Bezalel and Oholiab

³⁰Then Moses said to the Israelites, “See, the LORD has chosen Bezalel son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, ³¹and he has filled him with the Spirit of God, with skill, ability and knowledge in all kinds of crafts^†— ³²to make artistic designs for work in gold, silver and bronze, ³³to cut and set stones, to work in wood and to engage in all kinds of artistic craftsmanship. ³⁴And he has given both him and Oholiab^† son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan, the ability to teach^† others. ³⁵He has filled them with skill to do all kinds of work^† as craftsmen, designers, embroiderers in blue, purple and scarlet yarn and fine linen, and weavers—all of them master craftsmen and designers.

Exodus 36

¹So Bezalel, Oholiab and every skilled person^† to whom the LORD has given skill and ability to know how to carry out all the work of constructing the sanctuary^† are to do the work just as the LORD has commanded.”

²Then Moses summoned Bezalel^† and Oholiab^† and every skilled person to whom the LORD had given ability and who was willing^† to come and do the work. ³They received from Moses all the offerings^† the Israelites had brought to carry out the work of constructing the sanctuary. And the people continued to bring freewill offerings morning after morning. ⁴So all the skilled craftsmen who were doing all the work on the sanctuary left their work ⁵and said to Moses, “The people are bringing more than enough^† for doing the work the LORD commanded to be done.”

⁶Then Moses gave an order and they sent this word throughout the camp: “No man or woman is to make anything else as an offering for the sanctuary.” And so the people were restrained from bringing more, ⁷because what they already had was more^† than enough to do all the work.

The Tabernacle

⁸All the skilled men among the workmen made the tabernacle with ten curtains of finely twisted linen and blue, purple and scarlet yarn, with cherubim worked into them by a skilled craftsman. ⁹All the curtains were the same size—twenty-eight cubits long and four cubits wide.^{[103] 10}They joined five of the curtains together and did the same with the other five. ¹¹Then they made loops of blue material along the edge of the end curtain in one set, and the same was done with the end curtain in the other set. ¹²They also made fifty loops on one curtain and fifty loops on the end curtain of the other set, with the loops opposite each other. ¹³Then they made fifty gold clasps and used them to fasten the two sets of curtains together so that the tabernacle was a unit.^†

¹⁴They made curtains of goat hair for the tent over the tabernacle—eleven altogether. ¹⁵All eleven curtains were the same size—thirty cubits long and four cubits wide.^{[104] 16}They joined five of the curtains into one set and the other six into another set. ¹⁷Then they made fifty loops along the edge of the end curtain in one set and also along the edge of the end curtain in the other set. ¹⁸They made fifty bronze clasps to fasten the tent together as a unit.^{† 19}Then they made for the tent a covering of ram skins dyed red, and over that a covering of hides of sea cows.^[105]

²⁰They made upright frames of acacia wood for the tabernacle. ²¹Each frame was ten cubits long and a cubit and a half wide,^{[106] 22}with two projections set parallel to each other. They made all the frames of the tabernacle in this way. ²³They made twenty frames for the south side of the tabernacle ²⁴and made forty silver bases to go under them—two bases for each frame, one under each projection. ²⁵For the other side, the north side of the tabernacle, they made twenty frames ²⁶and forty silver bases—two under each frame. ²⁷They made six frames for the far end, that is, the west end of the tabernacle, ²⁸and two frames were made for the corners of the tabernacle at the far end. ²⁹At these two corners the frames were double from the bottom all the way to the top and fitted into a single ring; both were made alike. ³⁰So there were eight frames and sixteen silver bases—two under each frame.

³¹They also made crossbars of acacia wood: five for the frames on one side of the tabernacle, ³²five for those on the other side, and five for the frames on the west, at the far end of the tabernacle. ³³They made the center crossbar so that it extended from end to end at the middle of the frames. ³⁴They overlaid the frames with gold and made gold rings to hold the crossbars. They also overlaid the crossbars with gold.

³⁵They made the curtain^† of blue, purple and scarlet yarn and finely twisted linen, with cherubim worked into it by a skilled craftsman. ³⁶They made four posts of acacia wood for it and overlaid them with gold. They made gold hooks for them and cast their four silver bases. ³⁷For the entrance to the tent they made a curtain of blue, purple and scarlet yarn and finely twisted linen—the work of an embroiderer;^{† 38}and they made five posts with hooks for them. They overlaid the tops of the posts and their bands with gold and made their five bases of bronze.

Exodus 37

The Ark

¹Bezalel^† made the ark^† of acacia wood—two and a half cubits long, a cubit and a half wide, and a cubit and a half high.^{[107] 2}He overlaid it with pure gold,^† both inside and out, and made a gold molding around it. ³He cast four gold rings for it and fastened them to its four feet, with two rings on one side and two rings on the other. ⁴Then he made poles of acacia wood and overlaid them with gold. ⁵And he inserted the poles into the rings on the sides of the ark to carry it.

⁶He made the atonement cover^† of pure gold—two and a half cubits long and a cubit and a half wide.^{[108] 7}Then he made two cherubim^† out of hammered gold at the ends of the cover. ⁸He made one cherub on one end and the second cherub on the other; at the two ends he made them of one piece with the cover. ⁹The cherubim had their wings spread upward, overshadowing^† the cover with them. The cherubim faced each other, looking toward the cover.^†

The Table

¹⁰They^[109] made the table^† of acacia wood—two cubits long, a cubit wide, and a cubit and a half high.^{[110] 11}Then they overlaid it with pure gold^† and made a gold molding around it. ¹²They also made around it a rim a handbreadth^[111] wide and put a gold molding on the rim. ¹³They cast four gold rings for the table and fastened them to the four corners, where the four legs were. ¹⁴The rings^† were put close to the rim to hold the poles used in carrying the table. ¹⁵The poles for carrying the table were made of acacia wood and were overlaid with gold. ¹⁶And they made from pure gold the articles for the table—its plates and dishes and bowls and its pitchers for the pouring out of drink offerings.

The Lampstand

¹⁷They made the lampstand^† of pure gold and hammered it out, base and shaft; its flowerlike cups, buds and blossoms were of one piece with it. ¹⁸Six branches extended from the sides of the lampstand—three on one side and three on the other. ¹⁹Three cups shaped like almond flowers with buds and blossoms were on one branch, three on the next branch and the same for all six branches extending from the lampstand. ²⁰And on the lampstand were four cups shaped like almond flowers with buds and blossoms. ²¹One bud was under the first pair of branches extending from the lampstand, a second bud under the second pair, and a third bud under the third pair—six branches in all. ²²The buds and the branches were all of one piece with the lampstand, hammered out of pure gold.^†

²³They made its seven lamps,^† as well as its wick trimmers and trays, of pure gold. ²⁴They made the lampstand and all its accessories from one talent^[112] of pure gold.

The Altar of Incense

²⁵They made the altar of incense^† out of acacia wood. It was square, a cubit long and a cubit wide, and two cubits high^[113]—its horns^† of one piece with it. ²⁶They overlaid the top and all the sides and the horns with pure gold, and made a gold molding around it. ²⁷They made two gold rings^† below the molding—two on opposite sides—to hold the poles used to carry it. ²⁸They made the poles of acacia wood and overlaid them with gold.^†

²⁹They also made the sacred anointing oil^† and the pure, fragrant incense^†—the work of a perfumer.

Exodus 38

The Altar of Burnt Offering

¹They^[114] built the altar of burnt offering of acacia wood, three cubits^[115] high; it was square, five cubits long and five cubits wide.^{[116] 2}They made a horn at each of the four corners, so that the horns and the altar were of one piece, and they overlaid the altar with bronze.^{† 3}They made all its utensils^† of bronze—its pots, shovels, sprinkling bowls, meat forks and firepans. ⁴They made a grating for the altar, a bronze network, to be under its ledge, halfway up the altar. ⁵They cast bronze rings to hold the poles for the four corners of the bronze grating. ⁶They made the poles of acacia wood and overlaid them with bronze. ⁷They inserted the poles into the rings so they would be on the sides of the altar for carrying it. They made it hollow, out of boards.

Basin for Washing

⁸They made the bronze basin^† and its bronze stand from the mirrors of the women^† who served at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting.

The Courtyard

⁹Next they made the courtyard. The south side was a hundred cubits^[117] long and had curtains of finely twisted linen, ¹⁰with twenty posts and twenty bronze bases, and with silver hooks and bands on the posts. ¹¹The north side was also a hundred cubits long and had twenty posts and twenty bronze bases, with silver hooks and bands on the posts.

¹²The west end was fifty cubits^[118] wide and had curtains, with ten posts and ten bases, with silver hooks and bands on the posts. ¹³The east end, toward the sunrise, was also fifty cubits wide. ¹⁴Curtains fifteen cubits^[119] long were on one side of the entrance, with three posts and three bases, ¹⁵and curtains fifteen cubits long were on the other side of the entrance to the courtyard, with three posts and three bases. ¹⁶All the curtains around the courtyard were of finely twisted linen. ¹⁷The bases for the posts were bronze. The hooks and bands on the posts were silver, and their tops were overlaid with silver; so all the posts of the courtyard had silver bands.

¹⁸The curtain for the entrance to the courtyard was of blue, purple and scarlet yarn and finely twisted linen—the work of an embroiderer. It was twenty cubits^[120] long and, like the curtains of the courtyard, five cubits^[121] high, ¹⁹with four posts and four bronze bases. Their hooks and bands were silver, and their tops were overlaid with silver. ²⁰All the tent pegs^† of the tabernacle and of the surrounding courtyard were bronze.

The Materials Used

²¹These are the amounts of the materials used for the tabernacle, the tabernacle of the Testimony,^† which were recorded at Moses’ command by the Levites under the direction of Ithamar^† son of Aaron, the priest. ²²(Bezalel^† son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, made everything the LORD commanded Moses; ²³with him was Oholiab^† son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan—a craftsman and designer, and an embroiderer in blue, purple and scarlet yarn and fine linen.) ²⁴The total amount of the gold from the wave offering used for all the work on the sanctuary^† was 29 talents and 730 shekels,^[122] according to the sanctuary shekel.^†

²⁵The silver obtained from those of the community who were counted in the census^† was 100 talents and 1,775 shekels,^[123] according to the sanctuary shekel— ²⁶one beka per person,^† that is, half a shekel,^[124] according to the sanctuary shekel,^† from everyone who had crossed over to those counted, twenty years old or more,^† a total of 603,550 men.^{† 27}The 100 talents^[125] of silver were used to cast the bases^† for the sanctuary and for the curtain—100 bases from the 100 talents, one talent for each base. ²⁸They used the 1,775 shekels^[126] to make the hooks for the posts, to overlay the tops of the posts, and to make their bands.

²⁹The bronze from the wave offering was 70 talents and 2,400 shekels.^{[127] 30}They used it to make the bases for the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, the bronze altar with its bronze grating and all its utensils, ³¹the bases for the surrounding courtyard and those for its entrance and all the tent pegs for the tabernacle and those for the surrounding courtyard.

Exodus 39

The Priestly Garments

¹From the blue, purple and scarlet yarn^† they made woven garments for ministering in the sanctuary.^† They also made sacred garments^† for Aaron, as the LORD commanded Moses.

The Ephod

²They^[128] made the ephod of gold, and of blue, purple and scarlet yarn, and of finely twisted linen. ³They hammered out thin sheets of gold and cut strands to be worked into the blue, purple and scarlet yarn and fine linen—the work of a skilled craftsman. ⁴They made shoulder pieces for the ephod, which were attached to two of its corners, so it could be fastened. ⁵Its skillfully woven waistband was like it—of one piece with the ephod and made with gold, and with blue, purple and scarlet yarn, and with finely twisted linen, as the LORD commanded Moses.

⁶They mounted the onyx stones in gold filigree settings and engraved them like a seal with the names of the sons of Israel. ⁷Then they fastened them on the shoulder pieces of the ephod as memorial^† stones for the sons of Israel, as the LORD commanded Moses.

The Breastpiece

⁸They fashioned the breastpiece^†—the work of a skilled craftsman. They made it like the ephod: of gold, and of blue, purple and scarlet yarn, and of finely twisted linen. ⁹It was square—a span^[129] long and a span wide—and folded double. ¹⁰Then they mounted four rows of precious stones on it. In the first row there was a ruby, a topaz and a beryl; ¹¹in the second row a turquoise, a sapphire^[130] and an emerald; ¹²in the third row a jacinth, an agate and an amethyst; ¹³in the fourth row a chrysolite, an onyx and a jasper.^[131] They were mounted in gold filigree settings. ¹⁴There were twelve stones, one for each of the names of the sons of Israel, each engraved like a seal with the name of one of the twelve tribes.^†

¹⁵For the breastpiece they made braided chains of pure gold, like a rope. ¹⁶They made two gold filigree settings and two gold rings, and fastened the rings to two of the corners of the breastpiece. ¹⁷They fastened the two gold chains to the rings at the corners of the breastpiece, ¹⁸and the other ends of the chains to the two settings, attaching them to the shoulder pieces of the ephod at the front. ¹⁹They made two gold rings and attached them to the other two corners of the breastpiece on the inside edge next to the ephod. ²⁰Then they made two more gold rings and attached them to the bottom of the shoulder pieces on the front of the ephod, close to the seam just above the waistband of the ephod. ²¹They tied the rings of the breastpiece to the rings of the ephod with blue cord, connecting it to the waistband so that the breastpiece would not swing out from the ephod—as the LORD commanded Moses.

Other Priestly Garments

²²They made the robe of the ephod entirely of blue cloth—the work of a weaver— ²³with an opening in the center of the robe like the opening of a collar,^[132] and a band around this opening, so that it would not tear. ²⁴They made pomegranates of blue, purple and scarlet yarn and finely twisted linen around the hem of the robe. ²⁵And they made bells of pure gold and attached them around the hem between the pomegranates. ²⁶The bells and pomegranates alternated around the hem of the robe to be worn for ministering, as the LORD commanded Moses.

²⁷For Aaron and his sons, they made tunics of fine linen^†—the work of a weaver— ²⁸and the turban^† of fine linen, the linen headbands and the undergarments of finely twisted linen. ²⁹The sash was of finely twisted linen and blue, purple and scarlet yarn—the work of an embroiderer—as the LORD commanded Moses.

³⁰They made the plate, the sacred diadem, out of pure gold and engraved on it, like an inscription on a seal: HOLY TO THE LORD. ³¹Then they fastened a blue cord to it to attach it to the turban, as the LORD commanded Moses.

Moses Inspects the Tabernacle

³²So all the work on the tabernacle, the Tent of Meeting, was completed. The Israelites did everything just as the LORD commanded Moses.^{† 33}Then they brought the tabernacle to Moses: the tent and all its furnishings, its clasps, frames, crossbars, posts and bases; ³⁴the covering of ram skins dyed red, the covering of hides of sea cows^[133] and the shielding curtain; ³⁵the ark of the Testimony^† with its poles and the atonement cover; ³⁶the table with all its articles and the bread of the Presence; ³⁷the pure gold lampstand^† with its row of lamps and all its accessories, and the oil for the light; ³⁸the gold altar,^† the anointing oil, the fragrant incense, and the curtain^† for the entrance to the tent; ³⁹the bronze altar with its bronze grating, its poles and all its utensils; the basin with its stand; ⁴⁰the curtains of the courtyard with its posts and bases, and the curtain for the entrance to the courtyard;^† the ropes and tent pegs for the courtyard; all the furnishings for the tabernacle, the Tent of Meeting; ⁴¹and the woven garments worn for ministering in the sanctuary, both the sacred garments for Aaron the priest and the garments for his sons when serving as priests.

⁴²The Israelites had done all the work just as the LORD had commanded Moses.^{† 43}Moses inspected the work and saw that they had done it just as the LORD had commanded. So Moses blessed^† them.

Exodus 40

Setting Up the Tabernacle

¹Then the LORD said to Moses: ²“Set up the tabernacle, the Tent of Meeting,^† on the first day of the first month.^{† 3}Place the ark^† of the Testimony in it and shield the ark with the curtain. ⁴Bring in the table and set out what belongs on it.^† Then bring in the lampstand^† and set up its lamps. ⁵Place the gold altar^† of incense in front of the ark of the Testimony and put the curtain at the entrance to the tabernacle.

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The Tabernacle and the Ark

Exodus 40 The tabernacle, a portable sanctuary that served as the center for Israelite worship until the building of Solomon’s temple, was known by various terms in Scripture. Each name highlighted an aspect of its function:

• It was commonly known as the “sanctuary” (some translations say “dwelling”) because God had chosen to live there among his people (Ex 25:8).

• God held audience with them in the “Tent of Meeting” to accept their sacrifices and forgive their sins (28:43).¹

• As the “tabernacle of the Testimony,” it housed the tablets of God’s covenant with his people (38:21).

The tabernacle’s layout and construction resembled ancient Egypt’s portable pavilions and military encampments. On Mount Sinai God had handed Moses an architectural blueprint for this transportable sanctuary (25:9), and craftsmen gifted by the Holy Spirit executed the work precisely as specified (31:1–11; Heb 8:5).

A rectangular enclosure of white linen curtains formed an outer court (Ex 27:9ff.) in which priests offered sacrifices on a four-horned altar of acacia wood overlaid with bronze.² All accompanying utensils were fashioned of bronze, as was the laver—a bowl on a base in which the priests washed their hands and feet (30:17–21).

The tent began as a wooden, latticework frame, allowing for easy assembly and disassembly (see 26:15–30), over which were draped multilayered coverings of finely woven blue, purple and scarlet cloth embroidered with representations of cherubim (angelic figures). A layer of goats’ hair covered by a double layer of tanned leather skins formed a protective roof/covering (40:1–14). The completed structure was 45 feet long by 10 feet (13.7 x 3 m) wide by 10 feet high.

Inside the tent were two areas separated by a veil: the Holy Place and the Most Holy Place. Articles of furniture graced the interior of the Holy Place. All were fashioned with rings through which poles could be fitted for transport—and for elimination of the possibility of defilement of these holy objects by human touch.

A gold-overlaid table was set with 12 loaves of bread for the priests to eat once each week to commune with God and enjoy his hospitality on Israel’s behalf (Lev 24:8–9). Opposite the table was a golden lampstand, the base of which branched out into seven shafts holding almond-blossom-shaped lamps. Almond blossoms, petals and calyxes (the green outer whorls of flowers) ornamented each branch. The arboreal design and floral adornment of the lampstand, which was kept perpetually burning (Ex 27:20), recalled the burning bush through which God had manifested himself to Moses (3:2–3). Marking the boundary of priestly ministration at the veil stood a gold-overlaid incense altar on which burned a perpetual sacrifice of aromatic incense (30:1–10).³

Separated from the Holy Place and concealed by a cherubim-embroidered veil was the Most Holy Place, the inner sanctum housing the ark of the covenant (26:31–34). The cherubim symbolized the Garden of Eden, where such angelic creatures had been stationed to guard the way to the tree of life (Ge 3:24).

The ark, a chest of acacia wood overlaid inside and out with gold, was about 3 feet long by 2 feet wide (.9 x .6m) by 2 feet high. A golden molding adorned its cover. On either end of its lid rose two cherubim crafted of beaten gold. These figures faced each other, their wings outstretched to shelter the ark as though under a canopy. The ark represented God’s footstool (1Ch 28:2) and the cherubim his throne (1Sa 4:4; Isa 37:16).

Inside the ark were placed the stone tablets of the covenant (Ex 25:21), a jar of manna (16:33) and Aaron’s staff (Nu 17:10). The tablets of the Law reminded the people that God would enforce the terms of his covenant with them. On the annual Day of Atonement the blood of sacrificial animals was to be sprinkled on the ark’s lid, covering the tablets defining the terms the people had transgressed (Lev 16:14–16; 30).⁴

After the craftsmen had completed work on the tabernacle, God’s glory that had rested atop Mount Sinai descended to fill the sanctuary and lead Israel into the promised land (Ex 40:34–38). The tabernacle served as a “portable Sinai” from within which God continued to dwell among his people (29:45–46).

Byzantine synagogue mosaic depicting the menorah and the veil of the temple

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Israel Museum

1. See “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”

2. See “Ancient Altars” and “The Horned Altar.”

3. See “Incense.”

4. See “The Day of Atonement.”

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⁶“Place the altar of burnt offering in front of the entrance to the tabernacle, the Tent of Meeting; ⁷place the basin^† between the Tent of Meeting and the altar and put water in it. ⁸Set up the courtyard around it and put the curtain at the entrance to the courtyard.

⁹“Take the anointing oil and anoint^† the tabernacle and everything in it; consecrate it and all its furnishings, and it will be holy. ¹⁰Then anoint the altar of burnt offering and all its utensils; consecrate^† the altar, and it will be most holy. ¹¹Anoint the basin and its stand and consecrate them.

¹²“Bring Aaron and his sons to the entrance to the Tent of Meeting and wash them with water.^{† 13}Then dress Aaron in the sacred garments,^† anoint him and consecrate^† him so he may serve me as priest. ¹⁴Bring his sons and dress them in tunics. ¹⁵Anoint them just as you anointed their father, so they may serve me as priests. Their anointing will be to a priesthood that will continue for all generations to come.^†” ¹⁶Moses did everything just as the LORD commanded him.

¹⁷So the tabernacle^† was set up on the first day of the first month^† in the second year. ¹⁸When Moses set up the tabernacle, he put the bases in place, erected the frames, inserted the crossbars and set up the posts. ¹⁹Then he spread the tent over the tabernacle and put the covering over the tent, as the LORD commanded him.

²⁰He took the Testimony^† and placed it in the ark, attached the poles to the ark and put the atonement cover over it. ²¹Then he brought the ark into the tabernacle and hung the shielding curtain^† and shielded the ark of the Testimony, as the LORD commanded him.

²²Moses placed the table^† in the Tent of Meeting on the north side of the tabernacle outside the curtain ²³and set out the bread^† on it before the LORD, as the LORD commanded him.

²⁴He placed the lampstand^† in the Tent of Meeting opposite the table on the south side of the tabernacle ²⁵and set up the lamps^† before the LORD, as the LORD commanded him.

²⁶Moses placed the gold altar^† in the Tent of Meeting in front of the curtain ²⁷and burned fragrant incense on it, as the LORD commanded^† him. ²⁸Then he put up the curtain^† at the entrance to the tabernacle.

²⁹He set the altar of burnt offering near the entrance to the tabernacle, the Tent of Meeting, and offered on it burnt offerings and grain offerings,^† as the LORD commanded him.

³⁰He placed the basin^† between the Tent of Meeting and the altar and put water in it for washing, ³¹and Moses and Aaron and his sons used it to wash their hands and feet. ³²They washed whenever they entered the Tent of Meeting or approached the altar,^† as the LORD commanded Moses.

³³Then Moses set up the courtyard^† around the tabernacle and altar and put up the curtain^† at the entrance to the courtyard. And so Moses finished the work.

The Glory of the LORD

³⁴Then the cloud^† covered the Tent of Meeting, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle. ³⁵Moses could not enter the Tent of Meeting because the cloud had settled upon it, and the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle.^†

³⁶In all the travels of the Israelites, whenever the cloud lifted from above the tabernacle, they would set out;^{† 37}but if the cloud did not lift, they did not set out—until the day it lifted. ³⁸So the cloud^† of the LORD was over the tabernacle by day, and fire was in the cloud by night, in the sight of all the house of Israel during all their travels.

LEVITICUS

Author, Place and Date of Writing

God gave the contents of Leviticus to Moses (see 27:34) while the Israelites were camped at Mount Sinai, and historical Jewish tradition assigns primary authorship of the book to him. Leviticus repeatedly states that God conveyed to Moses specific laws (e.g., 1:1; 4:1; 6:1), a reality confirmed in the New Testament (e.g., Ro 10:5). But Moses most likely did not compose Leviticus in its final, edited form.

Not all scholars agree that Moses was the primary writer/compiler of this or the other books of the Pentateuch (Ge–Dt). See “The Documentary Hypothesis.”

If Moses did indeed write Leviticus, as well as the other four books of the Pentateuch, he must have done so during the exodus period, widely accepted among conservative evangelical scholars to be from approximately 1440 to 1400 B.C.

Audience

It is likely that the Israelite priests and Levites read Leviticus, as did the lay people who took part in the exodus and subsequent desert wandering. Succeeding generations of Israelites no doubt also studied the book to learn God’s laws for worship and sacrificial practices and to be reminded of their calling to be his holy people in covenant relationship with him.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

In comparison to the books around it, Leviticus may seem difficult to the casual or first-time reader. Instead of miraculous, suspense-filled stories and narratives about prominent people, we read page after page of meticulous detail concerning regulations for offerings, the installation of priests, distinctions between what was ritually clean and unclean, principles for holy living, etc. True, this seeming minutia played a key role in the Israelites’ spiritual growth and development, but what do we gain by reading about it?

Leviticus picks up where the book of Exodus left off. The tabernacle had been built, and now the priests (Aaron’s sons), assisted by others from the tribe of Levi, needed to understand and follow proper, worship-related protocol. The other Israelites, who were familiar with the worship and sacrificial practices of the ancient world, needed to learn God’s worship-related laws and regulations—what was and was not acceptable to him in terms of ritual and sacrifice. Relationships were at the heart of God’s covenant with Israel—his people’s relationship with him and with one another.

Leviticus reveals God’s directives regarding rituals, ceremonial “cleanness” and the behavior by which the Israelites could be made holy before their holy God (e.g., 11:44–45) and worship him in a consecrated manner. It was essential that God’s people understand and practice holiness—separation from sin, being set apart for the Lord’s exclusive purpose and glory. The formal procedures regarding Israel’s religious observance, the details of which are included in Leviticus, played a central role in the people’s everyday spiritual life.

Timeline

As You Read

Think about how God regulated the Israelites’ communal, religious and personal lives in order to establish them as his holy people and to teach them about holy living. The Lord wanted to bless them but required them first to be obedient and to maintain a holy awe of him.

Notice the numerous regulations directly related to the tabernacle (chs. 1–16), which God’s Presence now occupied. He wanted his people to present their sacrifices properly (1:1–7:38), to set up and maintain the priesthood in a specified way (8:1–10:20) and to carefully differentiate between what was ritually clean and unclean in his eyes (11:1–16:34). Why? Because God wanted them to take his Presence seriously.

Pay attention to the code of holiness (17:1–25:55) that covers everything from sexual behavior to punishing serious crimes to religious observance. To reinforce the weight of these laws, God delineated near the end of this book (26:1–46) the respective consequences of disobedience and obedience.

Did You Know?

• Other ancient cultures viewed sacrifices as “food for the gods” (see Eze 16:20; cf. Ps 50:9–13), but Israel’s offerings—though sometimes called “food” metaphorically (21:6, 8, 17, 21; 22:25)—were viewed as gifts to God that he would receive with delight (3:11, 16).
• The phrase “eye for eye, tooth for tooth” represents a statement of principle: The penalty was to fit the crime, not to exceed it (24:20).

Themes

Leviticus contains the following themes:

1. Holiness. “Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy” (19:2) is the overwhelming message of this book. In Leviticus spiritual holiness is symbolized by physical perfection, or purity, as well as by separation from the world. The wall dividing Jewish and Christian worship was later removed by God’s invitation to faith in Christ and in his completed work on the cross (Gal 3:28; Eph 2:11–22), so the laws of Leviticus need no longer be observed. But the moral principles they espouse still apply today (Mt 5:1–7:29; 12:11–12; Mk 2:23–28).
2. Sin, sacrifice, atonement. Since no human being is perfect, God provided the Old Testament sacrificial system as a means of atonement. In this system, a life was to be given for a life. This temporary arrangement is no longer necessary, for Jesus’ death paid the penalty for sin once for all time and for all people (Heb 9:23–28).
3. Worship. Leviticus reveals God’s desire to be present with his people and to enjoy fellowship with them. Through worship God’s people acknowledge who he is and what he has done by expressing their love, honor, thanks and praise to him.

Outline

I. Laws and Instructions for Offerings (1–7)

II. Aaron and His Sons as God’s Priests (8–10)

III. Rules for Holy Living (11–15)

IV. The Day of Atonement (16)

V. Practical Holiness (17–22)

VI. The Sabbath, Feasts and Seasons (23–25)

VII. Conditions for God’s Blessing (26–27)

Leviticus 1

The Burnt Offering

¹The LORD called to Moses^† and spoke to him from the Tent of Meeting.^† He said, ²“Speak to the Israelites and say to them: ‘When any of you brings an offering to the LORD, bring as your offering an animal from either the herd or the flock.^†

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Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East

Leviticus 1 Mosaic Law prescribed five categories of sacrifices and other offerings:

• Burnt offerings effected atonement and emphasized total devotion to the Lord.

• Grain offerings expressed an individual’s petition for God’s bestowal of covenantal blessings, as well as the dedication of the fruit of his or her labor to God.

• Fellowship offerings (sometimes referred to as “peace” offerings) accompanied expressions of thanksgiving or were offered in fulfillment of vows. As the occasion for a communal meal, such an offering emphasized covenantal fellowship.

• Sin/purification offerings effected expiation for unintentional sins, such as those committed from negligence, as well as for ritual impurity.¹

• Guilt/reparation offerings provided atonement for unintentional sins against God’s “holy things” and commandments. The aspect of restitution was intrinsic to these mandatory offerings.

In addition to the above, the Israelites were required to bring tithes and other offerings (e.g., Dt 14:22). Different types of offerings were presented in diverse combinations on various occasions, such as during the ordination of priests and the sanctifying of sacred objects (Lev 8–9; Nu 7), during the daily sacrifices (Lev 6:8–13) and annual feasts² and at milestone moments in the life of a family (ch. 12).

It is difficult to uncover the full significance of each offering, especially since the regulations in Leviticus 1–7 were directed to the priests (in some sense the religious “professionals”) and are therefore somewhat terse, without a great deal of amplification in terms of their meaning. Leviticus 17:11 indicates clearly enough, however, that the costly blood of the animal sacrifice was God’s provision to atone for the offender, whose offerings were most likely accompanied by psalm singing, confession of sin and/or special petitions. Viewed in this light, it is clear that the laws governing the presentation of Israel’s offerings were not heavy burdens but rather the welcomed means by which God’s people could officially recognize their sins, experience God’s forgiveness and remain secure within his covenant. At the same time, portions of every offering (except for the whole burnt offering) provided food for the priests and their families.³

Although Leviticus 1–7 is unparalleled among ancient Near Eastern texts in its degree of detail, the sacrifice of animals (as well as offerings and libations—“poured” offerings—of other foods and drinks) was by no means peculiar to Israel. A wide range of technical, sacrificial terms (several of which are nearly identical to Israel’s) is found in texts from Late Bronze⁴,⁵ and Early Iron Age Canaanite areas, including Ugarit, Phoenicia, Syria, Ammon and Moab. They demonstrate that Israel’s neighbors also had elaborate sacrificial systems.⁶ In Ugarit and Phoenicia, for example, burnt offerings, fruit and grain offerings and libations were specified, but certain animals (pigs in particular) were forbidden for use as sacrifices to Baal. Ugarit practiced both whole burnt offerings (that fed a deity) and peace offerings (that nourished the people). The great religious centers of Egypt and Mesopotamia also stipulated highly ordered and meticulous sacrificial practices.

But despite any commonalities Israel’s sacrificial system was unique by virtue of its covenantal context. Its complex sacrificial laws made sense within the bounds of the story of God’s redemption of his people from Egyptian bondage. The sacrificial system was not magical. Its efficacy depended not upon the offering of a particular animal (although following the prescribed rules was essential because it taught the Israelites that they were to approach God only on his terms) but rather on God himself, who had ordained these sacrifices. Fully as important, without an attitude of repentance, perfunctory observance of sacrificial rituals was meaningless—and denounced repeatedly by God’s prophets (e.g., 1Sa 15:22; Am 5:21–24; Mic 6:6–8; cf. Ps 51:14–19).

The temple of Satet at Elephantine

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin

1. See “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East.”

2. See “The Festivals of Israel.”

3. See “The Levites and the Priests.”

4. See “Archaeological Periods Chart” in the front of this Bible.

5. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

6. For example, see “The Zukru Festival.”

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³“ ‘If the offering is a burnt offering from the herd, he is to offer a male without defect.^† He must present it at the entrance to the Tent^† of Meeting so that it^[1] will be acceptable to the LORD. ⁴He is to lay his hand on the head^† of the burnt offering, and it will be accepted on his behalf to make atonement^† for him. ⁵He is to slaughter^† the young bull before the LORD, and then Aaron’s sons the priests shall bring the blood and sprinkle it against the altar on all sides^† at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. ⁶He is to skin^† the burnt offering and cut it into pieces. ⁷The sons of Aaron the priest are to put fire on the altar and arrange wood^† on the fire. ⁸Then Aaron’s sons the priests shall arrange the pieces, including the head and the fat,^† on the burning wood that is on the altar. ⁹ He is to wash the inner parts and the legs with water, and the priest is to burn all of it on the altar.^† It is a burnt offering, an offering made by fire, an aroma pleasing to the LORD.^†

¹⁰“ ‘If the offering is a burnt offering from the flock, from either the sheep or the goats,^† he is to offer a male without defect. ¹¹He is to slaughter it at the north side of the altar before the LORD, and Aaron’s sons the priests shall sprinkle its blood against the altar on all sides.^{† 12}He is to cut it into pieces, and the priest shall arrange them, including the head and the fat, on the burning wood that is on the altar. ¹³He is to wash the inner parts and the legs with water, and the priest is to bring all of it and burn it on the altar. It is a burnt offering, an offering made by fire, an aroma pleasing to the LORD.

¹⁴“ ‘If the offering to the LORD is a burnt offering of birds, he is to offer a dove or a young pigeon.^{† 15}The priest shall bring it to the altar, wring off the head and burn it on the altar; its blood shall be drained out on the side of the altar.^{† 16}He is to remove the crop with its contents^[2] and throw it to the east side of the altar, where the ashes^† are. ¹⁷He shall tear it open by the wings, not severing it completely,^† and then the priest shall burn it on the wood^† that is on the fire on the altar. It is a burnt offering, an offering made by fire, an aroma pleasing to the LORD.

Leviticus 2

The Grain Offering

¹“ ‘When someone brings a grain offering^† to the LORD, his offering is to be of fine flour. He is to pour oil^† on it, put incense on it ²and take it to Aaron’s sons the priests. The priest shall take a handful of the fine flour^† and oil, together with all the incense,^† and burn this as a memorial portion^† on the altar, an offering made by fire, an aroma pleasing to the LORD. ³The rest of the grain offering belongs to Aaron and his sons;^† it is a most holy part of the offerings made to the LORD by fire.

⁴“ ‘If you bring a grain offering baked in an oven, it is to consist of fine flour: cakes made without yeast and mixed with oil, or^[3] wafers made without yeast and spread with oil.^{† 5}If your grain offering is prepared on a griddle, it is to be made of fine flour mixed with oil, and without yeast. ⁶Crumble it and pour oil on it; it is a grain offering. ⁷If your grain offering is cooked in a pan,^† it is to be made of fine flour and oil. ⁸Bring the grain offering made of these things to the LORD; present it to the priest, who shall take it to the altar. ⁹He shall take out the memorial portion^† from the grain offering and burn it on the altar as an offering made by fire, an aroma pleasing to the LORD.^{† 10}The rest of the grain offering belongs to Aaron and his sons;^† it is a most holy part of the offerings made to the LORD by fire.

¹¹“ ‘Every grain offering you bring to the LORD must be made without yeast,^† for you are not to burn any yeast or honey in an offering made to the LORD by fire. ¹²You may bring them to the LORD as an offering of the firstfruits,^† but they are not to be offered on the altar as a pleasing aroma. ¹³Season all your grain offerings with salt. Do not leave the salt of the covenant^† of your God out of your grain offerings; add salt to all your offerings.

¹⁴“ ‘If you bring a grain offering of firstfruits^† to the LORD, offer crushed heads of new grain roasted in the fire. ¹⁵Put oil and incense on it; it is a grain offering. ¹⁶The priest shall burn the memorial portion^† of the crushed grain and the oil, together with all the incense, as an offering made to the LORD by fire.

Leviticus 3

The Fellowship Offering

¹“ ‘If someone’s offering is a fellowship offering,^{[4] †} and he offers an animal from the herd, whether male or female, he is to present before the LORD an animal without defect.^{† 2}He is to lay his hand on the head^† of his offering and slaughter it^† at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. Then Aaron’s sons the priests shall sprinkle the blood against the altar on all sides. ³From the fellowship offering he is to bring a sacrifice made to the LORD by fire: all the fat^† that covers the inner parts or is connected to them, ⁴both kidneys with the fat on them near the loins, and the covering of the liver, which he will remove with the kidneys. ⁵Then Aaron’s sons^† are to burn it on the altar on top of the burnt offering^† that is on the burning wood, as an offering made by fire, an aroma pleasing to the LORD.

⁶“ ‘If he offers an animal from the flock as a fellowship offering^† to the LORD, he is to offer a male or female without defect. ⁷If he offers a lamb, he is to present it before the LORD.^{† 8}He is to lay his hand on the head of his offering and slaughter it^† in front of the Tent of Meeting. Then Aaron’s sons shall sprinkle its blood against the altar on all sides. ⁹From the fellowship offering he is to bring a sacrifice made to the LORD by fire: its fat, the entire fat tail cut off close to the backbone, all the fat that covers the inner parts or is connected to them, ¹⁰both kidneys with the fat on them near the loins, and the covering of the liver, which he will remove with the kidneys. ¹¹The priest shall burn them on the altar^† as food,^† an offering made to the LORD by fire.

¹²“ ‘If his offering is a goat, he is to present it before the LORD. ¹³He is to lay his hand on its head and slaughter it in front of the Tent of Meeting. Then Aaron’s sons shall sprinkle^† its blood against the altar on all sides. ¹⁴From what he offers he is to make this offering to the LORD by fire: all the fat that covers the inner parts or is connected to them, ¹⁵both kidneys with the fat on them near the loins, and the covering of the liver, which he will remove with the kidneys. ¹⁶The priest shall burn them on the altar as food, an offering made by fire, a pleasing aroma. All the fat is the LORD’s.^†

¹⁷“ ‘This is a lasting ordinance for the generations to come,^† wherever you live: You must not eat any fat or any blood.^†’ ”

Leviticus 4

The Sin Offering

¹The LORD said to Moses, ²“Say to the Israelites: ‘When anyone sins unintentionally^† and does what is forbidden in any of the LORD’s commands —

³“ ‘If the anointed priest sins, bringing guilt on the people, he must bring to the LORD a young bull^† without defect as a sin offering^† for the sin he has committed. ⁴He is to present the bull at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting before the LORD.^† He is to lay his hand on its head and slaughter it before the LORD. ⁵Then the anointed priest shall take some of the bull’s blood^† and carry it into the Tent of Meeting. ⁶He is to dip his finger into the blood and sprinkle some of it seven times before the LORD, in front of the curtain of the sanctuary. ⁷ The priest shall then put some of the blood on the horns of the altar of fragrant incense that is before the LORD in the Tent of Meeting. The rest of the bull’s blood he shall pour out at the base of the altar^† of burnt offering^† at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. ⁸He shall remove all the fat^† from the bull of the sin offering—the fat that covers the inner parts or is connected to them, ⁹both kidneys with the fat on them near the loins, and the covering of the liver, which he will remove with the kidneys^†— ¹⁰just as the fat is removed from the ox^[5] sacrificed as a fellowship offering.^[6] Then the priest shall burn them on the altar of burnt offering. ¹¹But the hide of the bull and all its flesh, as well as the head and legs, the inner parts and offal^†— ¹²that is, all the rest of the bull—he must take outside the camp^† to a place ceremonially clean,^† where the ashes are thrown, and burn it in a wood fire on the ash heap.

¹³“ ‘If the whole Israelite community sins unintentionally^† and does what is forbidden in any of the LORD’s commands, even though the community is unaware of the matter, they are guilty. ¹⁴When they become aware of the sin they committed, the assembly must bring a young bull^† as a sin offering^† and present it before the Tent of Meeting. ¹⁵The elders of the community are to lay their hands on the bull’s head^† before the LORD, and the bull shall be slaughtered before the LORD. ¹⁶Then the anointed priest is to take some of the bull’s blood^† into the Tent of Meeting. ¹⁷He shall dip his finger into the blood and sprinkle it before the LORD^† seven times in front of the curtain. ¹⁸He is to put some of the blood on the horns of the altar that is before the LORD^† in the Tent of Meeting. The rest of the blood he shall pour out at the base of the altar of burnt offering at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting. ¹⁹He shall remove all the fat^† from it and burn it on the altar, ²⁰and do with this bull just as he did with the bull for the sin offering. In this way the priest will make atonement^† for them, and they will be forgiven.^{† 21}Then he shall take the bull outside the camp and burn it as he burned the first bull. This is the sin offering for the community.^†

²²“ ‘When a leader^† sins unintentionally^† and does what is forbidden in any of the commands of the LORD his God, he is guilty. ²³When he is made aware of the sin he committed, he must bring as his offering a male goat without defect. ²⁴He is to lay his hand on the goat’s head and slaughter it at the place where the burnt offering is slaughtered before the LORD. It is a sin offering. ²⁵Then the priest shall take some of the blood of the sin offering with his finger and put it on the horns of the altar of burnt offering and pour out the rest of the blood at the base of the altar.^{† 26}He shall burn all the fat on the altar as he burned the fat of the fellowship offering. In this way the priest will make atonement for the man’s sin, and he will be forgiven.^†

²⁷“ ‘If a member of the community sins unintentionally^† and does what is forbidden in any of the LORD’s commands, he is guilty. ²⁸When he is made aware of the sin he committed, he must bring as his offering^† for the sin he committed a female goat^† without defect. ²⁹He is to lay his hand on the head^† of the sin offering^† and slaughter it at the place of the burnt offering. ³⁰Then the priest is to take some of the blood with his finger and put it on the horns of the altar of burnt offering^† and pour out the rest of the blood at the base of the altar. ³¹He shall remove all the fat, just as the fat is removed from the fellowship offering, and the priest shall burn it on the altar as an aroma pleasing to the LORD.^† In this way the priest will make atonement for him, and he will be forgiven.

³²“ ‘If he brings a lamb as his sin offering, he is to bring a female without defect.^{† 33}He is to lay his hand on its head and slaughter it for a sin offering at the place where the burnt offering is slaughtered.^{† 34}Then the priest shall take some of the blood of the sin offering with his finger and put it on the horns of the altar of burnt offering and pour out the rest of the blood at the base of the altar.^{† 35}He shall remove all the fat, just as the fat is removed from the lamb of the fellowship offering, and the priest shall burn it on the altar^† on top of the offerings made to the LORD by fire. In this way the priest will make atonement for him for the sin he has committed, and he will be forgiven.

Leviticus 5

¹“ ‘If a person sins because he does not speak up when he hears a public charge to testify^† regarding something he has seen or learned about, he will be held responsible.^†

²“ ‘Or if a person touches anything ceremonially unclean—whether the carcasses of unclean wild animals or of unclean livestock or of unclean creatures that move along the ground^†—even though he is unaware of it, he has become unclean and is guilty.

³“ ‘Or if he touches human uncleanness^†—anything that would make him unclean—even though he is unaware of it, when he learns of it he will be guilty.

⁴“ ‘Or if a person thoughtlessly takes an oath^† to do anything, whether good or evil—in any matter one might carelessly swear about—even though he is unaware of it, in any case when he learns of it he will be guilty.

⁵“ ‘When anyone is guilty in any of these ways, he must confess^† in what way he has sinned ⁶and, as a penalty for the sin he has committed, he must bring to the LORD a female lamb or goat from the flock as a sin offering;^† and the priest shall make atonement for him for his sin.

⁷“ ‘If he cannot afford^† a lamb, he is to bring two doves or two young pigeons to the LORD as a penalty for his sin—one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering. ⁸He is to bring them to the priest, who shall first offer the one for the sin offering. He is to wring its head from its neck,^† not severing it completely,^{† 9}and is to sprinkle some of the blood of the sin offering against the side of the altar; the rest of the blood must be drained out at the base of the altar.^† It is a sin offering. ¹⁰The priest shall then offer the other as a burnt offering in the prescribed way^† and make atonement for him for the sin he has committed, and he will be forgiven.^†

¹¹“ ‘If, however, he cannot afford two doves or two young pigeons, he is to bring as an offering for his sin a tenth of an ephah^[7] of fine flour^† for a sin offering. He must not put oil or incense on it, because it is a sin offering. ¹²He is to bring it to the priest, who shall take a handful of it as a memorial portion and burn it on the altar on top of the offerings made to the LORD by fire. It is a sin offering. ¹³In this way the priest will make atonement^† for him for any of these sins he has committed, and he will be forgiven. The rest of the offering will belong to the priest,^† as in the case of the grain offering.’ ”

The Guilt Offering

¹⁴The LORD said to Moses: ¹⁵“When a person commits a violation and sins unintentionally in regard to any of the LORD’s holy things, he is to bring to the LORD as a penalty^† a ram^† from the flock, one without defect and of the proper value in silver, according to the sanctuary shekel.^{[8] †} It is a guilt offering. ¹⁶He must make restitution^† for what he has failed to do in regard to the holy things, add a fifth of the value^† to that and give it all to the priest, who will make atonement for him with the ram as a guilt offering, and he will be forgiven.

¹⁷“If a person sins and does what is forbidden in any of the LORD’s commands, even though he does not know it,^† he is guilty and will be held responsible. ¹⁸He is to bring to the priest as a guilt offering a ram from the flock, one without defect and of the proper value. In this way the priest will make atonement for him for the wrong he has committed unintentionally, and he will be forgiven.^{† 19}It is a guilt offering; he has been guilty of^[9] wrongdoing against the LORD.”

Leviticus 6

¹The LORD said to Moses: ²“If anyone sins and is unfaithful to the LORD^† by deceiving his neighbor^† about something entrusted to him or left in his care^† or stolen, or if he cheats him, ³or if he finds lost property and lies about it,^† or if he swears falsely, or if he commits any such sin that people may do— ⁴when he thus sins and becomes guilty, he must return^† what he has stolen or taken by extortion, or what was entrusted to him, or the lost property he found, ⁵or whatever it was he swore falsely about. He must make restitution^† in full, add a fifth of the value to it and give it all to the owner on the day he presents his guilt offering.^{† 6}And as a penalty he must bring to the priest, that is, to the LORD, his guilt offering,^† a ram from the flock, one without defect and of the proper value. ⁷In this way the priest will make atonement^† for him before the LORD, and he will be forgiven for any of these things he did that made him guilty.”

The Burnt Offering

⁸The LORD said to Moses: ⁹“Give Aaron and his sons this command: ‘These are the regulations for the burnt offering: The burnt offering is to remain on the altar hearth throughout the night, till morning, and the fire must be kept burning on the altar. ¹⁰The priest shall then put on his linen clothes, with linen undergarments next to his body,^† and shall remove the ashes of the burnt offering that the fire has consumed on the altar and place them beside the altar. ¹¹Then he is to take off these clothes and put on others, and carry the ashes outside the camp to a place that is ceremonially clean.^{† 12}The fire on the altar must be kept burning; it must not go out. Every morning the priest is to add firewood and arrange the burnt offering on the fire and burn the fat of the fellowship offerings^[10] on it. ¹³The fire must be kept burning on the altar continuously; it must not go out.

The Grain Offering

¹⁴“ ‘These are the regulations for the grain offering:^† Aaron’s sons are to bring it before the LORD, in front of the altar. ¹⁵The priest is to take a handful of fine flour and oil, together with all the incense on the grain offering,^† and burn the memorial portion^† on the altar as an aroma pleasing to the LORD. ¹⁶Aaron and his sons^† shall eat the rest^† of it, but it is to be eaten without yeast^† in a holy place;^† they are to eat it in the courtyard of the Tent of Meeting. ¹⁷It must not be baked with yeast; I have given it as their share of the offerings made to me by fire. Like the sin offering and the guilt offering, it is most holy.^{† 18}Any male descendant of Aaron may eat it.^† It is his regular share of the offerings made to the LORD by fire for the generations to come. Whatever touches them will become holy.^{[11] †}’ ”

¹⁹The LORD also said to Moses, ²⁰“This is the offering Aaron and his sons are to bring to the LORD on the day he^[12] is anointed: a tenth of an ephah^{[13] †} of fine flour as a regular grain offering,^† half of it in the morning and half in the evening. ²¹Prepare it with oil on a griddle;^† bring it well-mixed and present the grain offering broken^[14] in pieces as an aroma pleasing to the LORD. ²²The son who is to succeed him as anointed priest shall prepare it. It is the LORD’s regular share and is to be burned completely. ²³Every grain offering of a priest shall be burned completely; it must not be eaten.”

The Sin Offering

²⁴The LORD said to Moses, ²⁵“Say to Aaron and his sons: ‘These are the regulations for the sin offering: The sin offering is to be slaughtered before the LORD^† in the place^† the burnt offering is slaughtered; it is most holy. ²⁶The priest who offers it shall eat it; it is to be eaten in a holy place,^† in the courtyard^† of the Tent of Meeting. ²⁷Whatever touches any of the flesh will become holy,^† and if any of the blood is spattered on a garment, you must wash it in a holy place. ²⁸The clay pot^† the meat is cooked in must be broken; but if it is cooked in a bronze pot, the pot is to be scoured and rinsed with water. ²⁹Any male in a priest’s family may eat it;^† it is most holy.^{† 30}But any sin offering whose blood is brought into the Tent of Meeting to make atonement in the Holy Place^† must not be eaten; it must be burned.^†

Leviticus 7

The Guilt Offering

¹“ ‘These are the regulations for the guilt offering,^† which is most holy: ²The guilt offering is to be slaughtered in the place where the burnt offering is slaughtered, and its blood is to be sprinkled against the altar on all sides. ³All its fat^† shall be offered: the fat tail and the fat that covers the inner parts, ⁴both kidneys with the fat on them near the loins, and the covering of the liver, which is to be removed with the kidneys. ⁵The priest shall burn them on the altar as an offering made to the LORD by fire. It is a guilt offering. ⁶Any male in a priest’s family may eat it,^† but it must be eaten in a holy place; it is most holy.^†

⁷“ ‘The same law applies to both the sin offering and the guilt offering: They belong to the priest^† who makes atonement with them. ⁸The priest who offers a burnt offering for anyone may keep its hide for himself. ⁹Every grain offering baked in an oven or cooked in a pan or on a griddle^† belongs to the priest who offers it, ¹⁰and every grain offering, whether mixed with oil or dry, belongs equally to all the sons of Aaron.

The Fellowship Offering

¹¹“ ‘These are the regulations for the fellowship offering^[15] a person may present to the LORD:

¹²“ ‘If he offers it as an expression of thankfulness, then along with this thank offering^† he is to offer cakes of bread made without yeast and mixed with oil, wafers^† made without yeast and spread with oil, and cakes of fine flour well-kneaded and mixed with oil. ¹³Along with his fellowship offering of thanksgiving he is to present an offering with cakes of bread made with yeast.^{† 14}He is to bring one of each kind as an offering, a contribution to the LORD; it belongs to the priest who sprinkles the blood of the fellowship offerings. ¹⁵The meat of his fellowship offering of thanksgiving must be eaten on the day it is offered; he must leave none of it till morning.^†

¹⁶“ ‘If, however, his offering is the result of a vow or is a freewill offering, the sacrifice shall be eaten on the day he offers it, but anything left over may be eaten on the next day.^{† 17}Any meat of the sacrifice left over till the third day must be burned up. ¹⁸If any meat of the fellowship offering is eaten on the third day, it will not be accepted.^† It will not be credited^† to the one who offered it, for it is impure; the person who eats any of it will be held responsible.

¹⁹“ ‘Meat that touches anything ceremonially unclean must not be eaten; it must be burned up. As for other meat, anyone ceremonially clean may eat it. ²⁰But if anyone who is unclean eats any meat of the fellowship offering belonging to the LORD, that person must be cut off from his people.^{† 21}If anyone touches something unclean^†—whether human uncleanness or an unclean animal or any unclean, detestable thing—and then eats any of the meat of the fellowship offering belonging to the LORD, that person must be cut off from his people.’ ”

Eating Fat and Blood Forbidden

²²The LORD said to Moses, ²³“Say to the Israelites: ‘Do not eat any of the fat of cattle, sheep or goats.^{† 24}The fat of an animal found dead or torn by wild animals^† may be used for any other purpose, but you must not eat it. ²⁵Anyone who eats the fat of an animal from which an offering by fire may be^[16] made to the LORD must be cut off from his people. ²⁶And wherever you live, you must not eat the blood^† of any bird or animal. ²⁷If anyone eats blood,^† that person must be cut off from his people.’ ”

The Priests’ Share

²⁸The LORD said to Moses, ²⁹“Say to the Israelites: ‘Anyone who brings a fellowship offering to the LORD is to bring part of it as his sacrifice to the LORD. ³⁰With his own hands he is to bring the offering made to the LORD by fire; he is to bring the fat, together with the breast, and wave the breast before the LORD as a wave offering.^{† 31}The priest shall burn the fat on the altar, but the breast belongs to Aaron and his sons.^{† 32}You are to give the right thigh of your fellowship offerings to the priest as a contribution.^{† 33}The son of Aaron who offers the blood and the fat of the fellowship offering shall have the right thigh as his share. ³⁴From the fellowship offerings of the Israelites, I have taken the breast that is waved and the thigh^† that is presented and have given them to Aaron the priest and his sons^† as their regular share from the Israelites.’ ”

³⁵This is the portion of the offerings made to the LORD by fire that were allotted to Aaron and his sons on the day they were presented to serve the LORD as priests. ³⁶On the day they were anointed,^† the LORD commanded that the Israelites give this to them as their regular share for the generations to come.

³⁷These, then, are the regulations for the burnt offering,^† the grain offering,^† the sin offering, the guilt offering, the ordination offering^† and the fellowship offering, ³⁸which the LORD gave Moses on Mount Sinai on the day he commanded the Israelites to bring their offerings to the LORD,^† in the Desert of Sinai.

Leviticus 8

The Ordination of Aaron and His Sons

¹The LORD said to Moses, ²“Bring Aaron and his sons, their garments, the anointing oil,^† the bull for the sin offering, the two rams and the basket containing bread made without yeast,^{† 3}and gather the entire assembly^† at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting.” ⁴Moses did as the LORD commanded him, and the assembly gathered at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting.

⁵Moses said to the assembly, “This is what the LORD has commanded to be done.” ⁶Then Moses brought Aaron and his sons forward and washed them with water.^{† 7}He put the tunic on Aaron, tied the sash around him, clothed him with the robe and put the ephod on him. He also tied the ephod to him by its skillfully woven waistband; so it was fastened on him.^{† 8}He placed the breastpiece on him and put the Urim and Thummim^† in the breastpiece. ⁹Then he placed the turban on Aaron’s head and set the gold plate, the sacred diadem,^† on the front of it, as the LORD commanded Moses.

¹⁰Then Moses took the anointing oil^† and anointed^† the tabernacle and everything in it, and so consecrated them. ¹¹He sprinkled some of the oil on the altar seven times, anointing the altar and all its utensils and the basin with its stand, to consecrate them.^{† 12}He poured some of the anointing oil on Aaron’s head and anointed^† him to consecrate him.^{† 13}Then he brought Aaron’s sons forward, put tunics on them, tied sashes around them and put headbands on them, as the LORD commanded Moses.

¹⁴He then presented the bull^† for the sin offering,^† and Aaron and his sons laid their hands on its head. ¹⁵Moses slaughtered the bull and took some of the blood, and with his finger he put it on all the horns of the altar^† to purify the altar.^† He poured out the rest of the blood at the base of the altar. So he consecrated it to make atonement for it.^{† 16}Moses also took all the fat around the inner parts, the covering of the liver, and both kidneys and their fat, and burned it on the altar. ¹⁷But the bull with its hide and its flesh and its offal^† he burned up outside the camp,^† as the LORD commanded Moses.

¹⁸He then presented the ram^† for the burnt offering, and Aaron and his sons laid their hands on its head. ¹⁹Then Moses slaughtered the ram and sprinkled the blood against the altar on all sides. ²⁰He cut the ram into pieces and burned the head, the pieces and the fat. ²¹He washed the inner parts and the legs with water and burned the whole ram on the altar as a burnt offering, a pleasing aroma, an offering made to the LORD by fire, as the LORD commanded Moses.

²²He then presented the other ram, the ram for the ordination,^† and Aaron and his sons laid their hands on its head. ²³Moses slaughtered the ram and took some of its blood and put it on the lobe of Aaron’s right ear, on the thumb of his right hand and on the big toe of his right foot. ²⁴Moses also brought Aaron’s sons forward and put some of the blood on the lobes of their right ears, on the thumbs of their right hands and on the big toes of their right feet. Then he sprinkled blood against the altar on all sides.^{† 25}He took the fat, the fat tail, all the fat around the inner parts, the covering of the liver, both kidneys and their fat and the right thigh. ²⁶Then from the basket of bread made without yeast, which was before the LORD, he took a cake of bread, and one made with oil, and a wafer; he put these on the fat portions and on the right thigh. ²⁷He put all these in the hands of Aaron and his sons and waved them before the LORD as a wave offering. ²⁸Then Moses took them from their hands and burned them on the altar on top of the burnt offering as an ordination offering, a pleasing aroma, an offering made to the LORD by fire. ²⁹He also took the breast—Moses’ share of the ordination ram^†—and waved it before the LORD as a wave offering, as the LORD commanded Moses.

³⁰Then Moses took some of the anointing oil and some of the blood from the altar and sprinkled them on Aaron and his garments^† and on his sons and their garments. So he consecrated^† Aaron and his garments and his sons and their garments.

³¹Moses then said to Aaron and his sons, “Cook the meat at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting and eat it there with the bread from the basket of ordination offerings, as I commanded, saying,^[17] ‘Aaron and his sons are to eat it.’ ³²Then burn up the rest of the meat and the bread. ³³Do not leave the entrance to the Tent of Meeting for seven days, until the days of your ordination are completed, for your ordination will last seven days. ³⁴What has been done today was commanded by the LORD^† to make atonement for you. ³⁵You must stay at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting day and night for seven days and do what the LORD requires,^† so you will not die; for that is what I have been commanded.” ³⁶So Aaron and his sons did everything the LORD commanded through Moses.

Leviticus 9

The Priests Begin Their Ministry

¹On the eighth day^† Moses summoned Aaron and his sons and the elders of Israel. ²He said to Aaron, “Take a bull calf for your sin offering and a ram for your burnt offering, both without defect, and present them before the LORD. ³Then say to the Israelites: ‘Take a male goat for a sin offering, a calf and a lamb—both a year old and without defect—for a burnt offering, ⁴and an ox^[18] and a ram for a fellowship offering^[19] to sacrifice before the LORD, together with a grain offering mixed with oil. For today the LORD will appear to you.^†’ ”

⁵They took the things Moses commanded to the front of the Tent of Meeting, and the entire assembly came near and stood before the LORD. ⁶ Then Moses said, “This is what the LORD has commanded you to do, so that the glory of the LORD^† may appear to you.”

⁷Moses said to Aaron, “Come to the altar and sacrifice your sin offering and your burnt offering and make atonement for yourself and the people; sacrifice the offering that is for the people and make atonement for them, as the LORD has commanded.^†”

⁸So Aaron came to the altar and slaughtered the calf as a sin offering^† for himself. ⁹His sons brought the blood to him,^† and he dipped his finger into the blood and put it on the horns of the altar; the rest of the blood he poured out at the base of the altar.^{† 10}On the altar he burned the fat, the kidneys and the covering of the liver from the sin offering, as the LORD commanded Moses; ¹¹the flesh and the hide^† he burned up outside the camp.^†

¹²Then he slaughtered the burnt offering. His sons handed him the blood, and he sprinkled it against the altar on all sides. ¹³They handed him the burnt offering piece by piece, including the head, and he burned them on the altar.^{† 14}He washed the inner parts and the legs and burned them on top of the burnt offering on the altar.

¹⁵Aaron then brought the offering that was for the people.^† He took the goat for the people’s sin offering and slaughtered it and offered it for a sin offering as he did with the first one.

¹⁶He brought the burnt offering and offered it in the prescribed way.^{† 17}He also brought the grain offering, took a handful of it and burned it on the altar in addition to the morning’s burnt offering.^†

¹⁸He slaughtered the ox and the ram as the fellowship offering for the people.^† His sons handed him the blood, and he sprinkled it against the altar on all sides. ¹⁹But the fat portions of the ox and the ram—the fat tail, the layer of fat, the kidneys and the covering of the liver— ²⁰these they laid on the breasts, and then Aaron burned the fat on the altar. ²¹Aaron waved the breasts and the right thigh before the LORD as a wave offering,^† as Moses commanded.

²²Then Aaron lifted his hands toward the people and blessed them.^† And having sacrificed the sin offering, the burnt offering and the fellowship offering, he stepped down.

²³Moses and Aaron then went into the Tent of Meeting. When they came out, they blessed the people; and the glory of the LORD^† appeared to all the people. ²⁴Fire^† came out from the presence of the LORD and consumed the burnt offering and the fat portions on the altar. And when all the people saw it, they shouted for joy and fell facedown.^†

Leviticus 10

The Death of Nadab and Abihu

¹Aaron’s sons Nadab and Abihu^† took their censers, put fire in them^† and added incense; and they offered unauthorized fire before the LORD, contrary to his command.^{† 2}So fire came out from the presence of the LORD and consumed them,^† and they died before the LORD. ³Moses then said to Aaron, “This is what the LORD spoke of when he said:

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Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East

Leviticus 10 Before entering the Lord’s presence priests were required to attain a state of ritual purity—they needed to be “clean.” In fact, if the “holy” were to come into contact with the “unclean,” the results would be devastating (Lev 10:8–11; 15:31). Uncleanness in a holy space (especially in the tabernacle, but by extension anywhere in the Holy Land) defiled that space and, if the situation were to have been left unresolved, would have constituted justification for God to withdraw his Presence (cf. Eze 8–11).

Israel’s purity laws (Lev 11–15), the details of which are unparalleled in any other ancient Near Eastern literature, reminded the Israelites of the gaping divide between themselves and their holy God (cf. 10:3) and of God’s burning desire for them to become like him in purity (11:44–45; 19:1–2; cf. Jesus’ words in Mt 5:48). These laws also taught the Israelites that their uncleanness resulted not from demonic powers, as was widely believed in the broader world around them, but from disobedience to God’s law. Even more fundamentally, uncleanness or ritual impurity (the condition that barred an individual from God’s Presence in the sanctuary) was a state that occurred in all people from time to time, simply by virtue of their human nature (cf. Lev 12; 15).

The major threat, then, was not uncleanness per se but protracted, disregarded uncleanness. God prescribed regular purification rituals through which uncleanness was removed, the threat of judgment lifted and entry into the Lord’s Presence once again permitted. Essential to this process was the Lord’s acceptance of a blood sacrifice, especially the one offered annually by the high priest on the Day of Atonement (ch. 16; cf. 17:11).¹ Non-sacrificial regulations, such as washing with water, are also detailed in chapters 11–15. Even so, true holiness was not—and still is not—attainable without justice, love of neighbor and a heart wholly committed to the Lord and to his covenant (19:2; cf. Am 5:21–23).

1. See “The Day of Atonement.”

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“ ‘Among those who approach me^†

I will show myself holy;^†

in the sight of all the people

I will be honored.^†’ ”

Aaron remained silent.

⁴Moses summoned Mishael and Elzaphan,^† sons of Aaron’s uncle Uzziel,^† and said to them, “Come here; carry your cousins outside the camp,^† away from the front of the sanctuary.” ⁵So they came and carried them, still in their tunics,^† outside the camp, as Moses ordered.

⁶Then Moses said to Aaron and his sons Eleazar and Ithamar, “Do not let your hair become unkempt,^{[20] †} and do not tear your clothes, or you will die and the LORD will be angry with the whole community.^† But your relatives, all the house of Israel, may mourn for those the LORD has destroyed by fire. ⁷Do not leave the entrance to the Tent of Meeting or you will die, because the LORD’s anointing oil^† is on you.” So they did as Moses said.

⁸Then the LORD said to Aaron, ⁹“You and your sons are not to drink wine^† or other fermented drink^† whenever you go into the Tent of Meeting, or you will die. This is a lasting ordinance for the generations to come. ¹⁰You must distinguish between the holy and the common, between the unclean and the clean,^{† 11}and you must teach^† the Israelites all the decrees the LORD has given them through Moses.^†”

¹²Moses said to Aaron and his remaining sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, “Take the grain offering left over from the offerings made to the LORD by fire and eat it prepared without yeast beside the altar,^† for it is most holy. ¹³Eat it in a holy place, because it is your share and your sons’ share of the offerings made to the LORD by fire; for so I have been commanded. ¹⁴But you and your sons and your daughters may eat the breast that was waved and the thigh that was presented. Eat them in a ceremonially clean place;^† they have been given to you and your children as your share of the Israelites’ fellowship offerings.^{[21] 15}The thigh^† that was presented and the breast that was waved must be brought with the fat portions of the offerings made by fire, to be waved before the LORD as a wave offering. This will be the regular share for you and your children, as the LORD has commanded.”

¹⁶When Moses inquired about the goat of the sin offering^† and found that it had been burned up, he was angry with Eleazar and Ithamar, Aaron’s remaining sons, and asked, ¹⁷“Why didn’t you eat the sin offering^† in the sanctuary area? It is most holy; it was given to you to take away the guilt of the community by making atonement for them before the LORD. ¹⁸Since its blood was not taken into the Holy Place,^† you should have eaten the goat in the sanctuary area, as I commanded.”

¹⁹Aaron replied to Moses, “Today they sacrificed their sin offering and their burnt offering^† before the LORD, but such things as this have happened to me. Would the LORD have been pleased if I had eaten the sin offering today?” ²⁰When Moses heard this, he was satisfied.

Leviticus 11

Clean and Unclean Food

¹The LORD said to Moses and Aaron, ²“Say to the Israelites: ‘Of all the animals that live on land, these are the ones you may eat:^{† 3}You may eat any animal that has a split hoof completely divided and that chews the cud.

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Clean and Unclean Foods in the Bible and the Ancient Near East

Leviticus 11 The rationale behind the designation of certain creatures as “clean” and others as “unclean” for dietary purposes (Lev 11; cf. Dt 14:3–21) has perplexed Bible readers throughout the ages. Possible explanations include:

• hygienic reasons (e.g., the fact that pork, especially if not thoroughly cooked, could prove unhealthful and carry disease);

• allegorical explanations (the notion that the character of certain animals determined whether or not they were clean—e.g., pigs were thought to exemplify lazy, gluttonous, uncouth behavior and thus were deemed unclean);

• arbitrary testing (the idea that God randomly designated some animals as unclean in order to test his people’s obedience);

• pagan association (the suggestion that animals labeled “unclean” were those used in non-Israelite rituals—e.g., certain pagan rites entailed the sacrifice of pigs);

• conformity to an ideal (the supposition that only those animals conforming to what was considered “normal” for their species were “clean”—e.g., sea creatures without fins and/or scales were abnormal and therefore unclean); and

• heavenly analogy (the notion that “clean” animals constituted God’s own “diet”).

Some of these explanations are plainly far-fetched; indeed, the suggestion that certain foods comprise God’s diet lacks any merit. It is important to note, however, that all of them are hypothetical, unsupported by any specific Biblical teaching. Also, none fully accounts for the distinctions detailed in Leviticus 11. Regardless of which hypothetical rationale, if any, historians may offer for the diet of the ancient Israelites, clearly the distinction between clean and unclean foods ensured them a healthful diet and enabled them to maintain their identity as God’s covenantal people (Da 1). Adherence to these food laws consecrated the Israelites, setting them apart as holy, just as Yahweh, their God, is holy (Lev 11:44–47).¹

Although outside ancient Israel there is no known system as comprehensive in differentiating between permitted and prohibited foods, dietary restrictions of one kind or another are attested in the ancient Near East from Egypt to Babylonia. Inscriptions in Egyptian temples include lists of foods (mostly animal products) certain groups of people were not to eat. The cow, for example, was off limits in Dendera, where the goddess Hathor was said to be manifested in bovine form. In Mesopotamia, eating certain animals was prohibited on special occasions, such as rituals in which pigs were sacrificed (otherwise, pork was widely eaten). Numerous ancient cults also had specific taboos regarding food consumption (cf. Col 2:20–21).

Clean and Unclean Animals
Classes	Clean	Unclean
Mammals	Two qualifications: 1. Cloven hoofs 2. Chewing of the cud (Lev 11:3–7; Dt 14:6–8)	Carnivores and those not meeting both “clean” qualifications
Birds	Those not specifically listed as forbidden	Birds of prey or scavengers (Lev 11:13–19; Dt 14:11–20)
Reptiles	None	All (Lev 11:29–30)
Water Animals	Two qualifications: 1. Fins 2. Scales (Lev 11:9–12; Dt 14:9–10)	Those not meeting both “clean” qualifications
Insects	Those in the grasshopper family (Lev 11:20–23)	Winged quadrupeds

Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament, p. 23

1. See also “Food and Agriculture.”

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⁴“ ‘There are some that only chew the cud or only have a split hoof, but you must not eat them. The camel, though it chews the cud, does not have a split hoof; it is ceremonially unclean for you. ⁵The coney,^[22] though it chews the cud, does not have a split hoof; it is unclean for you. ⁶The rabbit, though it chews the cud, does not have a split hoof; it is unclean for you. ⁷And the pig,^† though it has a split hoof completely divided, does not chew the cud; it is unclean for you. ⁸You must not eat their meat or touch their carcasses; they are unclean for you.^†

⁹“ ‘Of all the creatures living in the water of the seas and the streams, you may eat any that have fins and scales. ¹⁰But all creatures in the seas or streams that do not have fins and scales—whether among all the swarming things or among all the other living creatures in the water—you are to detest.^{† 11}And since you are to detest them, you must not eat their meat and you must detest their carcasses. ¹²Anything living in the water that does not have fins and scales is to be detestable to you.

¹³“ ‘These are the birds you are to detest and not eat because they are detestable: the eagle, the vulture, the black vulture, ¹⁴the red kite, any kind of black kite, ¹⁵any kind of raven, ¹⁶the horned owl, the screech owl, the gull, any kind of hawk, ¹⁷the little owl, the cormorant, the great owl, ¹⁸the white owl, the desert owl, the osprey, ¹⁹the stork, any kind of heron, the hoopoe and the bat.^[23]

²⁰“ ‘All flying insects that walk on all fours are to be detestable to you.^{† 21}There are, however, some winged creatures that walk on all fours that you may eat: those that have jointed legs for hopping on the ground. ²²Of these you may eat any kind of locust,^† katydid, cricket or grasshopper. ²³But all other winged creatures that have four legs you are to detest.

²⁴“ ‘You will make yourselves unclean by these; whoever touches their carcasses will be unclean till evening. ²⁵Whoever picks up one of their carcasses must wash his clothes,^† and he will be unclean till evening.^†

²⁶“ ‘Every animal that has a split hoof not completely divided or that does not chew the cud is unclean for you; whoever touches [the carcass of] any of them will be unclean. ²⁷Of all the animals that walk on all fours, those that walk on their paws are unclean for you; whoever touches their carcasses will be unclean till evening. ²⁸Anyone who picks up their carcasses must wash his clothes, and he will be unclean till evening. They are unclean for you.

²⁹“ ‘Of the animals that move about on the ground, these are unclean for you: the weasel, the rat,^† any kind of great lizard, ³⁰the gecko, the monitor lizard, the wall lizard, the skink and the chameleon. ³¹Of all those that move along the ground, these are unclean for you. Whoever touches them when they are dead will be unclean till evening. ³²When one of them dies and falls on something, that article, whatever its use, will be unclean, whether it is made of wood, cloth, hide or sackcloth.^† Put it in water; it will be unclean till evening, and then it will be clean. ³³If one of them falls into a clay pot, everything in it will be unclean, and you must break the pot.^{† 34}Any food that could be eaten but has water on it from such a pot is unclean, and any liquid that could be drunk from it is unclean. ³⁵Anything that one of their carcasses falls on becomes unclean; an oven or cooking pot must be broken up. They are unclean, and you are to regard them as unclean. ³⁶A spring, however, or a cistern for collecting water remains clean, but anyone who touches one of these carcasses is unclean. ³⁷If a carcass falls on any seeds that are to be planted, they remain clean. ³⁸But if water has been put on the seed and a carcass falls on it, it is unclean for you.

³⁹“ ‘If an animal that you are allowed to eat dies, anyone who touches the carcass will be unclean till evening. ⁴⁰Anyone who eats some of the carcass must wash his clothes, and he will be unclean till evening.^† Anyone who picks up the carcass must wash his clothes, and he will be unclean till evening.

⁴¹“ ‘Every creature that moves about on the ground is detestable; it is not to be eaten. ⁴²You are not to eat any creature that moves about on the ground, whether it moves on its belly or walks on all fours or on many feet; it is detestable. ⁴³Do not defile yourselves by any of these creatures.^† Do not make yourselves unclean by means of them or be made unclean by them. ⁴⁴I am the LORD your God;^† consecrate yourselves^† and be holy,^† because I am holy.^† Do not make yourselves unclean by any creature that moves about on the ground. ⁴⁵I am the LORD who brought you up out of Egypt^† to be your God;^† therefore be holy, because I am holy.^†

⁴⁶“ ‘These are the regulations concerning animals, birds, every living thing that moves in the water and every creature that moves about on the ground. ⁴⁷You must distinguish between the unclean and the clean, between living creatures that may be eaten and those that may not be eaten.^†’ ”

Leviticus 12

Purification After Childbirth

¹The LORD said to Moses, ²“Say to the Israelites: ‘A woman who becomes pregnant and gives birth to a son will be ceremonially unclean for seven days, just as she is unclean during her monthly period.^{† 3}On the eighth day the boy is to be circumcised.^{† 4}Then the woman must wait thirty-three days to be purified from her bleeding. She must not touch anything sacred or go to the sanctuary until the days of her purification are over. ⁵If she gives birth to a daughter, for two weeks the woman will be unclean, as during her period. Then she must wait sixty-six days to be purified from her bleeding.

⁶“ ‘When the days of her purification for a son or daughter are over,^† she is to bring to the priest at the entrance to the Tent of Meeting a year-old lamb^† for a burnt offering and a young pigeon or a dove for a sin offering.^{† 7}He shall offer them before the LORD to make atonement for her, and then she will be ceremonially clean from her flow of blood.

“ ‘These are the regulations for the woman who gives birth to a boy or a girl. ⁸If she cannot afford a lamb, she is to bring two doves or two young pigeons,^† one for a burnt offering and the other for a sin offering.^† In this way the priest will make atonement for her, and she will be clean.^†’ ”

Leviticus 13

Regulations About Infectious Skin Diseases

¹The LORD said to Moses and Aaron, ²“When anyone has a swelling^† or a rash or a bright spot^† on his skin that may become an infectious skin disease,^{[24] †} he must be brought to Aaron the priest^† or to one of his sons^[25] who is a priest. ³The priest is to examine the sore on his skin, and if the hair in the sore has turned white and the sore appears to be more than skin deep,^[26] it is an infectious skin disease. When the priest examines him, he shall pronounce him ceremonially unclean.^{† 4}If the spot^† on his skin is white but does not appear to be more than skin deep and the hair in it has not turned white, the priest is to put the infected person in isolation for seven days.^{† 5}On the seventh day^† the priest is to examine him,^† and if he sees that the sore is unchanged and has not spread in the skin, he is to keep him in isolation another seven days. ⁶On the seventh day the priest is to examine him again, and if the sore has faded and has not spread in the skin, the priest shall pronounce him clean;^† it is only a rash. The man must wash his clothes,^† and he will be clean.^{† 7}But if the rash does spread in his skin after he has shown himself to the priest to be pronounced clean, he must appear before the priest again.^{† 8}The priest is to examine him, and if the rash has spread in the skin, he shall pronounce him unclean; it is an infectious disease.

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Skin Diseases in the Ancient World

Leviticus 13 The Bible describes various categories of skin-related problems:

• festering or running sores (Lev 21:20; 22:22);

• itches (Dt 28:27), including those caused by fungal infestations (e.g., ringworm), eczema and parasitic diseases (e.g., scabies);

• boils and/or inflamed swellings and rashes (Ex 9:9–10; Lev 13:2; Job 2:7; Isa 38:21);

• warts (Lev 22:22); and

• a disease traditionally rendered as “leprosy” (Nu 12:10; 2Ch 26:19).

Although some researchers do identify this last condition with modern leprosy (Hansen’s disease), this diagnosis is almost certainly incorrect for several reasons:

• The hair in the affected spots is sometimes described as turning white (Lev 13:13, 25), an effect rarely seen in Hansen’s disease.

• Hansen’s disease causes increasing numbness as it spreads, but the Bible never mentions this characteristic.

• Biblical “leprosy” could clear up without treatment (14:3), while Hansen’s disease cannot (barring a miraculous cure).

It is more likely then, that Biblical “leprosy” refers to a group of infectious conditions under the category of “scaly” skin diseases (cf. 14:54–57).

Affliction with a skin disease meant that an individual was ritually unclean,¹ but the illness was not necessarily an indication of direct punishment from God or the uncleanness a manifestation of a moral or character flaw. In certain instances, however, God did choose to inflict such diseases as consequences for specific sins (e.g., the pharaoh in Ex 9:8–12; Miriam in Nu 12:10; Uzziah in 2Ki 15:5).

1. See “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East.”

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⁹“When anyone has an infectious skin disease, he must be brought to the priest. ¹⁰The priest is to examine him, and if there is a white swelling in the skin that has turned the hair white and if there is raw flesh in the swelling, ¹¹it is a chronic skin disease^† and the priest shall pronounce him unclean. He is not to put him in isolation, because he is already unclean.

¹²“If the disease breaks out all over his skin and, so far as the priest can see, it covers all the skin of the infected person from head to foot, ¹³the priest is to examine him, and if the disease has covered his whole body, he shall pronounce that person clean. Since it has all turned white, he is clean. ¹⁴But whenever raw flesh appears on him, he will be unclean. ¹⁵When the priest sees the raw flesh, he shall pronounce him unclean. The raw flesh is unclean; he has an infectious disease.^{† 16}Should the raw flesh change and turn white, he must go to the priest. ¹⁷The priest is to examine him, and if the sores have turned white, the priest shall pronounce the infected person clean;^† then he will be clean.

¹⁸“When someone has a boil^† on his skin and it heals, ¹⁹and in the place where the boil was, a white swelling or reddish-white^† spot^† appears, he must present himself to the priest. ²⁰The priest is to examine it, and if it appears to be more than skin deep and the hair in it has turned white, the priest shall pronounce him unclean. It is an infectious skin disease^† that has broken out where the boil was. ²¹But if, when the priest examines it, there is no white hair in it and it is not more than skin deep and has faded, then the priest is to put him in isolation for seven days. ²²If it is spreading in the skin, the priest shall pronounce him unclean; it is infectious. ²³But if the spot is unchanged and has not spread, it is only a scar from the boil, and the priest shall pronounce him clean.^†