls, Seals and Codices.”

22:13 For “the Alpha and the Omega,” etc., see the note on 1:8.

22:14 See “The Tree of Life in Jewish Imagery” and “The City Gate.”

22:15 The term “dogs” applied to all types of ceremonially impure persons.

22:19 See “The Tree of Life in Jewish Imagery.”

Genesis 1

^[1] 1:2 Or possibly became

^[2] 1:26 Hebrew; Syriac all the wild animals

Genesis 2

^[3] 2:2 Or ceased; also in verse 3

^[4] 2:5 Or land; also in verse 6

^[5] 2:5 Or land; also in verse 6

^[6] 2:6 Or mist

^[7] 2:7 The Hebrew for man (adam) sounds like and may be related to the Hebrew for ground (adamah); it is also the name Adam (see Gen. 2:20).

^[8] 2:12 Or good; pearls

^[9] 2:13 Possibly southeast Mesopotamia

^[10] 2:20 Or the man

^[11] 2:21 Or took part of the man’s side

^[12] 2:22 Or part

^[13] 2:23 The Hebrew for woman sounds like the Hebrew for man.

Genesis 3

^[14] 3:15 Or seed

^[15] 3:15 Or strike

^[16] 3:20, 4:1 Or The man

^[17] 3:20 Eve probably means living.

^[18] 3:24 Or placed in front

Genesis 4

^[19] 3:20, 4:1 Or The man

^[20] 4:1 Cain sounds like the Hebrew for brought forth or acquired.

^[21] 4:1 Or have acquired

^[22] 4:8 Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint, Vulgate and Syriac; Masoretic Text does not have “Let’s go out to the field.”

^[23] 4:15 Septuagint, Vulgate and Syriac; Hebrew Very well

^[24] 4:16 Nod means wandering (see verses 12 and 14).

^[25] 4:22 Or who instructed all who work in

^[26] 4:23 Or I will kill

^[27] 4:25 Seth probably means granted.

^[28] 4:26 Or to proclaim

Genesis 5

^[29] 5:2 Hebrew adam

^[30] 5:6 Father may mean ancestor; also in verses 7–26.

^[31] 5:29 Noah sounds like the Hebrew for comfort.

Genesis 6

^[32] 6:3 Or My spirit will not remain in

^[33] 6:3 Or corrupt

^[34] 6:14 The meaning of the Hebrew for this word is uncertain.

^[35] 6:15 Hebrew 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide and 30 cubits high (about 140 meters long, 23 meters wide and 13.5 meters high)

^[36] 6:16 Or Make an opening for light by finishing

^[37] 6:16 Hebrew a cubit (about 0.5 meter)

Genesis 7

^[38] 7:2 Or seven pairs; also in verse 3

^[39] 7:20 Hebrew fifteen cubits (about 6.9 meters)

^[40] 7:20 Or rose more than twenty feet, and the mountains were covered

Genesis 8

^[41] 8:21 Or man, for

Genesis 9

^[42] 9:20 Or soil, was the first

^[43] 9:26 Or be his slave

^[44] 9:27 Japheth sounds like the Hebrew for extend.

^[45] 9:27 Or their

Genesis 10

^[46] 10:2 Sons may mean descendants or successors or nations; also in verses 3, 4, 6, 7, 20–23, 29 and 31.

^[47] 10:4 Some manuscripts of the Masoretic Text and Samaritan Pentateuch (see also Septuagint and 1 Chron. 1:7); most manuscripts of the Masoretic Text Dodanim

^[48] 10:6 That is, Egypt; also in verse 13

^[49] 10:8 Father may mean ancestor or predecessor or founder; also in verses 13, 15, 24 and 26.

^[50] 10:10 Or Erech and Akkad—all of them in

^[51] 10:10 That is, Babylonia

^[52] 10:11 Or Nineveh with its city squares

^[53] 10:15 Or of the Sidonians, the foremost

^[54] 10:21 Or Shem, the older brother of

^[55] 10:23 See Septuagint and 1 Chron. 1:17; Hebrew Mash

^[56] 10:24 Hebrew; Septuagint father of Cainan, and Cainan was the father of

^[57] 10:25 Peleg means division.

Genesis 11

^[58] 11:2 Or from the east; or in the east

^[59] 11:2 That is, Babylonia

^[60] 11:9 That is, Babylon; Babel sounds like the Hebrew for confused.

^[61] 11:10 Father may mean ancestor; also in verses 11–25.

^[62] 11:12, 11:13 Hebrew; Septuagint (see also Luke 3:35, 36 and note at Gen. 10:24) 35 years, he became the father of Cainan. ¹³And after he became the father of Cainan, Arphaxad lived 430 years and had other sons and daughters, and then he died. When Cainan had lived 130 years, he became the father of Shelah. And after he became the father of Shelah, Cainan lived 330 years and had other sons and daughters

Genesis 12

^[63] 12:7 Or seed

Genesis 13

^[64] 13:15 Or seed; also in verse 16

Genesis 14

^[65] 14:1 That is, Babylonia; also in verse 9

^[66] 14:3 That is, the Dead Sea

^[67] 14:13 Or a relative; or an ally

^[68] 14:18 That is, Jerusalem

^[69] 14:19 Or Possessor; also in verse 22

^[70] 14:20 Or And praise be to

Genesis 15

^[71] 15:1 Or sovereign

^[72] 15:1 Or shield; / your reward will be very great

^[73] 15:2 The meaning of the Hebrew for this phrase is uncertain.

^[74] 15:18 Or Wadi

Genesis 16

^[75] 16:11 Ishmael means God hears.

^[76] 16:12 Or live to the east / of

^[77] 16:13 Or seen the back of

^[78] 16:14 Beer Lahai Roi means well of the Living One who sees me.

Genesis 17

^[79] 17:1 Hebrew El-Shaddai

^[80] 17:5 Abram means exalted father.

^[81] 17:5 Abraham means father of many.

^[82] 17:19 Isaac means he laughs.

Genesis 18

^[83] 18:3 Or O Lord

^[84] 18:6 That is, probably about 20 quarts (about 22 liters)

^[85] 18:10 Hebrew Then he

^[86] 18:12 Or husband

^[87] 18:22 Masoretic Text; an ancient Hebrew scribal tradition but the LORD remained standing before Abraham

^[88] 18:24 Or forgive; also in verse 26

^[89] 18:25 Or Ruler

Genesis 19

^[90] 19:14 Or were married to

^[91] 19:18 Or No, Lord; or No, my lord

^[92] 19:19 The Hebrew is singular.

^[93] 19:19 The Hebrew is singular.

^[94] 19:19 The Hebrew is singular.

^[95] 19:22 Zoar means small.

^[96] 19:37 Moab sounds like the Hebrew for from father.

^[97] 19:38 Ben-Ammi means son of my people.

Genesis 20

^[98] 20:16 That is, about 25 pounds (about 11.5 kilograms)

Genesis 21

^[99] 21:3 Isaac means he laughs.

^[100] 21:12 Or seed

^[101] 21:16 Hebrew; Septuagint the child

^[102] 21:31 Beersheba can mean well of seven or well of the oath.

Genesis 22

^[103] 22:13 Many manuscripts of the Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint and Syriac; most manuscripts of the Masoretic Text a ram behind [him]

^[104] 22:18 Or seed

Genesis 23

^[105] 23:3 Or the sons of Heth; also in verses 5, 7, 10, 16, 18 and 20

^[106] 23:11 Or sell

^[107] 23:11 Or sell

^[108] 23:11 Or sell

^[109] 23:15 That is, about 10 pounds (about 4.5 kilograms)

Genesis 24

^[110] 24:2 Or oldest

^[111] 24:7 Or seed

^[112] 24:10 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia

^[113] 24:22 That is, about 1/5 ounce (about 5.5 grams)

^[114] 24:22 That is, about 4 ounces (about 110 grams)

^[115] 24:36 Or his

^[116] 24:55 Or she

^[117] 24:63 The meaning of the Hebrew for this word is uncertain.

Genesis 25

^[118] 25:1 Or had taken

^[119] 25:10 Or the sons of Heth

^[120] 25:18 Or lived to the east of

^[121] 25:20 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia

^[122] 25:25 Esau may mean hairy; he was also called Edom, which means red.

^[123] 25:26 Jacob means he grasps the heel (figuratively, he deceives).

^[124] 25:30 Edom means red.

Genesis 26

^[125] 26:4 Or seed

^[126] 26:20 Esek means dispute.

^[127] 26:21 Sitnah means opposition.

^[128] 26:22 Rehoboth means room.

^[129] 26:33 Shibah can mean oath or seven.

^[130] 26:33 Beersheba can mean well of the oath or well of seven.

Genesis 27

^[131] 27:36 Jacob means he grasps the heel (figuratively, he deceives).

Genesis 28

^[132] 28:1 Or greeted

^[133] 28:2 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia; also in verses 5, 6 and 7

^[134] 28:3 Hebrew El-Shaddai

^[135] 28:12 Or ladder

^[136] 28:13 Or There beside him

^[137] 28:19 Bethel means house of God.

^[138] 28:20, 28:21 Or Since God … father’s house, the LORD

^[139] 28:21, 28:22 Or house, and the LORD will be my God, ²²then

Genesis 29

^[140] 29:17 Or delicate

^[141] 29:32 Reuben sounds like the Hebrew for he has seen my misery; the name means see, a son.

^[142] 29:33 Simeon probably means one who hears.

^[143] 29:34 Levi sounds like and may be derived from the Hebrew for attached.

^[144] 29:35 Judah sounds like and may be derived from the Hebrew for praise.

Genesis 30

^[145] 30:6 Dan here means he has vindicated.

^[146] 30:8 Naphtali means my struggle.

^[147] 30:11 Or “A troop is coming!”

^[148] 30:11 Gad can mean good fortune or a troop.

^[149] 30:13 Asher means happy.

^[150] 30:18 Issachar sounds like the Hebrew for reward.

^[151] 30:20 Zebulun probably means honor.

^[152] 30:24 Joseph means may he add.

^[153] 30:27 Or possibly have become rich and

Genesis 31

^[154] 31:18 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia

^[155] 31:21 That is, the Euphrates

^[156] 31:47 The Aramaic Jegar Sahadutha means witness heap.

^[157] 31:47 The Hebrew Galeed means witness heap.

^[158] 31:49 Mizpah means watchtower.

Genesis 32

^[159] 32:2 Mahanaim means two camps.

^[160] 32:7 Or camps; also in verse 10

^[161] 32:8 Or camp

^[162] 32:8 Or camp

^[163] 32:28 Israel means he struggles with God.

^[164] 32:30 Peniel means face of God.

^[165] 32:31 Hebrew Penuel, a variant of Peniel

Genesis 33

^[166] 33:17 Succoth means shelters.

^[167] 33:18 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia

^[168] 33:18 Or arrived at Shalem, a

^[169] 33:19 Hebrew hundred kesitahs; a kesitah was a unit of money of unknown weight and value.

^[170] 33:20 El Elohe Israel can mean God, the God of Israel or mighty is the God of Israel.

Genesis 34

^[171] 34:7 Or against

^[172] 34:10 Or move about freely; also in verse 21

^[173] 34:17 Hebrew daughter

^[174] 34:27 Or because

Genesis 35

^[175] 35:7 El Bethel means God of Bethel.

^[176] 35:8 Allon Bacuth means oak of weeping.

^[177] 35:9 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia; also in verse 26

^[178] 35:10 Jacob means he grasps the heel (figuratively, he deceives).

^[179] 35:10 Israel means he struggles with God.

^[180] 35:11 Hebrew El-Shaddai

^[181] 35:15 Bethel means house of God.

^[182] 35:18 Ben-Oni means son of my trouble.

^[183] 35:18 Benjamin means son of my right hand.

Genesis 36

^[184] 36:16 Masoretic Text; Samaritan Pentateuch (see also Gen. 36:11 and 1 Chron. 1:36) does not have Korah.

^[185] 36:22 Hebrew Hemam, a variant of Homam (see 1 Chron. 1:39)

^[186] 36:24 Vulgate; Syriac discovered water; the meaning of the Hebrew for this word is uncertain.

^[187] 36:26 Hebrew Dishan, a variant of Dishon

^[188] 36:31 Or before an Israelite king reigned over them

^[189] 36:37 Possibly the Euphrates

^[190] 36:39 Many manuscripts of the Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch and Syriac (see also 1 Chron. 1:50); most manuscripts of the Masoretic Text Hadar

Genesis 37

^[191] 37:3 The meaning of the Hebrew for richly ornamented is uncertain; also in verses 23 and 32.

^[192] 37:28 That is, about 8 ounces (about 0.2 kilogram)

^[193] 37:35 Hebrew Sheol

^[194] 37:36 Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint, Vulgate and Syriac (see also verse 28); Masoretic Text Medanites

Genesis 38

^[195] 38:29 Perez means breaking out.

^[196] 38:30 Zerah can mean scarlet or brightness.

Genesis 40

^[197] 40:16 Or three wicker baskets

^[198] 40:19 Or and impale you on a pole

^[199] 40:22, 41:13 Or impaled

Genesis 41

^[200] 40:22, 41:13 Or impaled

^[201] 41:38 Or of the gods

^[202] 41:43 Or in the chariot of his second-in-command; or in his second chariot

^[203] 41:43 Or Bow down

^[204] 41:45 That is, Heliopolis; also in verse 50

^[205] 41:51 Manasseh sounds like and may be derived from the Hebrew for forget.

^[206] 41:52 Ephraim sounds like the Hebrew for twice fruitful.

Genesis 42

^[207] 42:34 Or move about freely

^[208] 42:38 Hebrew Sheol

Genesis 43

^[209] 43:14 Hebrew El-Shaddai

Genesis 44

^[210] 44:29 Hebrew Sheol; also in verse 31

Genesis 45

^[211] 45:7 Or save you as a great band of survivors

^[212] 45:22 That is, about 7 1/2 pounds (about 3.5 kilograms)

Genesis 46

^[213] 46:13 Samaritan Pentateuch and Syriac (see also 1 Chron. 7:1); Masoretic Text Puvah

^[214] 46:13 Samaritan Pentateuch and some Septuagint manuscripts (see also Num. 26:24 and 1 Chron. 7:1); Masoretic Text Iob

^[215] 46:15 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia

^[216] 46:16 Samaritan Pentateuch and Septuagint (see also Num. 26:15); Masoretic Text Ziphion

^[217] 46:20 That is, Heliopolis

^[218] 46:27 Hebrew; Septuagint the nine children

^[219] 46:27 Hebrew (see also Exodus 1:5 and footnote); Septuagint (see also Acts 7:14) seventy-five

^[220] 46:29 Hebrew around him

Genesis 47

^[221] 47:7 Or greeted

^[222] 47:10 Or said farewell to

^[223] 47:21 Samaritan Pentateuch and Septuagint (see also Vulgate); Masoretic Text and he moved the people into the cities

^[224] 47:31 Or Israel bowed down at the head of his bed

Genesis 48

^[225] 48:3 Hebrew El-Shaddai

^[226] 48:7 That is, Northwest Mesopotamia

^[227] 48:20 The Hebrew is singular.

^[228] 48:21 The Hebrew is plural.

^[229] 48:21 The Hebrew is plural.

^[230] 48:21 The Hebrew is plural.

^[231] 48:22 Or And to you I give one portion more than to your brothers—the portion

Genesis 49

^[232] 49:5 The meaning of the Hebrew for this word is uncertain.

^[233] 49:8 Judah sounds like and may be derived from the Hebrew for praise.

^[234] 49:10 Or until Shiloh comes; or until he comes to whom tribute belongs

^[235] 49:12 Or will be dull from wine, / his teeth white from milk

^[236] 49:14 Or strong

^[237] 49:14 Or campfires

^[238] 49:16 Dan here means he provides justice.

^[239] 49:19 Gad can mean attack and band of raiders.

^[240] 49:21 Or free; / he utters beautiful words

^[241] 49:22 Or Joseph is a wild colt, / a wild colt near a spring, / a wild donkey on a terraced hill

^[242] 49:23, 49:24 Or archers will attack … will shoot … will remain … will stay

^[243] 49:25 Hebrew Shaddai

^[244] 49:26 Or of my progenitors, / as great as

^[245] 49:26 Or the one separated from

^[246] 49:32 Or the sons of Heth

Genesis 50

^[247] 50:9 Or charioteers

^[248] 50:11 Abel Mizraim means mourning of the Egyptians.

^[249] 50:23 That is, were counted as his

Exodus 1

^[1] 1:5 Masoretic Text (see also Gen. 46:27); Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint (see also Acts 7:14 and note at Gen. 46:27) seventy-five

^[2] 1:22 Masoretic Text; Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint and Targums born to the Hebrews

Exodus 2

^[3] 2:10 Moses sounds like the Hebrew for draw out.

^[4] 2:22 Gershom sounds like the Hebrew for an alien there.

Exodus 3

^[5] 3:12 The Hebrew is plural.

^[6] 3:14 Or I WILL BE WHAT I WILL BE

^[7] 3:15 The Hebrew for LORD sounds like and may be derived from the Hebrew for I AM in verse 14.

Exodus 4

^[8] 4:6 The Hebrew word was used for various diseases affecting the skin—not necessarily leprosy.

^[9] 4:24 Or [Moses’ son]; Hebrew him

^[10] 4:25 Or and drew near [Moses’] feet

Exodus 6

^[11] 6:3 Hebrew El-Shaddai

^[12] 6:3 See note at Exodus 3:15.

^[13] 6:3 Or Almighty, and by my name the LORD did I not let myself be known to them?

^[14] 6:12 Hebrew I am uncircumcised of lips; also in verse 30

^[15] 6:14 The Hebrew for families here and in verse 25 refers to units larger than clans.

Exodus 8

^[16] 8:23 Septuagint and Vulgate; Hebrew will put a deliverance

Exodus 9

^[17] 9:16 Or have spared you

Exodus 10

^[18] 10:10 Or Be careful, trouble is in store for you!

^[19] 10:19 Hebrew Yam Suph; that is, Sea of Reeds

Exodus 12

^[20] 12:3 The Hebrew word can mean lamb or kid; also in verse 4.

^[21] 12:40 Masoretic Text; Samaritan Pentateuch and Septuagint Egypt and Canaan

Exodus 13

^[22] 13:18 Hebrew Yam Suph; that is, Sea of Reeds

^[23] 13:19 See Gen. 50:25.

Exodus 14

^[24] 14:9 Or charioteers; also in verses 17, 18, 23, 26 and 28

^[25] 14:25 Or He jammed the wheels of their chariots (see Samaritan Pentateuch, Septuagint and Syriac)

^[26] 14:27 Or from

Exodus 15

^[27] 15:4 Hebrew Yam Suph; that is, Sea of Reeds; also in verse 22

^[28] 15:15 Or rulers

^[29] 15:16 Or created

^[30] 15:19 Or charioteers

^[31] 15:23 Marah means bitter.

Exodus 16

^[32] 16:16 That is, probably about 2 quarts (about 2 liters); also in verses 18, 32, 33 and 36

^[33] 16:22 That is, probably about 4 quarts (about 4.5 liters)

^[34] 16:28 The Hebrew is plural.

^[35] 16:31 Manna means What is it? (see verse 15).

Exodus 17

^[36] 17:7 Massah means testing.

^[37] 17:7 Meribah means quarreling.

^[38] 17:16 Or “Because a hand was against the throne of the LORD, the

Exodus 18

^[39] 18:3 Gershom sounds like the Hebrew for an alien there.

^[40] 18:4 Eliezer means my God is helper.

Exodus 19

^[41] 19:5, 19:6 Or possession, for the whole earth is mine. ⁶You

^[42] 19:18 Most Hebrew manuscripts; a few Hebrew manuscripts and Septuagint all the people

^[43] 19:19 Or and God answered him with thunder

Exodus 20

^[44] 20:3 Or besides

^[45] 20:24 Traditionally peace offerings

Exodus 21

^[46] 21:6 Or before God

^[47] 21:8 Or master so that he does not choose her

^[48] 21:15 Or kills

^[49] 21:18 Or with a tool

^[50] 21:22 Or she has a miscarriage

^[51] 21:32 That is, about 12 ounces (about 0.3 kilogram)

Exodus 22

^[52] 22:3 Or if he strikes him

^[53] 22:8 Or before God; also in verse 9

^[54] 22:9 Or whom God declares

^[55] 22:20 The Hebrew term refers to the irrevocable giving over of things or persons to the LORD, often by totally destroying them.

^[56] 22:25 Or excessive interest

^[57] 22:28 Or Do not revile the judges

^[58] 22:29 The meaning of the Hebrew for this phrase is uncertain.

Exodus 23

^[59] 23:31 Hebrew Yam Suph; that is, Sea of Reeds

^[60] 23:31 That is, the Mediterranean