NIV Archaeological Study Bible

The Fall of Babylon

¹After this I saw another angel^† coming down from heaven.^† He had great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his splendor.^† ²With a mighty voice he shouted:

Trade and Mercantilism in the Roman Empire

Revelation 18 Economic gain was the driving force of Rome’s imperial expansion. Egypt, for instance, supplied much of the grain for Rome, while Judea provided items such as processed fish and balsam. Colonial governance, military peacekeeping efforts and the extensive system of Roman roads were all designed for Rome’s material benefit. Local people who joined forces with Rome also profited from the imperial enterprise. Thus Revelation 18:11 notes that the merchants would weep and mourn over Babylon (Rome) because no one would purchase their cargo any longer.

In Revelation John was especially concerned about Roman economic exploitation through the trade in luxury goods. John’s list of goods in verses 18:12–13 was modeled upon the listing of cargoes mentioned in the lament for the city of Tyre in Ezekiel 27, but he adapted it to the realities of the Roman Empire. Items like gold, silver, cinnamon and citron wood were luxuries, not necessities, for the Roman elite. Taken in this light, Revelation was not only a prediction of doom for the wicked kingdom of “Babylon” but also a challenge to any nation that focuses on wealth and luxury while rejecting the rule of God.

“Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great!^†

She has become a home for demons

and a haunt for every evil^[22] spirit,

a haunt for every unclean and detestable bird.^†

³For all the nations have drunk

the maddening wine of her adulteries.^†

The kings of the earth committed adultery with her,^†

and the merchants of the earth grew rich^† from her excessive luxuries.”^†

⁴Then I heard another voice from heaven say:

“Come out of her, my people,^†

so that you will not share in her sins,

so that you will not receive any of her plagues;

⁵for her sins are piled up to heaven,^†

and God has remembered^† her crimes.

⁶Give back to her as she has given;

pay her back^† double for what she has done.

Mix her a double portion from her own cup.^†

⁷Give her as much torture and grief

as the glory and luxury she gave herself.^†

In her heart she boasts,

‘I sit as queen; I am not a widow,

and I will never mourn.’^†

⁸Therefore in one day^† her plagues will overtake her:

death, mourning and famine.

She will be consumed by fire,^†

for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.

⁹“When the kings of the earth who committed adultery with her^† and shared her luxury see the smoke of her burning,^† they will weep and mourn over her.^† ¹⁰Terrified at her torment, they will stand far off ^† and cry:

“ ‘Woe! Woe, O great city,^†

O Babylon, city of power!

In one hour^† your doom has come!’

¹¹“The merchants^† of the earth will weep and mourn over her because no one buys their cargoes any more^†— ¹²cargoes of gold, silver, precious stones and pearls; fine linen, purple, silk and scarlet cloth; every sort of citron wood, and articles of every kind made of ivory, costly wood, bronze, iron and marble;^† ¹³cargoes of cinnamon and spice, of incense, myrrh and frankincense, of wine and olive oil, of fine flour and wheat; cattle and sheep; horses and carriages; and bodies and souls of men.^†

¹⁴“They will say, ‘The fruit you longed for is gone from you. All your riches and splendor have vanished, never to be recovered.’ ¹⁵The merchants who sold these things and gained their wealth from her ^† will stand far off, terrified at her torment. They will weep and mourn^† ¹⁶and cry out:

“ ‘Woe! Woe, O great city,

dressed in fine linen, purple and scarlet,

and glittering with gold, precious stones and pearls!^†

¹⁷In one hour^† such great wealth has been brought to ruin!’^†

“Every sea captain, and all who travel by ship, the sailors, and all who earn their living from the sea,^† will stand far off. ¹⁸When they see the smoke of her burning, they will exclaim, ‘Was there ever a city like this great city?’^† ¹⁹They will throw dust on their heads,^† and with weeping and mourning cry out:

“ ‘Woe! Woe, O great city,

where all who had ships on the sea

became rich through her wealth!

In one hour she has been brought to ruin!^†

²⁰Rejoice over her, O heaven!^†

Rejoice, saints and apostles and prophets!

God has judged her for the way she treated you.’ ”^†

²¹Then a mighty angel^† picked up a boulder the size of a large millstone and threw it into the sea,^† and said:

“With such violence

the great city of Babylon will be thrown down,

never to be found again.

²²The music of harpists and musicians, flute players and trumpeters,

will never be heard in you again.^†

No workman of any trade

will ever be found in you again.

The sound of a millstone

will never be heard in you again.^†

²³The light of a lamp

will never shine in you again.

The voice of bridegroom and bride

will never be heard in you again.^†

Your merchants were the world’s great men.^†

By your magic spell^† all the nations were led astray.

²⁴In her was found the blood of prophets and of the saints,^†

and of all who have been killed on the earth.”^†

Revelation 19

Hallelujah!

¹After this I heard what sounded like the roar of a great multitude^† in heaven shouting:

“Hallelujah!

Salvation^† and glory and power^† belong to our God,

²for true and just are his judgments.

He has condemned the great prostitute

who corrupted the earth by her adulteries.

He has avenged on her the blood of his servants.”^†

³And again they shouted:

“Hallelujah!

The smoke from her goes up for ever and ever.”^†

⁴The twenty-four elders^† and the four living creatures^† fell down^† and worshiped God, who was seated on the throne. And they cried:

“Amen, Hallelujah!”

⁵Then a voice came from the throne, saying:

“Praise our God,

all you his servants,^†

you who fear him,

both small and great!”^†

⁶Then I heard what sounded like a great multitude,^† like the roar of rushing waters and like loud peals of thunder, shouting:

“Hallelujah!

For our Lord God Almighty reigns.

⁷Let us rejoice and be glad

and give him glory!

For the wedding of the Lamb^† has come,

and his bride^† has made herself ready.

⁸Fine linen, bright and clean,

was given her to wear.”

(Fine linen stands for the righteous acts^† of the saints.)

⁹Then the angel said to me,^† “Write:^† ‘Blessed are those who are invited to the wedding supper of the Lamb!’ ”^† And he added, “These are the true words of God.”^†

¹⁰At this I fell at his feet to worship him.^† But he said to me, “Do not do it! I am a fellow servant with you and with your brothers who hold to the testimony of Jesus. Worship God!^† For the testimony of Jesus^† is the spirit of prophecy.”

The Rider on the White Horse

¹¹I saw heaven standing open and there before me was a white horse, whose rider^† is called Faithful and True.^† With justice he judges and makes war.^† ¹²His eyes are like blazing fire,^† and on his head are many crowns.^† He has a name written on him that no one knows but he himself.^† ¹³He is dressed in a robe dipped in blood,^† and his name is the Word of God.^† ¹⁴The armies of heaven were following him, riding on white horses and dressed in fine linen,^† white and clean. ¹⁵Out of his mouth comes a sharp sword^† with which to strike down^† the nations. “He will rule them with an iron scepter.”^[23] ^† He treads the winepress^† of the fury of the wrath of God Almighty. ¹⁶On his robe and on his thigh he has this name written:^†

KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF LORDS.^†

¹⁷And I saw an angel standing in the sun, who cried in a loud voice to all the birds^† flying in midair,^† “Come,^† gather together for the great supper of God, ¹⁸so that you may eat the flesh of kings, generals, and mighty men, of horses and their riders, and the flesh of all people,^† free and slave, small and great.”

¹⁹Then I saw the beast and the kings of the earth^† and their armies gathered together to make war against the rider on the horse and his army. ²⁰But the beast was captured, and with him the false prophet^† who had performed the miraculous signs on his behalf.^† With these signs he had deluded those who had received the mark of the beast and worshiped his image. The two of them were thrown alive into the fiery lake^† of burning sulfur.^† ²¹The rest of them were killed with the sword^† that came out of the mouth of the rider on the horse,^† and all the birds^† gorged themselves on their flesh.

Revelation 20

The Thousand Years

¹And I saw an angel coming down out of heaven,^† having the key^† to the Abyss and holding in his hand a great chain. ²He seized the dragon, that ancient serpent, who is the devil, or Satan,^† and bound him for a thousand years.^† ³He threw him into the Abyss, and locked and sealed ^† it over him, to keep him from deceiving the nations^† anymore until the thousand years were ended. After that, he must be set free for a short time.

⁴I saw thrones^† on which were seated those who had been given authority to judge. And I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded^† because of their testimony for Jesus and because of the word of God. They had not worshiped the beast^† or his image and had not received his mark on their foreheads or their hands.^† They came to life and reigned with Christ a thousand years. ⁵(The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended.) This is the first resurrection.^† ⁶Blessed ^† and holy are those who have part in the first resurrection. The second death^† has no power over them, but they will be priests^† of God and of Christ and will reign with him^† for a thousand years.

Satan’s Doom

⁷When the thousand years are over,^† Satan will be released from his prison ⁸and will go out to deceive the nations^† in the four corners of the earth— Gog and Magog^†— to gather them for battle.^† In number they are like the sand on the seashore.^† ⁹They marched across the breadth of the earth and surrounded ^† the camp of God’s people, the city he loves. But fire came down from heaven^† and devoured them. ¹⁰And the devil, who deceived them,^† was thrown into the lake of burning sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be tormented day and night for ever and ever.^†

The Dead Are Judged

¹¹Then I saw a great white throne^† and him who was seated on it. Earth and sky fled from his presence, and there was no place for them. ¹²And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened.^† Another book was opened, which is the book of life.^† The dead were judged according to what they had done^† as recorded in the books. ¹³The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades^† gave up the dead^† that were in them, and each person was judged according to what he had done. ¹⁴Then death^† and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. The lake of fire is the second death. ¹⁵If anyone’s name was not found written in the book of life,^† he was thrown into the lake of fire.

Revelation 21

The New Jerusalem

¹Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth,^† for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and there was no longer any sea. ²I saw the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God,^† prepared as a bride beautifully dressed for her husband. ³And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, “Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God.^† ⁴He will wipe every tear from their eyes.^† There will be no more death^† or mourning or crying or pain,^† for the old order of things has passed away.”

⁵He who was seated on the throne^† said, “I am making everything new!” Then he said, “Write this down, for these words are trustworthy and true.”^†

⁶He said to me: “It is done.^† I am the Alpha and the Omega,^† the Beginning and the End. To him who is thirsty I will give to drink without cost from the spring of the water of life.^† ⁷He who overcomes will inherit all this, and I will be his God and he will be my son. ⁸But the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars^†— their place will be in the fiery lake of burning sulfur. This is the second death.”^†

⁹One of the seven angels who had the seven bowls full of the seven last plagues^† came and said to me, “Come, I will show you the bride,^† the wife of the Lamb.” ¹⁰And he carried me away ^† in the Spirit^† to a mountain great and high, and showed me the Holy City, Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God. ¹¹It shone with the glory of God,^† and its brilliance was like that of a very precious jewel, like a jasper, clear as crystal.^† ¹²It had a great, high wall with twelve gates, and with twelve angels at the gates. On the gates were written the names of the twelve tribes of Israel.^† ¹³There were three gates on the east, three on the north, three on the south and three on the west. ¹⁴The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and on them were the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb.

¹⁵The angel who talked with me had a measuring rod ^† of gold to measure the city, its gates and its walls. ¹⁶The city was laid out like a square, as long as it was wide. He measured the city with the rod and found it to be 12,000 stadia^[24] in length, and as wide and high as it is long. ¹⁷He measured its wall and it was 144 cubits ^[25] thick,^[26] by man’s measurement, which the angel was using. ¹⁸The wall was made of jasper,^† and the city of pure gold, as pure as glass.^† ¹⁹The foundations of the city walls were decorated with every kind of precious stone.^† The first foundation was jasper, the second sapphire, the third chalcedony, the fourth emerald, ²⁰the fifth sardonyx, the sixth carnelian,^† the seventh chrysolite, the eighth beryl, the ninth topaz, the tenth chrysoprase, the eleventh jacinth, and the twelfth amethyst.^[27] ²¹The twelve gates were twelve pearls, each gate made of a single pearl. The great street of the city was of pure gold, like transparent glass.^†

²²I did not see a temple^† in the city, because the Lord God Almighty^† and the Lamb^† are its temple. ²³The city does not need the sun or the moon to shine on it, for the glory of God gives it light,^† and the Lamb is its lamp. ²⁴The nations will walk by its light, and the kings of the earth will bring their splendor into it.^† ²⁵On no day will its gates ever be shut,^† for there will be no night there.^† ²⁶The glory and honor of the nations will be brought into it. ²⁷Nothing impure will ever enter it, nor will anyone who does what is shameful or deceitful,^† but only those whose names are written in the Lamb’s book of life.

Revelation 22

The River of Life

¹Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal,^† flowing^† from the throne of God and of the Lamb ²down the middle of the great street of the city. On each side of the river stood the tree of life,^† bearing twelve crops of fruit, yielding its fruit every month. And the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations.^† ³No longer will there be any curse.^† The throne of God and of the Lamb will be in the city, and his servants will serve him.^† ⁴They will see his face,^† and his name will be on their foreheads.^† ⁵There will be no more night.^† They will not need the light of a lamp or the light of the sun, for the Lord God will give them light.^† And they will reign for ever and ever.^†

The Tree of Life in Jewish Imagery

Revelation 22 The tree of life in Revelation 22 depicts the healing of humanity from the effects of the fall, the most terrible effect being death itself. This image is found elsewhere in the Bible and is widely appropriated in early Jewish religious language and art. The tree of life in Genesis 2–3 represented the eternal life that humanity lost in the fall. In Ezekiel 47 trees with healing fruit grew alongside the river that flowed from the temple in the kingdom of God.¹ The menorah, the lampstand placed in the temple, may have been an abstract representation of the tree of life. In Biblical Wisdom texts such as Psalm 1, the righteous are compared to a tree planted by rivers of water. And in Proverbs 3:18 wisdom is described as a tree of life to those who take hold of her.

Menorah in a stone carving from a synagogue frieze, third—fourth centuries A.D., from Eshtemoa near Hebron

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin

Outside of the Bible Jewish sources abound with references to the tree of life:

• Trees appear regularly in Jewish artwork. They are especially common in funerary settings, in this context almost certainly representing the tree of life as a symbol of immortality.

• The tree of life was common in early Jewish religious literature.

A text called the Targum Neofiti says, “The Law is a [or the] Tree of Life to all who study in it, and those who guard its commandments will live and rise up like a Tree of Life in the world to come.”

In 4 Ezra 51–52 Ezra is told that God will open paradise for the righteous: It is for them that the tree of life was planted.²

In 1 Enoch 24–25 Enoch saw the tree of life on a journey to the ends of the earth; it was planted on God’s mountain throne and was marvelously beautiful and fragrant.³

Rabbinic tradition suggested that the tree of life was so tall that it required a 500-year journey to scale it and reach the top.

There are many other such texts from Judaism. Collectively they tell us that the symbol of the tree of life powerfully evoked yearning for life and spiritual healing among ancient Jews, providing a Biblical symbol that they readily embraced. John was in effect saying that the only way to the true tree of life is through Jesus Christ.

1. See “The Geography of Ezekiel 47.”

2. For a description of 4 Ezra, also known as 2 Esdras, see “The Apocrypha.”

3. For a description of 1 Enoch, see “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature.”

⁶The angel said to me,^† “These words are trustworthy and true.^† The Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets,^† sent his angel^† to show his servants the things that must soon take place.”

Jesus Is Coming

⁷“Behold, I am coming soon!^† Blessed^† is he who keeps the words of the prophecy in this book.”

⁸I, John, am the one who heard and saw these things.^† And when I had heard and seen them, I fell down to worship at the feet^† of the angel who had been showing them to me. ⁹But he said to me, “Do not do it! I am a fellow servant with you and with your brothers the prophets and of all who keep the words of this book.^† Worship God!”^†

¹⁰Then he told me, “Do not seal up^† the words of the prophecy of this book, because the time is near.^† ¹¹Let him who does wrong continue to do wrong; let him who is vile continue to be vile; let him who does right continue to do right; and let him who is holy continue to be holy.”^†

¹²“Behold, I am coming soon!^† My reward is with me,^† and I will give to everyone according to what he has done. ¹³I am the Alpha and the Omega,^† the First and the Last,^† the Beginning and the End.^†

¹⁴“Blessed are those who wash their robes, that they may have the right to the tree of life^† and may go through the gates^† into the city.^† ¹⁵Outside^† are the dogs,^† those who practice magic arts, the sexually immoral, the murderers, the idolaters and everyone who loves and practices falsehood.

¹⁶“I, Jesus,^† have sent my angel to give you^[28] this testimony for the churches.^† I am the Root^† and the Offspring of David, and the bright Morning Star.”^†

¹⁷The Spirit^† and the bride say, “Come!” And let him who hears say, “Come!” Whoever is thirsty, let him come; and whoever wishes, let him take the free gift of the water of life.

¹⁸I warn everyone who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: If anyone adds anything to them,^† God will add to him the plagues described in this book.^† ¹⁹And if anyone takes words away^† from this book of prophecy, God will take away from him his share in the tree of life and in the holy city, which are described in this book.

²⁰He who testifies to these things^† says, “Yes, I am coming soon.”

Amen. Come, Lord Jesus.^†

²¹The grace of the Lord Jesus be with God’s people.^† Amen.

Glossary

Achaemenid The ruling dynasty of the Persian Empire from 550 B.C. to 330 B.C. Founded by Cyrus the Great, the dynasty reached its peak under the rule of Darius the Great when the empire stretched from the Indus River in the east to modern day Libya in the west.

acropolis The uppermost part of a city in Hellenistic culture, often reserved for religious and cultic practice. The most significant acropolis is that in Athens, a level area of 300 by 150 meters (328 x 164 yd) that overlooks the city. It has played a significant role in the area for over three millennia. Construction of the temple system began in the eighth century B.C. and continued for three centuries. The pinnacle of this system is the grand Parthenon, constructed during the fifth century B.C. and dedicated to the goddess Athena. See “Athens.”

Ai (Heb., “heap” or “ruin”); A town in central Palestine, most likely in the area of Jericho and Jerusalem, east of Bethel. The Israelites, under Joshua, defeated the city after initially having been repulsed. The victory was secured only after Achan’s sin had been punished by God. See “Ai.”

Akkad The northern section of the southern Mesopotamian plain.

Akkadian(s) A third through first millennium B.C. Semitic language written in cuneiform. Originally from Mesopotamia, Akkadian became the official diplomatic language of the entire ancient Near East. The two primary known dialects were Assyrian and Babylonian.

Amarna The premier city of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (fourteenth century B.C.). It is located 180 miles south of present day Cairo on the east side of the Nile. Hundreds of cuneiform letters have been found here from the reign of Amenhotep III (mid-fourteenth century B.C.). Many describe the political conditions in the Levant at a time when Habiru were attacking Canaanite city-states. See “The Amarna Tablets and the Habiru.”

Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) (r. 1352–1336 B.C.); The “heretic” pharaoh who tried to replace traditional Egyptian religion with a near monotheistic worship of Aten. His reign also left behind an important set of Akkadian texts called the Amarna Letters.

Amorite(s) One of the nations that inhabited Canaan prior to the Israelite conquest. The Amorites may perhaps be identified with the Amurru named in cuneiform documents as overrunning Mesopotamia in the late third through early second millennia B.C. and forming the First Babylonian dynasty.

amphora A tall, two-handled vessel used in ancient Rome and Greece to store oil, honey, wine or corn.

amulet(s) A charm that is either carried or worn, generally with inscriptions of figures or characters. It was used to protect the carrier from sickness or witchcraft.

Anatolia The area that is today the Asian portion of the nation of Turkey. It served as a crossroads for the ancient Mediterranean world and thus had numerous significant cultural contacts with Syro-Palestine and its inhabitants. See “Anatolia and the Hittites.”

Apocrypha; Apocryphal The term Apocrypha means “hidden away” and refers to noncanonical books relevant to either the Old Testament or the New Testament. However, the collection commonly called the Apocrypha refers to 14 or 15 documents that were for the most part written between the last two centuries B.C. and the first century A.D. The term was first coined by Jerome in the fifth century A.D. to refer to those books that were part of the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) but not of the Hebrew Bible. Protestants do not view these books as canonical. See “The Apocrypha.”

Aramaic A Semitic language closely related to Hebrew. It developed during the second millennium B.C. and later became the lingua franca of the Middle East. At the time of Christ it was the dominant language used by Jews in Palestine. Christ spoke and taught in Aramaic, and parts of the Old Testament were written in this language.

Ashdod An ancient city that was one of the five major political centers of the Philistines in the eleventh century B.C. The city saw conflicts between the Philistines and the Israelites and eventually came under Israelite control. The contemporary city of Ashdod is located three miles (nearly five km) north of the ancient site.

ashlar(s) A type of masonry that uses carefully cut stones set together with closed joints.

Asia Minor An area that is roughly represented by the nation of Turkey or the Anatolian peninsula. Civilization in this area has been dated back to 9000 B.C.

Asiatic(s) A native or descendent of Asia, which in Near Eastern studies refers to the Middle East. The Egyptians called Semitic peoples from Syria-Palestine “Asiatics.”

Asshur The first capital of Assyria, located on the western bank of the Tigris River in modern Iraq. The city wall dates to the third millennium B.C.

Assyria; Assyrian(s) An ancient country situated in today’s northern Iraq, with agricultural areas in the eastern portion. The area had been inhabited as early as the Paleolithic Age, but civilization appeared here around 6500 B.C. Assyrians were closely related in many ways to their southern neighbors, the Sumerians and later the Babylonians. See the articles on Assyria.

Babylon; Babylonia; Babylonian(s) (“Gate of the gods”); Babylon was one of the most important cities of the ancient world and the capital of Babylonia during the second and first millennia B.C. Its location along the primary trade route between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean added to its significance. It was located 56 miles (90 km) south of present day Baghdad. During the Neo-Babylonian Empire it was the largest city in the known world, covering 2,500 acres. See “Babylon.”

Babylonian captivity Also known as the Babylonian exile, this refers to the period between the deportation of the Israelites under Nebuchadnezzar II in the early sixth century B.C. and their release roughly 70 years later by Cyrus the Great. The exile was accomplished by two deportations, one in 597 B.C. and the second after the destruction of Jerusalem in 586. Most Israelites never returned to the area later called Palestine and became part of the Diaspora. See “The Jewish Diaspora in the First Century A.D..”

Babylonian Talmud One of two compilations of the Talmud, the other being the Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud. The Talmud is a collection of Jewish laws, including commentaries on the Torah. It is comprised of the Mishnah, a codification of rulings based on the Law of Moses, and a commentary on the Mishnah, also known as the Gemara.

Bethel (Heb., “House of God”); A historic city of great religious and ceremonial significance, located 11 miles (nearly 18 km) north of Jerusalem in present-day West Bank. Abraham built an altar, and Jacob had his vision of the ladder here. See “Bethel.”

Bronze Age(s) (3300–1200 B.C.; Early, Middle, Late); The period during which bronze alloys were the primary metals used to make tools. Scholars differ somewhat as to the dates assigned to these periods, and the terminology is not altogether uniform. The Early Bronze period lasted from approximately 3300–2100 B.C., The Middle Bronze period from around 2100–1550 B.C. and the Late Bronze period from about 1550–1200 B.C.

bulla(e) A lump of clay that has a seal impression or impressions on it. Bullae were used for sealing shut documents of papyrus.

Byzantine Pertaining to the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived the breakup of the western empire in the fifth century A.D. Its capital, Constantinople, was first given prominence by the Emperor Constantine, who in A.D. 330 made it the capital of the Roman Empire. Its language was primarily Greek, but its cultural influence was clearly Roman. The empire combined Roman and Greek influence with Christian Orthodoxy.

cache A hidden stash of items.

Canaan; Canaanite(s) The name associated with Palestine in the Old Testament; the land west of the Jordan River and east of the Mediterranean Sea. It was named after the father of the Canaanites, the original inhabitants. The Israelites systematically conquered this region during the second millennium B.C.

canon; canonical (“standard” or “rule”); The list of books that are considered authoritative by the Christian church. The Protestant canon contains fewer books than does the Catholic canon, which incorporates the books of the Apocrypha (called by Catholics the Deuterocanonicals). See “The Old Testament Canon” and “The New Testament Canon.”

carinated A descriptive term for the sharp curves on some pottery vessels.

cartouche An oval-shaped box in which personal names were written in Egyptian hieroglyphs.

casemate wall(s) A type of city wall made of two parallel walls joined by crosswalls at regular intervals.

Chalcolithic Age The period between the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, running from approximately 4300–3300 B.C. and characterized by the use of stone and copper tools.

church fathers The men whose writings helped interpret Scripture and who established the doctrines of the Christian church. The Western church fathers include Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose, Gregory I and Tertullian, while their Eastern counterparts include Origen, Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria.

Code of Hammurabi (see Hammurabi, Code of).

codex An early form of book, replacing the scroll, in which several sheets of papyrus or parchment were stitched together and attached by thongs to thin wooden boards. See “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”

colophon Material at the end of a written work, usually giving the name of the author or scribe and the occasion for the writing. Ancient colophons frequently contained blessing or curse formulae.

cuneiform A writing system using a wedge-shaped stylus pressed into wet clay, which later hardened. The wedge-shaped characters of cuneiform also appear incised in metal, stone and other media. This form of writing was invented by the Sumerians before 3000 B.C. and adopted by the Akkadians, through whom it was carried throughout the Near East.

Dagon A fertility god worshiped in the Near East, including Philistia. His name may derive from the Semitic word for “grain.”

Dead Sea Scrolls Manuscripts found, beginning in 1947, at the site of Qumran to the northwest of the Dead Sea. The collection of approximately 600 manuscripts contains portions of every Old Testament book except for Esther, in addition to numerous other works (hymnals, apocalyptic material, rulebooks, etc.). See “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis.”

Decapolis The area east of the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee, dominated by ten Hellenic cities, some of which date back to the reign of Alexander the Great. These cities were distributed to different provinces during the reign of Trajan in the early second century A.D., so that the administrative district of the Decapolis ceased to exist.

demotic A cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphics used from the seventh century B.C. to the fifth century A.D.

Deuterocanonical A term used among Roman Catholics for the Jewish texts written during the period between the Old Testament and the New Testament, including such works as Tobit and Maccabees. This same collection is called the Apocrypha by Protestants. See “The Apocrypha” and “The Books of the Apocrypha.”

Diaspora The dispersion of the Jews away from Judea. Beginning with the Babylonian Captivity (586 B.C.), Jews emigrated from Judea. Some through forced deportations ended up in Babylon, while others fled as refugees to Egypt and other areas in the Middle East. After the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 many others were taken to Rome as captives. The Diaspora allowed Paul to visit and convert many Jews in several cities around the Mediterranean, thus planting Christian churches throughout the Roman Empire.

divided monarchy The period after the death of Solomon during which the Israelite kingdom was split into the northern kingdom of Israel (whose capital was later established at Samaria) and Judah (whose capital was at Jerusalem). The divided monarchy began when Israel, under the leadership of Jeroboam, rebelled against Rehoboam in 930 B.C.

divination The attempt to gain knowledge about events by consulting the gods through various means (e.g., dreams, interpreting natural phenomena as omens, inspecting the entrails of sacrificed animals, etc.). See “Akkadian Divination.”

Early Bronze Age (see Bronze Age)

Ebla An important city in northern Syria which has yielded a wealth of third-millennium B.C. cuneiform texts. See “Ebla.”

Elam; Elamite(s) An ancient kingdom located east of the Tigris River and north of the Persian Gulf. One of the earliest civilizations, dating back to the sixth millennium B.C., Elam was eventually defeated by the Assyrians in the seventh century B.C. Elamite, the language of Elam, was first written with pictograms and later by cuneiform. Small enclaves of Elamite speakers were still in existence in Iran during the tenth century A.D.

Elohim The general Hebrew term for deities, used in particular for the God of Israel. It is translated as “God” or “gods.”

Enlightenment The eighteenth-century A.D. movement that prized human reason, progress, nature and the scientific process, rejecting the miraculous and supernatural, battling the institutional Christian church and instituting a religious system based primarily upon the reasonable ethical behavior of humanity.

epigraphy; epigraphic The study of inscriptions.

execration text(s) Texts that demonstrate the Egyptian practice of formally cursing persons and cities, attested from the Old Kingdom to the New Kingdom periods. The ritual most often involved writing the name of the person or city on a ceramic bowl, after which the curse was spoken and the bowl smashed.

exile(s); exilic period The Assyrian exile began with the first deportation of Israelites (from the northern kingdom) in 734 B.C., and the second deportation occurred after the destruction of Samaria in 722. These captives were forcibly migrated to other parts of the Assyrian Empire, including Nineveh. The Babylonian exile (or captivity) began in 608 B.C., when Nebuchadnezzar II deported some of the nobility and learned men of Judah. Subsequent deportations followed, until Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem in 586 and led captives away to southern Mesopotamia. In 538 B.C., when Cyrus the Persian defeated the Babylonian Empire, he allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem.

exodus, the; exodus period The Israelites’ escape from slavery in Egypt, led by Moses. This event may be seen as the most significant in Israel’s history. Although there is some debate as to the date of the exodus, most conservative scholars place it in the mid-fifteenth century B.C. See “The Date of the Exodus.”

glacis A slope at the base of a fortification wall, often found in Middle Bronze Age levels in Syria-Palestine.

Hammurabi A king of Babylonia during the eighteenth century B.C. (1792–1750, according to middle chronology dates). Hammurabi greatly expanded the First Babylonian Empire, even reaching the Mediterranean Sea.

Hammurabi, Code of The earliest complete collection of laws that has been discovered to date. It was commissioned by King Hammurabi of Babylonia and engraved on a black basalt stone 7.5 feet (2.3 m) tall.

Hasmonean(s) A prominent Jewish family of rulers (named for their ancestor Hasmon) during the second and first centuries B.C. Also known as the Maccabees, they led the Jews in rebellion against Syria.

Hazor An ancient Canaanite city that stood at the crossroads of two main trade routes north of the Sea of Galilee. Hazor became a strategic Israelite city and was fortified by Solomon. See “Hazor.”

hieroglyphs; hieroglyphics A system of writing, employed by Egyptians and Hittites, in which pictures represent words and syllables.

Hellenism; Hellenize(d); Hellenization; Hellenistic period The period from Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) to Roman rule (early first century B.C.). The term “Hellenistic” generally refers to Greek culture and its adoption by non-Greeks.

Hittite(s) A people of Indo-European descent who migrated into Anatolia by the second millennium B.C. The Old Assyrian name for the Anatolia region was Hatti. See “Anatolia and the Hittites.”

Horeb Another name for Mount Sinai. See “The Location of Mount Sinai.”

Hurrian(s) A people who migrated into the Near East from the north during the third millennium B.C. As the Hurrian population increased in the Near East, these people formed the powerful kingdom of Mitanni during the late second millennium. There is evidence of Hurrians residing in Syria and Canaan as well. See “The Hurrians.”

Hyksos A mixed group (mostly Semitic) that infiltrated Egypt in the Middle Bronze Age and took over control of the country. Their role in the exodus is still debated among scholars. See “The Hyksos and the Exodus” and “The Hyksos and the Old Testament.”

Idumea; Idumeans The area comprised of Edom. It was subjected to the Hasmonean kingdom under John Hyrcanus during the second century B.C., at which time the Idumeans were compelled to accept Judaism.

Intertestamental period The roughly 400-year period between the closing of the Old Testament and the beginning of the New Testament. See “The Intertestamental Period.”

Iron Age (c. 1200–586 B.C.); The period of history in Syria-Palestine when iron tools began to be used (although bronze tools and weapons were actually still in wide usage).

Jericho A town located in the Jordan Valley, north of the Dead Sea and west of the Jordan River. It is the oldest known settlement, dating back to 8000 B.C. See “The Walls of Jericho” and “New Testament Jericho.”

Johannine Refers to the New Testament literature written by the apostle John.

Josephus (c. A.D. 37–101); A Jewish historian who was part of both the Jewish and Roman cultures. As a Pharisee, he reportedly fought against the Romans only to later enjoy imperial patronage under Emperor Titus. Josephus witnessed firsthand the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. His writings are of great significance in first-century Jewish and Christian studies. See “Josephus and the Fall of Jerusalem.”

Judah/Judea The tribe of Judah was part of the kingdom of Israel until the period of the divided monarchy. After the secession of the northern tribes, Judah became the kingdom of Judah or the “southern kingdom,” until the Babylonians conquered it in the sixth century B.C. After the exile the Jewish resettlement at Jerusalem eventually became known as “Yehud” or Judea. The boundaries of the region are roughly Jerusalem in the north, the Jordan River in the east, the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the Negev Desert in the south.

Kadesh Barnea A site in the Sinai where the Israelites camped during their wilderness wandering. Miriam died there, and it was there that Moses disobeyed God by striking the rock to produce water. See “Kadesh Barnea.”

Kassites Invaders of the northern regions of Babylonia during the sixteenth century B.C. Because of the early sixteen-century invasion of the Hittites, the Babylonians were susceptible to the Kassites’ power and were overthrown. The Kassites established a dynasty that ruled until 1155 B.C. During this period, however, they lost their own cultural identity and became absorbed into the Babylonian culture.

King’s Highway A strategic trade route that joined the eastern Levant to Syria and Mesopotamia.

lacuna(e) A term describing gaps that exist within ancient writings. The cause of these breaks is often the deterioration of the medium upon which the text was inscribed. For example, as a papyrus document rots away, portions of the text written on it become illegible.

Late Bronze Age (see Bronze Age).

Maccabean revolt A Jewish revolt in response to the attempts of the Syrian rulers of Palestine to replace Judaism with Hellenism. The tension reached its zenith in 167 B.C. when the Seleucid ruler replaced the temple altar to Yahweh with an altar to Zeus. The revolt was led by a Jewish priest, Mattathias, and his sons, known as the Maccabees. The Maccabees were ultimately successful, and Israel enjoyed a new status as an independent nation under Maccabean (also called Hasmonean) rule.

Marduk In Babylonian religion the god of thunderstorms. He defeated Tiamat and Kingu, the dragons of chaos, and thus assumed the mantle of supreme deity in the Babylonian pantheon. Believed to be the creator of the universe and thus of humanity, he had roughly 50 titles but was ultimately known as Bel or “Lord.” See “A Prayer of Confession to Marduk.”

Mari An important Mesopotamian city in the third millennium B.C., located on the Euphrates River. The site has yielded tens of thousands of cuneiform documents relating to political and cultural issues during that time. See “Mari.”

Masoretic text The standard version of the Hebrew Old Testament, produced by the Masoretes, a group of Jewish scholars dating from the early Christian period until the Middle Ages. The Masoretes punctuated the text and added vowels (the original Hebrew text included only consonants). The standard for Hebrew Bibles printed today is a Masoretic text from A.D. 1088, currently housed in the Russian National Library.

material culture Archaeological finds in the form of tangible objects, such as pottery, figurines, cultic items, artwork, etc.

matriarch(s) The wives of the Biblical patriarchs: Sarah, Rebekah, Leah and Rachel.

Medeba map The earliest known map of Palestine, dating to approximately A.D. 560–565. It is designed into the floor mosaic of a Byzantine Church in Madaba, Jordan.

Megiddo An important Israelite city in the Jezreel Valley that was fortified by Solomon. See “Megiddo.”

Mesopotamia; Mesopotamian(s) (Gr., “between the rivers”); The area of land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in present-day Iraq and Syria, Mesopotamia was one of the earliest centers of civilization. Civilization began to flourish here in the sixth millennium B.C., with major cities appearing in the fourth millennium B.C. The oldest settlement in Mesopotamia is Eridu, dating to the fifth millennium. See “The Patriarchal Period: Mesopotamia During the Time of Abraham.”

Middle Bronze Age (see Bronze Age).

Middle Kingdom (Egypt) A period of Egyptian history covering the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties, or the period from 2106–1786 B.C. During this time the central government of the pharaohs reasserted itself and local lords began to lose power. Joseph may have played a significant role in bringing about the end of feudal power.

Midrash/midrashic The word midrash stems from the Hebrew verb darash (“to explain”) and came to refer to an interpretation or exposition of a Biblical text. The term midrashic is used to describe a distinctive mode of interpretation employed by early rabbis.

miqveh A Jewish ritual bath or pool.

Mishnah Meaning “repetition,” the term refers to a collection of rabbinical discussions on the correct interpretation of the Law of Moses, compiled at the turn of the second and third centuries A.D. by Rabbi Judah. Mishnaic teaching became the most prominent form of instruction in Judaism. The text in its current version represents centuries of development.

Mitanni; Mitannians A Mesopotamian (Hurrian) kingdom that existed from the fifteenth until the thirteenth centuries B.C.

Moab An ancient country that was located east of the Dead Sea in present-day Jordan. The Moabites often oppressed the Israelites during the period of the judges but were subjects of Israel during the time of the Davidic kingdom. Ruth was a Moabite. See “Moab.”

monarchic period; monarchy The period in Israel’s history between the judges and the exile, when either the united or the divided monarchy existed (eleventh–sixth centuries B.C.).

Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605–562 B.C.); A king of the Chaldean, or Neo-Babylonian, Empire, Nebuchadnezzar is credited with having greatly extended the boundaries of the empire and overseeing an ambitious building program throughout Babylon. He took Jerusalem in 597 B.C. and exiled King Jehoiachin and many of his subjects to Babylonia. See “Nebuchadnezzar.”

necropolis A city’s burial area.

Neo-Babylonian A Chaldean empire, founded by Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, during the seventh century B.C., that regained great prestige for the Babylonian Empire. However, its short history came to an end in 539 B.C. with the defeat of Babylon by the Persian Cyrus the Great.

Neolithic Age (period) The New Stone Age, characterized by the use of stone tools and agricultural advances, as well as the development of pottery making and weaving. Dates for the Neolithic period are not uniformly established, but for Egypt and the Near East they encompass roughly the two centuries from 8000–6000 B.C.

New Kingdom (Egypt) A period of Egyptian history (Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties; 1550–1069 B.C.) that can be considered the high point of Egyptian power. The New Kingdom was established by Pharaoh Ahmose, who drove out the last of the Hyksos. This is the era during which Israel escaped Egyptian slavery. The New Kingdom would become an empire that reached through Canaan into Syria. See “A Breakdown of Ancient Egyptian History.”

noncanonical Any book or portion of a book that does not belong to the 66 canonical books of the Christian Bible. Examples include the Gospel of Thomas and the letters of Clement.

Nuzi An ancient city in present-day northern Iraq. Excavation of this site has produced tablets that reveal fifteenth-century B.C. legal customs that parallel those of the Biblical patriarchs. See “Nuzi.”

offset-inset wall A defensive wall that, instead of being flat, protruded at regular intervals.

Old Babylonian Empire The initial period of Babylonian dominance, beginning around 2017 B.C. and lasting until the Kassites captured Babylon in 1595 B.C.

Old Kingdom (Egypt) A period of Egyptian history (Third to Sixth Dynasties; 2700–2160 B.C.) during which the pyramids and the great sphinx were constructed. The study of medicine also flourished, and works such as the Proverbs of Ptahhotep were produced. Pharaohs ventured outside Egypt on military campaigns to the Sinai and to Libya. See “A Breakdown of Ancient Egyptian History.”

orthostat(s) Large stone slabs, inscribed or carved in relief and painted, used to adorn ancient Near Eastern palaces and temples.

ossuary; pl. ossuaries A box, often of clay or metal, for holding the bones of the dead.

ostracon; pl. ostraca A broken fragment of pottery used as writing material. Messages, lists and school exercises were written on ostraca. The Athenians used this medium to record the names of persons they wished to send into exile from the city, thus giving us the word ostracize.

paleography; paleographic The study of ancient writing.

paleo-Hebrew An early form of Hebrew, closely related to Canaanite.

papyrus; pl. papyri Writing material made from the papyrus plant, first used in Egypt. From this term we get our word paper.

Pastoral epistles First and Second Timothy and Titus, so named for their content.

Patriarchal Age (period) The period in the Old Testament narrative, during the first half of the second millennium B.C., starting with Abraham and ending with the establishment of the sons of Jacob as the 12 tribes of Israel.

patrimony Land inherited from one’s father.

Pentateuch The Greek term for the first five books of the Old Testament. The word was coined by Origen during the early Christian period.

Persia; Persian(s); Persian Empire/Persian period The Persian Empire was established by Cyrus the Great in the middle of the sixth century B.C. The empire reached its pinnacle under Darius the Great, who ruled in the late sixth and early fifth centuries. He expanded Persia’s borders and established it as a world power but was defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C. His son, Xerxes I, succeeded him to the throne, but neither he nor his son, Artaxerxes I, managed to restore the kingdom to its former glory. See the articles on Persia.

Peshitta A first-century A.D. Syriac version of the Old Testament.

Phoenicia; Phoenician(s) An ancient nation on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea in present-day Lebanon, whose first civilizations are dated to approximately 2500 B.C. The Phoenicians were conquered by the Egyptians around 1800 B.C. and remained under Egyptian rule until about 1200 B.C. They were excellent sailors, using this skill for trade and for the establishment of colonies along the Mediterranean Sea. See “Phoenicia.”

Pithom One of the Egyptian store cities built by the Israelites, possibly modern Tell el-Rataba. See “The Store Cities of Pithom and Rameses.”

portico A colonnade or covered walkway. Architecture employing the portico was popular in the classical Greek and Roman periods.

postexilic period The more than 500 years from the Persian conquest of Babylon until the beginning of the New Testament Age. This period saw the rebuilding of the wall and temple in Jerusalem.

potsherd (see sherd).

pre-monarchic period The period before Israel’s monarchy was established (with Saul being the first king), during which Israel was led by judges.

proto-Canaanite The language of Canaan/Israel during the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I; the proto-Canaanite script is the writing system used for this language.

pseudepigrapha; pseudepigraphal A collection of noncanonical books by both Jewish and Christian writers, dating from approximately 200 B.C. to well into the Christian period. The books were falsely attributed to great religious figures of the Jewish and Christian religions (e.g., Abraham, Moses, Job, Solomon). See “The Bible and Pseudepigraphical Literature.”

Ptolemaic/Ptolemies/Ptolemy A Macedonian empire, established by Ptolemy (a general of Alexander), that existed in Egypt and Africa from the fourth through the first centuries B.C. With its capital at Alexandria in Egypt, the empire was dominated by Greek thought and custom, although it did participate in Egyptian religious ceremonies. The empire faced constant rebellion from the Egyptian population.

Q source An unidentified document or documents that many scholars have proposed is a second document source to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. In the “Two Document Hypothesis,” the Gospel of Mark is the first source upon which Matthew and Luke drew; Q is the second. See “The Synoptic Problem and ‘Q’.”

Qumran An ancient Jewish settlement on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, inhabited by the Essenes, a Jewish sect that had broken away from mainline Judaism to live an ascetic life in the vicinity of Qumran. The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered here. See “Qumran and the New Testament.”

Rameses II The grandson of Rameses I and the Egyptian pharaoh from 1290–1224 B.C. Rameses fought to regain much land that Egypt had lost. His primary enemy was the Hittite nation, and the major battle of this war was fought at Kadesh in 1274 B.C. Although Rameses claimed a great victory, there was no clear winner, and a subsequent treaty divided the disputed area. His reign was characterized by ambitious building projects, such as the great hall at the Temple of Amon, as well as the Temple at Abu Simbel.

Ras Shamra Ancient Ugarit. See Ugarit.

register(s) Panels or rows (one on top of the other) inside of which inscriptions, carvings or other decorations are made.

relief(s) A raised design that protrudes slightly from a flat surface.

retaining wall A wall constructed to support an area of land or a mound. The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem was built by Herod the Great as a retaining wall for the temple mount.

Roman period The period beginning when Pompey seized Jerusalem in 63 B.C. The Empire lasted another five centuries and saw the rise of Christianity as the prominent religion. Much of Rome’s institutions were Hellenistic in origin.

Rosetta Stone A trilingual stone discovered in 1799 that led to the decipherment of hieroglyphics. See “The Rosetta Stone and the Deciphering of Hieroglyphs.”

Samaria; Samarian The capital of the northern kingdom (i.e., Israel). Founded by Omri near the beginning of the ninth century B.C., Samaria was destroyed by Shalmaneser V and Sargon II in 722 B.C. During the postexilic period the name Samaria was given to the region north of Judah. See “Omri and Samaria.”

sarcophagus; pl. sarcophagi A coffin that was placed above ground. The term means “flesh eating” in Greek and refers to the use of limestone sarcophagi that reportedly consumed a corpse with the exception of the teeth within 40 days. Most sarcophagi were made of stone. The oldest known examples are Egyptian.

Sargon the Great A Semitic ruler (c. 2335–2279 B.C.) and the founder of the dynasty of Akkad. Sargon united the regions of Akkad and Sumer, conquered all of Mesopotamia and commanded all of the trade routes. He instituted Akkadian as the official language, taking the place of Sumerian.

scarab(s) Either the sacred beetle of Egypt or a carving of this beetle inscribed on its underside and used as an amulet.

scribe A person trained in the skill of writing who kept records or copied manuscripts professionally. See “The Scribe.”

Sea Peoples Invaders of Egypt and the Levant in the thirteenth–twelfth centuries B.C., they were part of a larger movement of peoples responsible for much destruction in the Aegean, Anatolia and Syria-Palestine.

Second Intermediate period (Egypt) A period in Egyptian history (Thirteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties; 1786–1550 B.C.) when central authority collapsed. The Hyksos (foreign, Semitic rulers) took control of Lower Egypt during this time. See “A Breakdown of Ancient Egyptian History.”

Second Temple The period from the construction of the postexilic temple in 515 B.C. to the destruction of the Herodian temple by the Romans in A.D. 70. See “The Intertestamental Period.”

Seleucid(s) A kingdom that included Syria and neighboring areas, created when the domain of Alexander the Great was divided. The Seleucid Empire extended eastward from present-day Turkey into present-day Pakistan, lasting from the fourth through the first centuries B.C. See “The Seleucids.”

Septuagint The Greek translation of the Old Testament, containing additional books not found in the Hebrew text. Legend holds that 70 elders, working independently of one another, each produced an identical translation of the Hebrew. The Septuagint is named after these 70.

Shalmaneser III An Assyrian king (858–824 B.C.) who invaded Syria-Palestine. Although the Bible does not mention him, his victory stele, known as the Black Obelisk, depicts Jehu of Israel paying homage to him. See “Jehu/The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III.”

Shechem A city 65 miles (105 km) north of Jerusalem in the central hill country, occupied by the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh. See “Shechem.”

shekel The primary Hebrew weight and coin. See “Weights and Measures.”

Shephelah The foothills between the Judean high country and the coastal plain on the Mediterranean Sea.

sherd(s) A broken piece of pottery.

Sinai The wilderness area located between the two fingers of the Red Sea, traditionally seen as the location of Mount Sinai (although this is debatable). See “The Location of Mount Sinai.”

stele A stone monument, usually inscribed and carved with images celebrating a ruler’s victories.

Sumer; Sumerian The southernmost part of the Mesopotamian alluvial plain. It is debated whether the Sumerians were the original inhabitants of the area or whether they migrated from the Indus region. See “Sumer.”

superscript; superscription(s) An explanatory title at the beginning of many psalms and other ancient works, often giving the author’s name and the occasion of the writing, as well as musical instructions for the piece.

Suppiluliumas I An able Hittite king (c. 1350–1325 B.C.) who consolidated Hittite power in Anatolia and expanded Hittite hegemony over Mitanni and over states in Syria-Palestine that had once been dominated by Egypt.

suzerain An overlord, or king, who had power over an inferior king or state.

Synoptic Gospels Matthew, Mark and Luke. The three Synoptic Gospels have much material in common and can be compared easily.

Syriac A dialect of Aramaic. The Syriac version of the Bible, known as the Peshitta, was produced toward the end of the fourth century A.D.

Talmud; Talmudic Meaning “study,” the term refers to collections of commentary on the Mishnah, rabbinical discussions and explanations of the Law of Moses. While there are two Talmuds, the Palestinian and the Babylonian, which contain different content, “Talmud” usually refers to the Babylonian compilation. The Palestinian Talmud was completed at the end of the fourth century A.D., while the Babylonian Talmud was completed during the following century.

Targum(s) An Aramaic translation of the Old Testament, produced by many translators over the course of the first few centuries A.D. In places the translation is a paraphrase, often accompanied by explanatory material.

tel; tell A mound that rises higher than the surrounding area, beneath which are found layers of occupational or other human activity. As edifices, streets, fortifications, etc. were destroyed, rebuilt or renovated, the new constructions were often built directly over the previous levels. Thus, the tel (Hebrew) or tell (Arabic) began to become elevated above its surroundings. When conducting surface surveys, archaeologists can often determine the best places to dig simply by locating the site of a tel/tell.

tetrarch The head over one fourth of a given region. Eventually the term came to designate simply a lesser ruler, lower than a king.

textual criticism The study and comparison of ancient Biblical versions to determine the original reading of the text. See “Textual Criticism.”

theodicy A system of theological justification for the problem of evil; i.e., an explanation for the existence of evil, given the realities that God is both omnipotent and loving.

Tigris The eastern river that, together with the Euphrates, formed the alluvial plain in Mesopotamia. Flooding in the late spring, the Tigris originates in the Zagros mountains to the north and flows through what is modern Iraq before emptying into the Persian Gulf. See “The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.”

Torah The Pentateuch, or first five books of the Old Testament.

Transjordan; Transjordanian Territory on the eastern side of the Jordan River, encompassing the regions of Bashan, Gilead, Ammon, Moab and Edom. The Israelite tribes of Gad and Reuben and part of the tribe of Manasseh settled here.

Ugarit; Ugaritic Located at modern Ras Shamra, this important coastal city in northern Syria has yielded a wealth of texts that help us to understand the region’s history and the Canaanite religion. See “Ugarit/Ras Shamra.”

united kingdom (see united monarchy).

united monarchy The period constituting the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon. When Rehoboam succeeded Solomon in 930 B.C., Israel rebelled under the leadership of Jeroboam, and two kingdoms resulted: Israel (the northern kingdom) and Judah (the southern).

Uruk A Mesopotamian city, also known as Warka, on the lower Euphrates, which was occupied for 5,000 years before being abandoned in the third century B.C. It was an important religious center, at which several temples and beautiful cultic items have been discovered.

vassal(s) In the ancient Near East a vassal was a king or state subordinate to an overlord. Treaties between a vassal and the superior usually stipulated that the overlord would protect the vassal from enemies, while the vassal would pay annual tribute and provide soldiers or laborers for the superior.

version(s) Translations of the Bible. The primary ancient versions are the Greek (Septuagint), Syriac (Peshitta), Coptic and Latin (Vulgate).

Via Maris (“the way of the sea”); An important ancient land trade route that hugged the Mediterranean coastline from Egypt to Syria. It turned inland through the Valley of Jezreel as it made its way north.

Vulgate The Latin translation of the Bible, produced in the fourth century A.D. by Jerome.

wadi A riverbed that is dry for most of the year, except during the rainy season. Wadis are found throughout the Middle East and North Africa.

Yahweh/YHWH The personal name of the God of Israel, translated as “the LORD” in most English texts. God used this name for himself when addressing Moses from the burning bush (Ex 3:14). Many scholars and laypersons believe that it means “I am,” but see “YHWH: The Name of God in the Old Testament.”