²⁵She is clothed with strength and dignity;

she can laugh at the days to come.

²⁶She speaks with wisdom,

and faithful instruction is on her tongue.^†

²⁷She watches over the affairs of her household

and does not eat the bread of idleness.

²⁸Her children arise and call her blessed;

her husband also, and he praises her:

²⁹“Many women do noble things,

but you surpass them all.”

³⁰Charm is deceptive, and beauty is fleeting;

but a woman who fears the LORD is to be praised.

³¹Give her the reward she has earned,

and let her works bring her praise^† at the city gate.

ECCLESIASTES

Author, Place and Date of Writing

Although the author of Ecclesiastes referred to himself only as “the Teacher,” he also claims to have been a son of David and a king over Israel in Jerusalem (Ecc 1:1, 12). Allowing for the fact that “son” can mean “descendant,” the only other person besides Solomon himself to fit both these descriptors would have been Solomon’s son Rehoboam. No one, however, considers Rehoboam’s authorship to be even a remote possibility.

Despite these claims, the traditional assumption that Solomon wrote Ecclesiastes has come under question. Many interpreters treat the Teacher’s claims as a literary device, proposing that the author of Ecclesiastes took on the identity of Solomon in order to give his words a certain weightiness. It is wise, however, not to embrace this option too readily. The canonical authority of the books of the Bible is closely related to their authors. By way of comparison, Protestant believers treat the Apocryphal book titled Wisdom of Solomon as noncanonical precisely because it is a late, pseudonymous work—one that Solomon did not actually write (see “The Apocrypha”).

The assumption that Solomon wrote the book late in his life would place its composition at about 940 B.C. Today the vast majority of scholars treat Ecclesiastes as a late, postexilic text, many proposing a date as late as 200 B.C. Yet there are solid reasons for believing the late-date theory for Ecclesiastes to be misguided (see “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs”). Especially significant is the fact that the author demonstrated such familiarity with ancient texts from prior to the time of Solomon (works such as the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Egyptian Harper Songs; see “Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh”). This is what we would expect from the highly literate age of Solomon, but it is hard to imagine that a writer living during the late postexilic era would have known these writings or incorporated them into his book. By contrast, Ecclesiastes shows no familiarity at all with Greek literature—which is precisely what an educated Jew of 200 B.C. would have known.

Audience

Ecclesiastes is an advanced and reflective wisdom text. Unlike Proverbs, it was not included in the canon to educate young readers in the basic principles of wisdom. Rather, it was intended for those mature and experienced enough to deal with dark and difficult questions (see “Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom”). In addition, it is clear that Ecclesiastes was written primarily for the elite in Israelite society—people both familiar with the ancient world of wisdom and comfortable within the corridors of power.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

The author of Ecclesiastes clearly expected that his readers would from time to time have access to the king (8:2–5). Speaking to privileged, cultured people with money, power and intelligence, he warned this vulnerable audience that all the grandeur, brilliance and laurels this world has to offer are in the final analysis only fleeting.

Timeline

As You Read

The Teacher claimed unequivocally that “there is nothing new under the sun” (1:9), but he was making this claim well over two thousand years ago. In view of the exponential advances in all areas of knowledge over the past century or so, study his arguments with a critical eye, deliberately overlooking the language and details that date the manuscript and attempting to reduce his premises to their most basic components. Do you feel the work still represents universal truth? Has the Teacher covered all basic areas? If you think there may indeed be something “new under the sun” since its writing, either in terms of God’s continuing self-revelation through his Son or from the “enlightened” perspective of our own age, what might it be?

Does the author strike you as a gloom-and-doom pessimist, an at-times-“incurable” optimist or a modern-style realist? How well do you relate to his style and drastic shifts in tone?

Did You Know?

• The Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh contains a section remarkably similar to 9:7–9, illustrating the international flavor of ancient wisdom literature.
• “Words” are a common theme in wisdom literature (10:12).
• The Teacher advocated being adventurous, for those who accept risks will reap returns (11:1).
• The Teacher encouraged diversification of investments; people can never know in advance which ventures may fail (11:2).

Themes

The book of Ecclesiastes includes the following themes:

1. Wisdom and pleasure alone are worthless. Ecclesiastes points out the truth that work, pleasure, status, wealth and even wisdom in and of themselves have no lasting significance (1:12–2:16), because death renders all earthly achievements futile.
2. God confers meaning upon work. Ecclesiastes describes the pointlessness of human toil (2:17–3:8), comparing it negatively to God’s enduring work (3:9–6:7). The author concluded that people do well to enjoy their labor (3:22), trusting that God has a purpose in it (3:1).
3. The injustice of oppression. The Teacher displayed concern for the oppression of the weak by the powerful (4:1–3) and expressed dismay that, from his viewpoint, the wicked often thrive while the godly suffer (7:15–18). The perspective that little, if anything, can be done about injustice is later refuted by an authoritative reminder that God himself will one day bring justice to all (12:14).
4. Human wisdom versus God’s wisdom. Ecclesiastes demonstrates the futility of humans contending with God (6:10). His ways are mysterious—far beyond our finite comprehension (6:8–12:7).
5. God gives meaning to life. The ultimate conclusion of the book is that life is meaningless without God. Because humans cannot fathom God’s purposes or understand his ways, submission to him is the best course of action (12:1–14), especially in view of God’s final judgment of “every hidden thing” (12:14).

Outline

I. Author (1:1)

II. Theme: The Efforts of People Are Meaningless Apart From God (1:2)

III. Introduction: Accumulating Things Will Fail to Bring Happiness (1:3–11)

IV. Life Is to Be Enjoyed As a Gift From God (1:12–11:6)

V. Begin Enjoying Life in Your Youth Because God Will Judge (11:7–12:8)

VI. Conclusion: Reverently Trust In and Obey God (12:9–14)

Ecclesiastes 1

Everything Is Meaningless

¹The words of the Teacher,^{[1] †} son of David, king in Jerusalem:^†

---

*

The Harper Songs From the Tomb of Neferhotep

Ecclesiastes 1 Dating from the late fourteenth through the early thirteenth centuries B.C., three funerary banquet songs have been discovered on the walls of a tomb near Thebes, Egypt. The tomb belonged to a certain Neferhotep, the deceased whom the songs honor. Two of them offer somewhat contradictory attitudes regarding death and the afterlife. In Song I the harpist sings of the passing generations in which children are born, breathe life and begin moving inexorably toward the grave. The sun deity rises and sets continuously, but death is inevitable. The singer urges Neferhotep to forget the evil past and to remember only joyous occasions, for death is the great equalizer—indiscriminately claiming those with full granaries and those with nothing.

Song III has a more positive tone. Although it, too, declares that death is inescapable, it asserts that people are not equal after this event. Neferhotep’s devotion to the Egyptian gods will be rewarded in the afterlife; he will be remembered both by his god and by people for his religiosity. Because of his piety, Neferhotep’s enemies will be eternally defeated and his soul declared justified. In fact, he will be happier in the afterlife than he ever was on Earth.

Parallels for both songs can be found in Ecclesiastes. Ecclesiastes 1:4–5 speaks of generations coming and going and of the continual cycle of the rising and setting of the sun. Surely death is inevitable and overtakes us all (2:14, 16; 9:2–3). Indeed, it equalizes humanity, since no one can take his or her achievements into the afterlife, but must leave them to the next generation (cf. 2:18–19). In his summary statement, however, the Teacher concludes that a person should honor God and obey his commandments, because every action will be judged by him (12:13–14). Unlike Neferhotep’s Song III, the Teacher does not suggest that outward religiosity and cultic piety will be rewarded: God sees the hidden things as well as the obvious, and living a life of true wisdom begins with a proper understanding and fear of the Lord (cf. Pr 1:7).¹

1. See also “The Harper Song From the Tomb of King Intef.”

---

²“Meaningless! Meaningless!”

says the Teacher.

“Utterly meaningless!

Everything is meaningless.”^†

³What does man gain from all his labor

at which he toils under the sun?^†

⁴Generations come and generations go,

but the earth remains forever.^†

⁵The sun rises and the sun sets,

and hurries back to where it rises.^†

⁶The wind blows to the south

and turns to the north;

round and round it goes,

ever returning on its course.

⁷All streams flow into the sea,

yet the sea is never full.

To the place the streams come from,

there they return again.^†

⁸All things are wearisome,

more than one can say.

The eye never has enough of seeing,^†

nor the ear its fill of hearing.

⁹What has been will be again,

what has been done will be done again;^†

there is nothing new under the sun.

¹⁰Is there anything of which one can say,

“Look! This is something new”?

It was here already, long ago;

it was here before our time.

¹¹There is no remembrance of men of old,

and even those who are yet to come

will not be remembered

by those who follow.^†

Wisdom Is Meaningless

¹²I, the Teacher,^† was king over Israel in Jerusalem. ¹³I devoted myself to study and to explore by wisdom all that is done under heaven. What a heavy burden God has laid on men!^{† 14}I have seen all the things that are done under the sun; all of them are meaningless, a chasing after the wind.^†

¹⁵What is twisted cannot be straightened;^†

what is lacking cannot be counted.

¹⁶I thought to myself, “Look, I have grown and increased in wisdom more than anyone who has ruled over Jerusalem before me;^† I have experienced much of wisdom and knowledge.” ¹⁷Then I applied myself to the understanding of wisdom,^† and also of madness and folly,^† but I learned that this, too, is a chasing after the wind.

¹⁸For with much wisdom comes much sorrow;

the more knowledge, the more grief.^†

Ecclesiastes 2

Pleasures Are Meaningless

¹I thought in my heart, “Come now, I will test you with pleasure^† to find out what is good.” But that also proved to be meaningless. ²“Laughter,”^† I said, “is foolish. And what does pleasure accomplish?” ³I tried cheering myself with wine,^† and embracing folly^†—my mind still guiding me with wisdom. I wanted to see what was worthwhile for men to do under heaven during the few days of their lives.

---

*

Tell el-Kheleifeh

Remains of Tell el-Kheleifeh

Photograph courtesy of © Dr. Gary Pratico

Ecclesiastes 2 Tell el-Kheleifeh was once thought to have been the site of Ezion Geber, a port city of Solomon. The site is located atop a small hillock in Jordan, approximately 547 yards (500 m) from the northern shore of the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea. But scholars now recognize a lack of conclusive evidence for identifying Tell el-Kheleifeh with Ezion Geber. Early assumptions that a large-scale smelting operation took place there during Solomon’s reign can no longer be sustained. If Tell el-Kheleifeh was unoccupied during Solomon’s time it could not have been Ezion Geber. Although some pottery fragments at the site attest to occupation as far back as the eighth century B.C., little evidence exists for an earlier occupation.¹

The earliest level at Tell el-Kheleifeh includes a four-room house measuring 40 ft x 40 ft, surrounded by a mud-brick casemate wall ² measuring 135 ft x 135 ft. The four-room structure probably served a variety of functions, such as use as a storehouse and as a citadel. A later phase expanded the site with a wall spanning 180 feet on all sides, along with a four-chambered gate in the southern wall. While further excavation at this site may uncover a clearer picture of its age, identity and function, the current dearth of archaeological evidence severely limits firm conclusions. It is important to recognize that the identification of Tell el-Kheleifeh with Ezion Geber has not been disproved; in fact, some archaeologists believe that such an equation is still possible. But there is no extant evidence that Tell el-Kheleifeh was occupied in Solomon’s time.

Although Solomon was a capable builder,³ many of his works seem nowhere to be found. Some sites once thought to be Solomonic have proved not to be so. The grand works alluded to in Ecclesiastes 2 have, for the most part, simply been lost. Perhaps we do well to look on this as a metaphor reflecting that they were indeed—at least in some sense—“meaningless”!

1. See also “Ezion Geber.”

2. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

3. See “The Building Activity of Solomon.”

---

⁴I undertook great projects: I built houses for myself^† and planted vineyards.^{† 5}I made gardens and parks and planted all kinds of fruit trees in them. ⁶I made reservoirs to water groves of flourishing trees. ⁷I bought male and female slaves and had other slaves who were born in my house. I also owned more herds and flocks than anyone in Jerusalem before me. ⁸I amassed silver and gold^† for myself, and the treasure of kings and provinces. I acquired men and women singers,^† and a harem^[2] as well—the delights of the heart of man. ⁹I became greater by far than anyone in Jerusalem before me.^† In all this my wisdom stayed with me.

¹⁰I denied myself nothing my eyes desired;

I refused my heart no pleasure.

My heart took delight in all my work,

and this was the reward for all my labor.

¹¹Yet when I surveyed all that my hands had done

and what I had toiled to achieve,

everything was meaningless, a chasing after the wind;^†

nothing was gained under the sun.^†

Wisdom and Folly Are Meaningless

¹²Then I turned my thoughts to consider wisdom,

and also madness and folly.^†

What more can the king’s successor do

than what has already been done?^†

¹³I saw that wisdom^† is better than folly,^†

just as light is better than darkness.

¹⁴The wise man has eyes in his head,

while the fool walks in the darkness;

but I came to realize

that the same fate overtakes them both.^†

¹⁵Then I thought in my heart,

“The fate of the fool will overtake me also.

What then do I gain by being wise?”^†

I said in my heart,

“This too is meaningless.”

¹⁶For the wise man, like the fool, will not be long remembered;

in days to come both will be forgotten.^†

Like the fool, the wise man too must die!

Toil Is Meaningless

¹⁷So I hated life, because the work that is done under the sun was grievous to me. All of it is meaningless, a chasing after the wind.^{† 18}I hated all the things I had toiled for under the sun, because I must leave them to the one who comes after me.^{† 19}And who knows whether he will be a wise man or a fool? Yet he will have control over all the work into which I have poured my effort and skill under the sun. This too is meaningless. ²⁰So my heart began to despair over all my toilsome labor under the sun. ²¹For a man may do his work with wisdom, knowledge and skill, and then he must leave all he owns to someone who has not worked for it. This too is meaningless and a great misfortune. ²²What does a man get for all the toil and anxious striving with which he labors under the sun?^{† 23}All his days his work is pain and grief;^† even at night his mind does not rest. This too is meaningless.

²⁴A man can do nothing better than to eat and drink^† and find satisfaction in his work.^† This too, I see, is from the hand of God,^{† 25}for without him, who can eat or find enjoyment? ²⁶To the man who pleases him, God gives wisdom, knowledge and happiness, but to the sinner he gives the task of gathering and storing up wealth^† to hand it over to the one who pleases God.^† This too is meaningless, a chasing after the wind.

Ecclesiastes 3

A Time for Everything

¹There is a time^† for everything,

---

*

The Harper Song From the Tomb of King Intef

Ecclesiastes 3 A song carved on the tomb of Intef, an Egyptian pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2106–1963 B.C.), has been preserved in two later copies: a papyrus manuscript and an inscription on a tomb contemporary with Amenhotep IV. Harper Songs¹ were most likely sung at funerary banquets honoring the dead and praising the afterlife, but the Intef Song is notable for its skeptical attitude toward seeking immortality. It begins by lamenting the cycle of passing generations and grieving over the silence of the graves of long-dead nobles (cf. Ecc 1:4, 11).² The song recommends rejoicing while one is still alive, wearing fine linen and anointing oneself with oil (cf. 9:7–10). Since no one can escape death or take along earthly possessions into the afterlife, the author advocates that a person can do no better than to follow his or her heart’s inclinations while here on Earth.

It is conceivable that the author of Ecclesiastes was familiar with the Intef Song. The kingdom of Solomon had strong contacts with Egypt, and the wise men of that day would have known and studied the masterpieces of Egyptian literature. If anything, this similarity reinforces the credibility of the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes (see 1:1), since no other time in Israelite history was so notable for its strong interest in wisdom and close ties to Egypt. At the same time, although certain phrases and concepts of this song reflect sentiments similar to those found in Ecclesiastes, the overall effect is different. Whereas the Intef Song endorses pleasure for its own sake, the author of Ecclesiastes approved of enjoying life as an expression of gratitude for God’s gifts (3:13; 9:7). Also, in Ecclesiastes, the manner in which his people celebrate is subject to God’s judgment (11:7–12:1, 13–14).

1. See “The Harper Songs From the Tomb of Neferhotep.”

2. See “Ancient Near Eastern Laments.”

---

and a season for every activity under heaven:

²a time to be born and a time to die,

a time to plant and a time to uproot,

³a time to kill and a time to heal,

a time to tear down and a time to build,

⁴a time to weep and a time to laugh,

a time to mourn and a time to dance,

⁵a time to scatter stones and a time to gather them,

a time to embrace and a time to refrain,

⁶a time to search and a time to give up,

a time to keep and a time to throw away,

⁷a time to tear and a time to mend,

a time to be silent^† and a time to speak,

⁸a time to love and a time to hate,

a time for war and a time for peace.

⁹What does the worker gain from his toil?^{† 10}I have seen the burden God has laid on men.^{† 11}He has made everything beautiful in its time.^† He has also set eternity in the hearts of men; yet they cannot fathom^† what God has done from beginning to end.^{† 12}I know that there is nothing better for men than to be happy and do good while they live. ¹³That everyone may eat and drink,^† and find satisfaction^† in all his toil—this is the gift of God.^{† 14}I know that everything God does will endure forever; nothing can be added to it and nothing taken from it. God does it so that men will revere him.^†

¹⁵Whatever is has already been,^†

and what will be has been before;^†

and God will call the past to account.^[3]

¹⁶And I saw something else under the sun:

In the place of judgment—wickedness was there,

in the place of justice—wickedness was there.

¹⁷I thought in my heart,

“God will bring to judgment^†

both the righteous and the wicked,

for there will be a time for every activity,

a time for every deed.”^†

¹⁸I also thought, “As for men, God tests them so that they may see that they are like the animals.^{† 19}Man’s fate^† is like that of the animals; the same fate awaits them both: As one dies, so dies the other. All have the same breath^[4]; man has no advantage over the animal. Everything is meaningless. ²⁰All go to the same place; all come from dust, and to dust all return.^{† 21}Who knows if the spirit of man rises upward^† and if the spirit of the animal^[5] goes down into the earth?”

²²So I saw that there is nothing better for a man than to enjoy his work,^† because that is his lot.^† For who can bring him to see what will happen after him?

Ecclesiastes 4

Oppression, Toil, Friendlessness

¹Again I looked and saw all the oppression^† that was taking place under the sun:

---

Ancient Voices

A generation passes,

Another stays,

Since the time of the ancestors.

The gods who were before rest in their tombs,

Blessed nobles too are buried in their tombs.

(Yet)^* those who built tombs,

Their places are gone,

What has become of them?

I have heard the words of Imhotep and Harde def,

Whose sayings are recited whole.

What of their places?

Their walls have crumbled,

Their places are gone,

As though they had never been!

* Word in parentheses added by translator where text has gap

—The Song from the Tomb of King Intef

See “The Harper Song From the Tomb of King Intef” article.

---

I saw the tears of the oppressed—

and they have no comforter;

power was on the side of their oppressors—

and they have no comforter.^†

²And I declared that the dead,^†

who had already died,

are happier than the living,

who are still alive.^†

³But better than both

is he who has not yet been,^†

who has not seen the evil

that is done under the sun.^†

⁴And I saw that all labor and all achievement spring from man’s envy of his neighbor. This too is meaningless, a chasing after the wind.^†

⁵The fool folds his hands^†

and ruins himself.

⁶Better one handful with tranquillity

than two handfuls with toil^†

and chasing after the wind.

⁷Again I saw something meaningless under the sun:

⁸There was a man all alone;

he had neither son nor brother.

There was no end to his toil,

yet his eyes were not content^† with his wealth.

“For whom am I toiling,” he asked,

“and why am I depriving myself of enjoyment?”

This too is meaningless—

a miserable business!

⁹Two are better than one,

because they have a good return for their work:

¹⁰If one falls down,

his friend can help him up.

But pity the man who falls

and has no one to help him up!

¹¹Also, if two lie down together, they will keep warm.

But how can one keep warm alone?

¹²Though one may be overpowered,

two can defend themselves.

A cord of three strands is not quickly broken.

Advancement Is Meaningless

¹³Better a poor but wise youth than an old but foolish king who no longer knows how to take warning. ¹⁴The youth may have come from prison to the kingship, or he may have been born in poverty within his kingdom. ¹⁵I saw that all who lived and walked under the sun followed the youth, the king’s successor. ¹⁶There was no end to all the people who were before them. But those who came later were not pleased with the successor. This too is meaningless, a chasing after the wind.

Ecclesiastes 5

Stand in Awe of God

¹Guard your steps when you go to the house of God. Go near to listen rather than to offer the sacrifice of fools, who do not know that they do wrong.

---

*

The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs

Ecclesiastes 5 Few topics related to Biblical archaeology have generated more scholarly debate than that of the authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs. This is largely due to the unusual nature of the Hebrew used in these books. The two employ similar vocabulary, suggesting a common author. Further, a number of Biblical Hebrew words occur only in these two books, and others appear in higher frequency in these books than in others. Neither uses God’s personal name, Yahweh, as is so common in other books.¹

Although Ecclesiastes does not name Solomon, its description of the author as “a son of David, king in Jerusalem” (1:1; cf. 1:12) leaves little room for other conclusions. The association with Solomon is strengthened by 12:9, which describes the author as a wise man who “pondered and searched out and set in order many proverbs” (cf. 1Ki 4:32).

Ironically, the claim in Ecclesiastes 1:12, “I, the Teacher, was king over Israel,” has been taken as evidence against Solomonic authorship due to the verb’s past tense. But this can be regarded as a retrospective statement and translated as “I have been king over Israel.” The declaration in 1:16, “I have grown and increased in wisdom more than anyone who has ruled over Jerusalem before me,” is meaningful when we remember that Jebusite kings had ruled over Jerusalem since ancient times.²

Other objections to Solomonic authorship have been raised on the basis of language. The high number of Aramaic words in Ecclesiastes has been considered evidence of a postexilic date of writing. It is now recognized, however, that Aramaic influence on Hebrew began very early. Moreover, the vocabulary identified as Aramaic may actually have represented a northern dialect of Hebrew or a nonstandard, colloquial dialect.

Some words in both books were once alleged to have been borrowed long after Solomon’s death from Persian or Greek. Examples include pardes (“park” or “orchard” in 2:5 and SS 4:13, respectively) and appiryon (“carriage” in SS 3:9). In reality, such words are of very ancient origin, some going back to Sanskrit originals. Solomon’s commercial projects (see 1Ki 5; 9:26–28; 10:22) involved numerous international contacts, a possible explanation for the international vocabulary.³

The mention of numerous varieties of flora and fauna is consistent with Solomon’s interest in natural history (1Ki 4:33). The Song’s spectacular vocabulary for exotic spices and other vegetation, as well as for gold, alabaster and jewels, suggests that the book was written by someone familiar with these things. It is improbable that both Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs were written during the postexilic period, when Jerusalem was a poor, backwater town among the nations of the world, by no means awash in exotic spices and precious stones.⁴

The mention of Tirzah in parallel with Jerusalem in Song of Songs 6:4 reflects a period before Tirzah’s selection as the early capital of the northern kingdom (c. 930 B.C.). In the tenth century B.C. Tirzah was beautiful and could easily have stood alongside Jerusalem as one of Israel’s two grand cities. In the postexilic period, when many claim the Song was written, Tirzah no longer existed.⁵ Also, mention of localities in both the north and south (e.g., Jerusalem, En Gedi, Heshbon, Carmel, Hermon and Leba non) suggests that the Song preceded the divided kingdom.

Finally, literary parallels and allusions in both Ecclesiastes and the Song suggest an earlier rather than a later date for their composition. Ecclesiastes 9:7–9, for example, strongly resembles Tablet 10, section 3, of the Epic of Gilgamesh,⁶ where the hero is urged to enjoy life, wear clean clothing and enjoy his wife’s love. In addition, the love poetry of the Song is similar to Egyptian poetry of this genre that flourished in the late second millennium B.C.⁷ It is likely that Solomon, at the height of Israel’s power, would have known this literature, but quite unlikely that obscure postexilic writers would have been familiar with it or expected their readers to appreciate it.

Given the internal indicators that point to Solomonic authorship and the lack of satisfactory evidence to the contrary, it is appropriate to read Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs as literary products of the last king of the united monarchy.

1. See “YHWH: The Name of God in the Old Testament.”

2. See “The Jebusites.”

3. See “Solomon and the Israelite Empire.”

4. See “Precious Stones of the Biblical World.”

5. See “Tirzah.”

6. See “Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh.”

7. See “Ancient Love Poetry.”

---

²Do not be quick with your mouth,

do not be hasty in your heart

to utter anything before God.^†

God is in heaven

and you are on earth,

so let your words be few.^†

³As a dream^† comes when there are many cares,

so the speech of a fool when there are many words.^†

⁴When you make a vow to God, do not delay in fulfilling it.^† He has no pleasure in fools; fulfill your vow.^{† 5}It is better not to vow than to make a vow and not fulfill it.^{† 6}Do not let your mouth lead you into sin. And do not protest to the [temple] messenger, “My vow was a mistake.” Why should God be angry at what you say and destroy the work of your hands? ⁷Much dreaming and many words are meaningless. Therefore stand in awe of God.^†

Riches Are Meaningless

⁸If you see the poor oppressed^† in a district, and justice and rights denied, do not be surprised at such things; for one official is eyed by a higher one, and over them both are others higher still. ⁹The increase from the land is taken by all; the king himself profits from the fields.

¹⁰Whoever loves money never has money enough;

whoever loves wealth is never satisfied with his income.

This too is meaningless.

¹¹As goods increase,

so do those who consume them.

And what benefit are they to the owner

except to feast his eyes on them?

¹²The sleep of a laborer is sweet,

whether he eats little or much,

but the abundance of a rich man

permits him no sleep.^†

¹³I have seen a grievous evil under the sun:^†

wealth hoarded to the harm of its owner,

¹⁴or wealth lost through some misfortune,

so that when he has a son

there is nothing left for him.

¹⁵Naked a man comes from his mother’s womb,

and as he comes, so he departs.^†

He takes nothing from his labor^†

that he can carry in his hand.^†

¹⁶This too is a grievous evil:

As a man comes, so he departs,

and what does he gain,

since he toils for the wind?^†

¹⁷All his days he eats in darkness,

with great frustration, affliction and anger.

¹⁸Then I realized that it is good and proper for a man to eat and drink,^† and to find satisfaction in his toilsome labor^† under the sun during the few days of life God has given him—for this is his lot. ¹⁹Moreover, when God gives any man wealth and possessions,^† and enables him to enjoy them,^† to accept his lot^† and be happy in his work—this is a gift of God.^{† 20}He seldom reflects on the days of his life, because God keeps him occupied with gladness of heart.^†

Ecclesiastes 6

¹I have seen another evil under the sun, and it weighs heavily on men: ²God gives a man wealth, possessions and honor, so that he lacks nothing his heart desires, but God does not enable him to enjoy them,^† and a stranger enjoys them instead. This is meaningless, a grievous evil.^†

³A man may have a hundred children and live many years; yet no matter how long he lives, if he cannot enjoy his prosperity and does not receive proper burial, I say that a stillborn^† child is better off than he.^{† 4}It comes without meaning, it departs in darkness, and in darkness its name is shrouded. ⁵Though it never saw the sun or knew anything, it has more rest than does that man— ⁶even if he lives a thousand years twice over but fails to enjoy his prosperity. Do not all go to the same place?

⁷All man’s efforts are for his mouth,

yet his appetite is never satisfied.^†

⁸What advantage has a wise man

over a fool?^†

What does a poor man gain

by knowing how to conduct himself before others?

⁹Better what the eye sees

than the roving of the appetite.

This too is meaningless,

a chasing after the wind.^†

¹⁰Whatever exists has already been named,

and what man is has been known;

no man can contend

with one who is stronger than he.

¹¹The more the words,

the less the meaning,

and how does that profit anyone?

¹²For who knows what is good for a man in life, during the few and meaningless days^† he passes through like a shadow?^† Who can tell him what will happen under the sun after he is gone?

Ecclesiastes 7

Wisdom

¹A good name is better than fine perfume,^†

---

*

The Sage

Ecclesiastes 7 The epilogue of Ecclesiastes identifies the writer as a sage or wise man (12:9). His teachings are viewed as part of “the words of the wise,” which are like goads. Those who master these teachings are said to be firmly embedded nails (12:11). Such ideas represent the outlook of Biblical Wisdom Literature. Although the theme of wisdom is present throughout the Bible, most scholars consider Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes to be Biblical Wisdom Literature in the strictest sense. Outside the Bible, in both Jewish and pagan writings, there are many other texts that could be called wisdom literature, a genre that can be recognized both by how it speaks and by what it says.¹

• Wisdom texts frequently assume the posture of a parent addressing a child. The reader is thus often addressed as “my son” (cf. Pr 1:8, 10, 15; 2:1; 3:1; 5:1; Ecc 12:12).

• Wisdom literature uses proverbial sayings and parables, as well as mnemonic (intended or arranged to assist the memory) or numerical lists (e.g., Pr 1:1; 10:1; 30:15–16, 18–19, 21–23, 29–31; Ecc 12:9).

• Wisdom literature concentrates on ethical themes within wisdom texts, even to the extent of addressing the conduct of God himself (as is done several times in Job).

• The figure of the sage is at the center of the wisdom tradition.

Sometimes “wise” is simply an adjective to connote that an individual was thoughtful, intelligent, skilled or devout (Dt 1:13; 1Ki 2:9). In other instances, however, a wise person was assumed to have been a member of a social class of sages, whose functions included those of teacher, government counselor or scribe.

The sage was the embodiment of wisdom, the master of tradition and the teacher of all who craved instruction. The sage was the opposite of the fool (Pr 3:35; 10:1; 14:1; Ecc 10:12).

The Bible attests to the presence of sages in a technical sense in Egypt (Ge 41:8), Babylon (Da 2:12–18), Persia (Est 1:13) and Israel itself (Pr 1:6; 13:20; Ecc 12:11).

Significant examples of wisdom literature have been discovered throughout the ancient Near East. Egyptian examples can be seen in The Instruction of Ptahhotep and The Instruction of Anii.² Mesopotamian examples are found in texts such as The Wisdom of Ahiqar, The Babylonian Theodicy³ and even aspects of The Epic of Gilgamesh.⁴ Many of these texts contain ideas and terms that are similar to what is seen in Biblical wisdom traditions.⁵ For some scholars the contact between the Bible and other ancient Near Eastern literature seems closest in this area.

Wisdom literature continued in the Jewish literature of the post-Biblical period. Texts in the Apocrypha such as The Wisdom of Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus) and The Wisdom of Solomon attest to the vibrancy of the tradition.⁶ After the destruction of Herod’s temple in A.D. 70, the Judaism of the rabbinic sages was constructed around wisdom’s central call that “the fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge” (Pr 1:7; 22:4; Ecc 12:13). The voluminous Jewish literary production of Mishnah, Midrash and Talmud has been affectionately deemed the “literature of the sages.”

1. See “Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom.”

2. See “The Instructions of Anii.”

3. See “The Babylonian Theodicy.”

4. See “Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh.”

5. See, for example, “Maat and Lady Wisdom.”

6. See “The Apocrypha.”

---

and the day of death better than the day of birth.

²It is better to go to a house of mourning

than to go to a house of feasting,

for death^† is the destiny^† of every man;

the living should take this to heart.

³Sorrow is better than laughter,^†

because a sad face is good for the heart.

⁴The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning,

but the heart of fools is in the house of pleasure.^†

⁵It is better to heed a wise man’s rebuke^†

than to listen to the song of fools.

⁶Like the crackling of thorns^† under the pot,

so is the laughter^† of fools.

This too is meaningless.

⁷Extortion turns a wise man into a fool,

and a bribe^† corrupts the heart.

⁸The end of a matter is better than its beginning,

and patience^† is better than pride.

⁹Do not be quickly provoked^† in your spirit,

for anger resides in the lap of fools.

¹⁰Do not say, “Why were the old days better than these?”

For it is not wise to ask such questions.

¹¹Wisdom, like an inheritance, is a good thing^†

and benefits those who see the sun.^†

¹²Wisdom is a shelter

as money is a shelter,

but the advantage of knowledge is this:

that wisdom preserves the life of its possessor.

¹³Consider what God has done:^†

Who can straighten

what he has made crooked?^†

¹⁴When times are good, be happy;

but when times are bad, consider:

God has made the one

as well as the other.

Therefore, a man cannot discover

anything about his future.

¹⁵In this meaningless life^† of mine I have seen both of these:

a righteous man perishing in his righteousness,

and a wicked man living long in his wickedness.^†

¹⁶Do not be overrighteous,

neither be overwise—

why destroy yourself?

¹⁷Do not be overwicked,

and do not be a fool—

why die before your time?^†

¹⁸It is good to grasp the one

and not let go of the other.

The man who fears God^† will avoid all [extremes].^[6]

¹⁹Wisdom^† makes one wise man more powerful^†

than ten rulers in a city.

²⁰There is not a righteous man^† on earth

who does what is right and never sins.^†

²¹Do not pay attention to every word people say,

or you^† may hear your servant cursing you—

²²for you know in your heart

that many times you yourself have cursed others.

²³All this I tested by wisdom and I said,

“I am determined to be wise”^†—

but this was beyond me.

²⁴Whatever wisdom may be,

it is far off and most profound—

who can discover it?^†

²⁵So I turned my mind to understand,

to investigate and to search out wisdom and the scheme of things^†

and to understand the stupidity of wickedness

and the madness of folly.^†

²⁶I find more bitter than death

the woman who is a snare,^†

whose heart is a trap

and whose hands are chains.

The man who pleases God will escape her,

but the sinner she will ensnare.^†

²⁷“Look,” says the Teacher,^{[7] †} “this is what I have discovered:

“Adding one thing to another to discover the scheme of things—

²⁸while I was still searching

but not finding—

I found one [upright] man among a thousand,

but not one [upright] woman^† among them all.

²⁹This only have I found:

God made mankind upright,

but men have gone in search of many schemes.”

Ecclesiastes 8

¹Who is like the wise man?

Who knows the explanation of things?

Wisdom brightens a man’s face

and changes its hard appearance.

Obey the King

²Obey the king’s command, I say, because you took an oath before God. ³Do not be in a hurry to leave the king’s presence.^† Do not stand up for a bad cause, for he will do whatever he pleases. ⁴Since a king’s word is supreme, who can say to him, “What are you doing?^†”

⁵Whoever obeys his command will come to no harm,

and the wise heart will know the proper time and procedure.

⁶For there is a proper time and procedure for every matter,^†

though a man’s misery weighs heavily upon him.

⁷Since no man knows the future,

who can tell him what is to come?

⁸No man has power over the wind to contain it^[8];

so no one has power over the day of his death.

As no one is discharged in time of war,

so wickedness will not release those who practice it.

⁹All this I saw, as I applied my mind to everything done under the sun. There is a time when a man lords it over others to his own^[9] hurt. ¹⁰Then too, I saw the wicked buried^†—those who used to come and go from the holy place and receive praise^[10] in the city where they did this. This too is meaningless.

¹¹When the sentence for a crime is not quickly carried out, the hearts of the people are filled with schemes to do wrong. ¹²Although a wicked man commits a hundred crimes and still lives a long time, I know that it will go better^† with God-fearing men,^† who are reverent before God.^{† 13}Yet because the wicked do not fear God,^† it will not go well with them, and their days^† will not lengthen like a shadow.

¹⁴There is something else meaningless that occurs on earth: righteous men who get what the wicked deserve, and wicked men who get what the righteous deserve.^† This too, I say, is meaningless.^{† 15}So I commend the enjoyment of life^†, because nothing is better for a man under the sun than to eat and drink^† and be glad.^† Then joy will accompany him in his work all the days of the life God has given him under the sun.

¹⁶When I applied my mind to know wisdom^† and to observe man’s labor on earth^†—his eyes not seeing sleep day or night— ¹⁷then I saw all that God has done.^† No one can comprehend what goes on under the sun. Despite all his efforts to search it out, man cannot discover its meaning. Even if a wise man claims he knows, he cannot really comprehend it.^†

Ecclesiastes 9

A Common Destiny for All

¹So I reflected on all this and concluded that the righteous and the wise and what they do are in God’s hands, but no man knows whether love or hate awaits him.^{† 2}All share a common destiny—the righteous and the wicked, the good and the bad,^[11] the clean and the unclean, those who offer sacrifices and those who do not.

---

*

Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh

Ecclesiastes 9 The longest literary composition known from Mesopotamia is the Epic of Gilgamesh, the tale of an ancient king’s failed quest for immortality. It is a very ancient work, dating to at least 2000 B.C., that follows the trials and adventures of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk (“Map 1”). The Gilgamesh Epic has come to us in more than one version (there is an Old Babylonian and a standard Assyrian version), but the message is essentially the same. A tavern-keeper’s advice to the hero, Gilgamesh, summarizes its message: In view of the impending death of all humankind, the task of mortals is to make the most of life—to eat, drink, be merry, be clean, dress radiantly, delight in one’s children and provide joy for one’s spouse (Old Babylonian version, 10.3).

Scholars have long noted the similarity of this admonition to that of the “Teacher” in Ecclesiastes, whose personal wrestling with life’s meaning, transience and enigmas led him to conclude that people do well to seize the day, finding satisfaction in all that God gives (see 9:3, 7–10; 11:7–12:1). The Teacher also concluded that the accumulated works that have been accomplished under the sun are essentially “meaningless, a chasing after the wind” (1:14; 2:11, 17, 26; 5:10, 16; 6:9). This outlook corresponds closely to one of Gilgamesh’s statements: “Only the gods [live] forever under the sun. As for mankind, their days are numbered; whatever they achieve is but wind!” Other parallels to Ecclesiastes found in Gilgamesh include the mention of a three-stranded cord when commenting on friendship (cf. 4:9–12) and the point that no aspect of life is permanent (1:4, 11; 2:16; 3:18–19; 9:5–6).

Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven; Sumer, c. 2600 B.C.

© The Schøyen Collection; photography courtesy of Mr. Martin Schøyen

In view of these similarities, it appears that the author of Ecclesiastes, writing from Israel during the first millennium B.C.,¹ knew and appreciated the Gilgamesh Epic, a Mesopotamian work completed early in the second millennium B.C. Because a copied fragment of the Epic, dating to the fourteenth century B.C., was discovered in northern Israel, we know that the story of Gilgamesh was at least known in the region at an early time. It is important, however, to keep the following in mind:

• The “Teacher’s” apparent use of Gilgamesh does not diminish his book’s canonical status. It is not uncommon for Biblical texts to follow the pattern of nonbiblical counterparts, even to the point of citing them directly. For example, Deuteronomy follows the pattern of an ancient Near Eastern treaty,² and Paul cited a poet’s description of Crete (Tit 1:12).³

• There is no suggestion that Ecclesiastes as a whole was modeled after Gilgamesh. There are enormous differences between the two. Ecclesiastes, for example, is not an epic poem and does not tell a story.

• Although the call to joy in 9:7–10 finds its closest ancient parallel in the Gilgamesh Epic, the wording is not exact. No scholars suggest that Ecclesiastes simply lifted lines from Gilgamesh.

The probability that the author of Ecclesiastes was familiar with Gilgamesh actually supports the traditional view of the book’s Solomonic authorship. It is doubtful that an anonymous, postexilic Jew, living in an impoverished cultural environment (the Jerusalem of this time) would have demonstrated intimate familiarity with this very ancient Akkadian text. On the other hand, the age of Solomon constituted the high-water mark of Israel’s history, as well as its literary golden age. Akkadian was still widely spoken, and cuneiform was still in use in Solomon’s day.

Some of the concepts found in Ecclesiastes also have strong parallels in Egyptian literature.⁴ This suggests that Ecclesiastes was not simply borrowing from Gilgamesh but making use of wisdom literature from the great centers of learning in the ancient world.

Ecclesiastes and the Gilgamesh Epic wrestle with the same human question: How is one to live when life appears to make no sense? Despite the literary link between the two, they are worlds apart theologically. The Epic challenges people to enjoy life but holds out no lasting source of hope. Within Ecclesiastes, on the other hand, life’s enigmas and sorrows are tempered by the hope that endures when an individual remembers and fears God (see 5:7; 8:12; 12:1, 13–14).

1. See “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs.”

2. See “Deuteronomy and the Covenant Treaty Form.”

3. See “Crete.”

4. See “The Harper Songs From the Tomb of Neferhotep” and “The Harper Song From the Tomb of King Intef.”

---

As it is with the good man,

so with the sinner;

as it is with those who take oaths,

so with those who are afraid to take them.^†

³This is the evil in everything that happens under the sun: The same destiny overtakes all.^† The hearts of men, moreover, are full of evil and there is madness in their hearts while they live,^† and afterward they join the dead.^{† 4}Anyone who is among the living has hope^[12]—even a live dog is better off than a dead lion!

⁵For the living know that they will die,

but the dead know nothing;^†

they have no further reward,

and even the memory of them^† is forgotten.^†

⁶Their love, their hate

and their jealousy have long since vanished;

never again will they have a part

in anything that happens under the sun.^†

⁷Go, eat your food with gladness, and drink your wine^† with a joyful heart,^† for it is now that God favors what you do. ⁸Always be clothed in white,^† and always anoint your head with oil. ⁹Enjoy life with your wife,^† whom you love, all the days of this meaningless life that God has given you under the sun—all your meaningless days. For this is your lot^† in life and in your toilsome labor under the sun. ¹⁰Whatever^† your hand finds to do, do it with all your might,^† for in the grave,^{[13] †} where you are going, there is neither working nor planning nor knowledge nor wisdom.^†

¹¹I have seen something else under the sun:

The race is not to the swift

or the battle to the strong,^†

nor does food come to the wise^†

or wealth to the brilliant

or favor to the learned;

but time and chance^† happen to them all.^†

¹²Moreover, no man knows when his hour will come:

As fish are caught in a cruel net,

or birds are taken in a snare,

so men are trapped by evil times^†

that fall unexpectedly upon them.^†

Wisdom Better Than Folly

¹³I also saw under the sun this example of wisdom^† that greatly impressed me: ¹⁴There was once a small city with only a few people in it. And a powerful king came against it, surrounded it and built huge siegeworks against it. ¹⁵Now there lived in that city a man poor but wise, and he saved the city by his wisdom. But nobody remembered that poor man.^{† 16}So I said, “Wisdom is better than strength.” But the poor man’s wisdom is despised, and his words are no longer heeded.^†

¹⁷The quiet words of the wise are more to be heeded

than the shouts of a ruler of fools.

¹⁸Wisdom^† is better than weapons of war,

but one sinner destroys much good.

Ecclesiastes 10

¹As dead flies give perfume a bad smell,

so a little folly^† outweighs wisdom and honor.

²The heart of the wise inclines to the right,

but the heart of the fool to the left.

³Even as he walks along the road,

the fool lacks sense

and shows everyone^† how stupid he is.

⁴If a ruler’s anger rises against you,

do not leave your post;^†

calmness can lay great errors to rest.^†

⁵There is an evil I have seen under the sun,

the sort of error that arises from a ruler:

⁶Fools are put in many high positions,^†

while the rich occupy the low ones.

⁷I have seen slaves on horseback,

while princes go on foot like slaves.^†

⁸Whoever digs a pit may fall into it;^†

whoever breaks through a wall may be bitten by a snake.^†

⁹Whoever quarries stones may be injured by them;

whoever splits logs may be endangered by them.^†

¹⁰If the ax is dull

and its edge unsharpened,

more strength is needed

but skill will bring success.

¹¹If a snake bites before it is charmed,

there is no profit for the charmer.^†

¹²Words from a wise man’s mouth are gracious,^†

but a fool is consumed by his own lips.^†

¹³At the beginning his words are folly;

at the end they are wicked madness—

¹⁴and the fool multiplies words.^†

No one knows what is coming—

who can tell him what will happen after him?^†

¹⁵A fool’s work wearies him;

he does not know the way to town.

¹⁶Woe to you, O land whose king was a servant^{[14] †}

and whose princes feast in the morning.

¹⁷Blessed are you, O land whose king is of noble birth

and whose princes eat at a proper time—

for strength and not for drunkenness.^†

¹⁸If a man is lazy, the rafters sag;

if his hands are idle, the house leaks.^†

¹⁹A feast is made for laughter,

and wine^† makes life merry,

but money is the answer for everything.

²⁰Do not revile the king^† even in your thoughts,

or curse the rich in your bedroom,

because a bird of the air may carry your words,

and a bird on the wing may report what you say.

Ecclesiastes 11

Bread Upon the Waters

¹Cast^† your bread upon the waters,

for after many days you will find it again.^†

²Give portions to seven, yes to eight,

for you do not know what disaster may come upon the land.

³If clouds are full of water,

they pour rain upon the earth.

Whether a tree falls to the south or to the north,

in the place where it falls, there will it lie.

⁴Whoever watches the wind will not plant;

whoever looks at the clouds will not reap.

⁵As you do not know the path of the wind,^†

or how the body is formed^[15] in a mother’s womb,^†

so you cannot understand the work of God,

the Maker of all things.

⁶Sow your seed in the morning,

and at evening let not your hands be idle,^†

for you do not know which will succeed,

whether this or that,

or whether both will do equally well.

Remember Your Creator While Young

⁷Light is sweet,

and it pleases the eyes to see the sun.^†

⁸However many years a man may live,

let him enjoy them all.

But let him remember^† the days of darkness,

for they will be many.

Everything to come is meaningless.

⁹Be happy, young man, while you are young,

and let your heart give you joy in the days of your youth.

Follow the ways of your heart

and whatever your eyes see,

but know that for all these things

God will bring you to judgment.^†

¹⁰So then, banish anxiety^† from your heart

and cast off the troubles of your body,

for youth and vigor are meaningless.^†

Ecclesiastes 12

¹Remember^† your Creator

in the days of your youth,

before the days of trouble^† come

and the years approach when you will say,

“I find no pleasure in them”—

²before the sun and the light

and the moon and the stars grow dark,

and the clouds return after the rain;

³when the keepers of the house tremble,

and the strong men stoop,

when the grinders cease because they are few,

and those looking through the windows grow dim;

⁴when the doors to the street are closed

and the sound of grinding fades;

when men rise up at the sound of birds,

but all their songs grow faint;^†

⁵when men are afraid of heights

and of dangers in the streets;

when the almond tree blossoms

and the grasshopper drags himself along

and desire no longer is stirred.

Then man goes to his eternal home^†

and mourners^† go about the streets.

⁶Remember him—before the silver cord is severed,

or the golden bowl is broken;

before the pitcher is shattered at the spring,

or the wheel broken at the well,

⁷and the dust returns^† to the ground it came from,

and the spirit returns to God^† who gave it.^†

⁸“Meaningless! Meaningless!” says the Teacher.^[16]

“Everything is meaningless!^†”

The Conclusion of the Matter

⁹Not only was the Teacher wise, but also he imparted knowledge to the people. He pondered and searched out and set in order many proverbs.^{† 10}The Teacher searched to find just the right words, and what he wrote was upright and true.^†

¹¹The words of the wise are like goads, their collected sayings like firmly embedded nails^†—given by one Shepherd. ¹²Be warned, my son, of anything in addition to them.

Of making many books there is no end, and much study wearies the body.^†

¹³Now all has been heard;

here is the conclusion of the matter:

Fear God and keep his commandments,^†

for this is the whole [duty] of man.^†

¹⁴For God will bring every deed into judgment,^†

including every hidden thing,^†

whether it is good or evil.

SONG OF SONGS

Author, Place and Date of Writing

Song of Songs 1:1 tells us that the Song was written by, compiled by or belonged to Solomon. This indicates either that Solomon wrote it or that it was composed for his court and that he was the patron behind its composition. Today most scholars reject this premise, considering the Song to be a postexilic work from the Persian period. There is actually nothing in the Song itself, however, suggesting such a late date, except for a few words of debated origin. This is weak evidence, whereas internal indications in favor of composition during the Solomonic era are strong (see “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs”).

If Song of Songs is indeed from the age of Solomon, it dates to approximately 950 B.C.

Audience

Song of Songs is a love poem or compilation of love poems written to God’s people to honor and celebrate his gift of romantic, sexual love within the context of a marital relationship.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

The Song’s purpose has been debated. For most of the history of its interpretation, it was treated as an allegory. Jewish reviewers, for the most part, saw it as a symbolic recounting of the history of Israel, with the male singer representing God and the female singer symbolizing Israel. Some medieval Jewish interpreters saw it as an allegory of philosophy, while Christians have taken it as an analogy of the love of Christ for the church or as symbolic of the love relationship between the human soul and God. Some Roman Catholic interpreters claimed that Mary was the central figure of the allegory. Since each of these conjectures was guided only by the theological presuppositions and imagination of the interpreter (and no two allegorical interpretations were alike), and since nothing in the text suggests that it is to be understood as an allegory, very few hold to this explanation today.

More recently, some have claimed that the Song is a drama about the mutual love between Solomon and a young woman, a variation being that it concerns Solomon’s failed attempt to woo a woman who was in love with a shepherd. These interpretations, however, are now widely viewed to be forced upon the text. For such explanations to work, readers must supply an enormous amount of detail not included in the Song. Also, there is no analogy for such literature in the ancient Near East.

Today, many view the Song as simple love poetry. This work in fact has close analogies with Egyptian love poetry written during the centuries prior to the age of Solomon (see “Ancient Love Poetry”). It seems clear that the Song was meant specifically to celebrate the love between a husband and a wife. It is “love poetry,” but it has a far more sublime message than that of Egypt or of any other particular land or era.

Timeline

As You Read

Try not to dwell on the interpretation of the book’s story line or on possible, beneath-the-surface meanings. Taking as a given that the Song celebrates marital love, glean what you can from its passages—avoiding the temptation to read too much into the sometimes awkward imagery, at least from our twenty-first-century perspective. If you are married or contemplating marriage, what principles from the Song are applicable to your own situation?

Did You Know?

• Dark skin was considered unattractive by privileged women of the time (1:5).
• “Sister” was a common term of endearment in the love poetry of the ancient Near East (4:9).
• The mandrake plant was associated with the ability to arouse sexual desire and increase fertility (7:13).

Themes

The themes of Song of Songs include:

1. Love is a beautiful gift from God. Song of Songs is love poetry that articulates a beautiful relationship between a husband and a wife. Its lyrics remind God’s people that the intimate sexual relationship in marriage is a divine gift to be valued and enjoyed. Love is portrayed as precious (8:7b), spontaneous (2:7) and powerful (8:6–7a).
2. Marital contentment. Song of Songs demonstrates that contentment and fulfillment are found in the exclusivity (2:16) of the marriage relationship. The erotic love expressed in the Song is tender, delightful and natural—not shameful or debasing. The lovers are equals, praising each other and sharing the role of initiator.
3. Love is both pleasurable and painful. Joy is the dominant note of the Song, but the reader also is warned that love is a powerful emotion that may bring disappointments (5:2–6:3). The Song’s young woman repeatedly warned her female friends not to hurry love (2:7; 3:5; 8:4). Love has a dangerous side (8:6), and it deserves to be treated with caution.

Outline

I. First Meeting (1:1–2:7)

II. Second Meeting (2:8–3:5)

III. Third Meeting (3:6–5:1)

IV. Fourth Meeting (5:2–6:3)

V. Fifth Meeting (6:4–8:4)

VI. Literary Climax (8:5–7)

VII. Conclusion (8:8–14)

Song of Songs 1

¹Solomon’s Song of Songs.^†

---

*

Ancient Love Poetry

Song of Songs 1 The ancient Near East produced many examples of what can broadly be called “love poetry.” Some of it is overtly religious in nature, describing the love affairs of gods and goddesses. Other songs provide examples of “secular” love poems that explore both the excitement and the heartbreak so prevalent among young lovers. Examples of ancient love poetry are as follows:

• Mesopotamia¹ has produced primarily “religious” love poetry:

Nebo and Tashmetu: an Akkadian poem about the love between Nebo, the god of scribes, and his consort (partner), Tashmetu.

The Bridal Sheets: a Sumerian song featuring a playful dialogue between the god Utu and his sister Inanna, in which he gradually divulges that he has arranged for her to marry Ama-ushumgal-anna.

Songs of Ishtar and Tammuz: a compilation of songs dealing with the love affair between the goddess Ishtar and the god Tammuz.²

• Egypt has produced a number of love songs that are more “secular” in outlook in that they concern people rather than gods (c. 1300–1150 B.C.). They do, however, sometimes have fantastic or mythological motifs. These poems astutely but sometimes comically portray the emotional turmoil of young love, with striking similarities to Song of Songs.

Papyrus Harris 500: A young man and woman sing of their passionate love for each other. The dialogue-like parts for the male and female singers are similar to what we see in the Song. In some of these texts the female sings a soliloquy about her love; this too has parallels in the Song.

Cairo Love Songs: Recorded on a vase, they include the songs of a young woman, who declares her devotion to her lover, and those of a young man, who yearns to be with her—to be the ring on her finger or her laundryman so he can handle her clothing.

The Turin Love Song: a fanciful text in which various trees talk to a pair of young lovers.

Chester Beatty Papyrus I Love Songs: again include parts for male and female singers, in which they describe the intensity of their passion and their frustration at being kept apart. One compilation, the Nakhtsobek Songs, explores a man’s becoming enamored of a prostitute.

The Egyptian poetry displays several parallels to the Song of Songs. Structurally they are similar in that both have parts for male and female singers. They also share similar metaphors and imagery. A few examples of common elements include:

• The beloved is called “brother” or “sister” as a term of endearment (SS 4:9).

• In the Egyptian texts the woman asserts that her man’s love is better than beer (the favorite Egyptian beverage). In the Song, his love is preferable to wine (1:2).

• In the Egyptian poems the woman calls for her lover to come like a horse dashing to a battlefield; in the Song she summons him to hasten to her like a young stag (e.g., 8:14).

• In both cases the woman is said to be a flower (2:1).

• In each instance either the man or the woman is likened to a tree (2:3).

• The door image is important to both (5:2–7).

At the same time, Egyptian poetry and the Song have significant differences:

• Egyptian lovers often invoke Hathor, the goddess of love, in their quest to win over their beloved. The Biblical texts never suggest that God can be persuaded by a love-struck youth to manipulate someone to fall in love with him or her.

• The Egyptian songs, but not the Song of Songs, often focus on youthful infatuation and thus include some frivolous elements.

• The Egyptian poems are generally lighthearted, intended as humorous entertainment. Song of Songs takes a much more serious look at the significance of sexual love.

It is impossible and unnecessary to deny that the Egyptian texts influenced the poetry of Song of Songs. In fact, this poetry gives us a strong reason to date Song of Songs to the age of Solomon, who not only lived near the time the Egyptian songs were being written but also maintained good relations with Egypt. Even so, the content, complexity and theological significance of Song of Songs require us to regard it not as an imitation but as an original, canonical text.

1. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

2. See “Mourning for Tammuz.”

---

Beloved^[1]

²Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth—

for your love^† is more delightful than wine.

³Pleasing is the fragrance of your perfumes;^†

your name^† is like perfume poured out.

No wonder the maidens^† love you!

⁴Take me away with you—let us hurry!

Let the king bring me into his chambers.^†

Friends

We rejoice and delight in you^[2];

we will praise your love more than wine.

Beloved

How right they are to adore you!

⁵Dark am I, yet lovely,^†

O daughters of Jerusalem,^†

dark like the tents of Kedar,

like the tent curtains of Solomon.^[3]

⁶Do not stare at me because I am dark,

because I am darkened by the sun.

My mother’s sons were angry with me

and made me take care of the vineyards;^†

my own vineyard I have neglected.

⁷Tell me, you whom I love, where you graze your flock

and where you rest your sheep^† at midday.

Why should I be like a veiled woman

beside the flocks of your friends?

Friends

⁸If you do not know, most beautiful of women,^†

follow the tracks of the sheep

and graze your young goats

by the tents of the shepherds.

Lover

⁹I liken you, my darling, to a mare

harnessed to one of the chariots^† of Pharaoh.

¹⁰Your cheeks^† are beautiful with earrings,

your neck with strings of jewels.^†

¹¹We will make you earrings of gold,

studded with silver.

Beloved

¹²While the king was at his table,

my perfume spread its fragrance.^†

¹³My lover is to me a sachet of myrrh

resting between my breasts.

¹⁴My lover is to me a cluster of henna^† blossoms

from the vineyards of En Gedi.^†

Lover

¹⁵How beautiful^† you are, my darling!

Oh, how beautiful!

Your eyes are doves.^†

Beloved

¹⁶How handsome you are, my lover!

Oh, how charming!

And our bed is verdant.

Lover

¹⁷The beams of our house are cedars;^†

our rafters are firs.

Beloved^[4]

Song of Songs 2

¹I am a rose^{[5] †} of Sharon,^†

---

Ancient Voices

I will lie down inside,

and then I will feign illness.

Then my neighbors will enter to see,

and then my sister

will come with them.

She’ll put the doctors to shame

for she (alone)^* will understand my illness.

* Word in parentheses added by translator for clarity

—Papyrus Harris

See “Ancient Love Poetry” article.

---

*

The Flowers of Ancient Israel

Song of Songs 2 Floral imagery was widely used in ancient Israel, in the decoration of the temple and the lampstands (Ex 25; 37; 1Ki 6; 7) as well as in the prophetic and poetic writings.¹ The identification of various flowers in ancient Israel has been complicated by the following factors:

• Many newer plant species have been introduced into the region during the last few centuries.

• From the time of the church fathers, the practice of naming plants after Biblical names has served as a way of keeping Scripture alive in everyday life. Thus, flowers that did not exist in ancient Israel might still bear Biblical names. For example, Hibiscus syriacus has been called “the rose of Sharon,” even though it is native to eastern Asia and was more recently introduced into the region now known as Palestine.

• Information is scanty. Frequently a plant’s only identification might be its Biblical name, with no accompanying description. Oral tradition might provide the only clue in identifying a particular flower.

The rose of Sharon (SS 2:1) has been variously identified as narcissus, anemone or even red tulip. The lily of the valley (v. 1) has been equated to chamomile, crowfoot, various species of lily, narcissus, sea daffodil and lotus. Flowers in ancient Israel served mainly ornamental purposes, and it is likely that their beauty was the primary focus of the Song’s writer. Although precise identification of the various flowers would be helpful, it is not essential for interpreting the text.

Flowers blooming in the wilderness

Photograph: © Daniel Frese/Bible Places.com

1. See “Imagery and Metaphor in Ancient Love Poetry.”

---

a lily^† of the valleys.

Lover

²Like a lily among thorns

is my darling among the maidens.

Beloved

³Like an apple tree among the trees of the forest

is my lover^† among the young men.

I delight^† to sit in his shade,

and his fruit is sweet to my taste.^†

⁴He has taken me to the banquet hall,^†

and his banner^† over me is love.

⁵Strengthen me with raisins,

refresh me with apples,^†

for I am faint with love.^†

⁶His left arm is under my head,

and his right arm embraces me.^†

⁷Daughters of Jerusalem, I charge you^†

by the gazelles and by the does of the field:

Do not arouse or awaken love

until it so desires.^†

⁸Listen! My lover!

Look! Here he comes,

leaping across the mountains,

bounding over the hills.^†

⁹My lover is like a gazelle^† or a young stag.^†

Look! There he stands behind our wall,

gazing through the windows,

peering through the lattice.

¹⁰My lover spoke and said to me,

“Arise, my darling,

my beautiful one, and come with me.

¹¹See! The winter is past;

the rains are over and gone.

¹²Flowers appear on the earth;

the season of singing has come,

the cooing of doves

is heard in our land.

¹³The fig tree forms its early fruit;^†

the blossoming^† vines spread their fragrance.

Arise, come, my darling;

my beautiful one, come with me.”

Lover

¹⁴My dove^† in the clefts of the rock,

in the hiding places on the mountainside,

show me your face,

let me hear your voice;

for your voice is sweet,

and your face is lovely.^†

¹⁵Catch for us the foxes,^†

the little foxes

that ruin the vineyards,^†

our vineyards that are in bloom.^†

Beloved

¹⁶My lover is mine and I am his;^†

he browses among the lilies.^†

¹⁷Until the day breaks

and the shadows flee,^†

turn, my lover,^†

and be like a gazelle

or like a young stag^†

on the rugged hills.^{[6] †}

Song of Songs 3

¹All night long on my bed

---

*

Weddings in Ancient Israel

Song of Songs 3 A wedding, as the public solemnization of an agreement made at the time of an engagement, was an occasion for great joy.¹ The ceremony itself most likely consisted of the recitation of a simple formula, such as the one alluded to at the time of the first union between a husband and a wife (Ge 2:23). Marriage contracts from the Jewish community of Elephantine of the fifth century B.C. record a vow common to the ancient world: The groom would declare that the woman was his wife and that he was her husband for eternity. The wedding ceremony also may have involved the symbolic act of the man covering his bride with the corner of his garment to indicate that she was now under his protection and that it was his responsibility to provide for her (Ru 3:9; Eze 16:8). Blessings of fruitfulness were bestowed upon the couple by family and friends (Ge 24:60; Ru 4:11–12).

A passage from the Babylonian Talmud tells us that at a Jewish wedding in the early Christian era a groom would wear a ceremonial crown and receive his bride, who would make her entrance at the wedding party in a sedan chair. This event may explain the description in Song of Songs 3:6–11; it would appear that the bride was riding in such a sedan chair (NIV, “carriage”), accompanied by an honor guard. (In the phrase “Who is this?” in v. 6 the word “this” is feminine, referring to a woman.) The bride’s entourage also included a musical procession (Ps 45:14; 1Mc 9:37–39).² The groom was attired in festive headdress (SS 3:11; Isa 61:10), and the bride was adorned in embroidered garments and jewelry (Ps 45:13–14; Isa 49:18; 61:10). A veil completed the virgin bride’s costume, which may partly explain the success of Laban’s ruse of substituting Leah for Rachel on Jacob’s wedding night (Ge 29:23; SS 4:1).

Jesus’ parable of the wise and foolish virgins (Mt 25:1–13) describes the arrival of the groom during the night prior to a wedding. He was attended by male companions, one of whom would serve as his best man (Jdg 14:20; Jn 3:29). Upon his arrival the groom’s family would host a feast (Mt 22:2; Jn 2:9). Putting the evidence together, it appears that the groom with his companions would traditionally arrive at the ceremonial house first, during the night, to be received by a group of young women. Early the next day the friends of the groom would go out to bring back the bride, who would arrive in a sedan chair with the groom’s friends as her symbolic honor guard.

The marriage would be consummated on the first night of a banquet celebration typically lasting for seven days (Ge 29:27; Jdg 14:12). The bridal couple would seal their union in a bridal chamber (Ps 19:5; Joel 2:16), and the blood-stained nuptial sheet would be saved by the bride’s parents as proof of her prior virginity (Dt 22:17).

A wedding celebration in any time or culture typically brims with emotion, including the culmination of joy and the realization of an anticipated promise, thereby aptly expressing a believer’s union with Christ at the end of time: “Let us rejoice and be glad and give him glory! For the wedding of the Lamb has come, and his bride has made herself ready. Fine linen, bright and clean, was given her to wear” (Rev 19:7–8).

1. See “Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Israel.”

2. First Maccabees is an Apocryphal book, not included in the traditional Protestant canon.

---

I looked^† for the one my heart loves;

I looked for him but did not find him.

²I will get up now and go about the city,

through its streets and squares;

I will search for the one my heart loves.

So I looked for him but did not find him.

³The watchmen found me

as they made their rounds in the city.^†

“Have you seen the one my heart loves?”

⁴Scarcely had I passed them

when I found the one my heart loves.

I held him and would not let him go

till I had brought him to my mother’s house,^†

to the room of the one who conceived me.^†

⁵Daughters of Jerusalem, I charge you^†

by the gazelles and by the does of the field:

Do not arouse or awaken love

until it so desires.^†

⁶Who is this coming up from the desert^†

like a column of smoke,

perfumed with myrrh^† and incense

made from all the spices^† of the merchant?

⁷Look! It is Solomon’s carriage,

escorted by sixty warriors,^†

the noblest of Israel,

⁸all of them wearing the sword,

all experienced in battle,

each with his sword at his side,

prepared for the terrors of the night.^†

⁹King Solomon made for himself the carriage;

he made it of wood from Lebanon.

¹⁰Its posts he made of silver,

its base of gold.

Its seat was upholstered with purple,

its interior lovingly inlaid

by^[7] the daughters of Jerusalem.

¹¹Come out, you daughters of Zion,^†

and look at King Solomon wearing the crown,

the crown with which his mother crowned him

on the day of his wedding,

the day his heart rejoiced.^†

Lover

Song of Songs 4

¹How beautiful you are, my darling!

Oh, how beautiful!

Your eyes behind your veil are doves.^†

Your hair is like a flock of goats

descending from Mount Gilead.^†

²Your teeth are like a flock of sheep just shorn,

coming up from the washing.

Each has its twin;

not one of them is alone.^†

³Your lips are like a scarlet ribbon;

your mouth^† is lovely.

Your temples behind your veil

are like the halves of a pomegranate.^†

⁴Your neck is like the tower^† of David,

built with elegance^[8];

on it hang a thousand shields,^†

all of them shields of warriors.

⁵Your two breasts^† are like two fawns,

like twin fawns of a gazelle^†

that browse among the lilies.^†

⁶Until the day breaks

and the shadows flee,^†

I will go to the mountain of myrrh^†

and to the hill of incense.

⁷All beautiful^† you are, my darling;

there is no flaw in you.

⁸Come with me from Lebanon, my bride,^†

come with me from Lebanon.

Descend from the crest of Amana,

from the top of Senir,^† the summit of Hermon,^†

from the lions’ dens

and the mountain haunts of the leopards.

⁹You have stolen my heart, my sister, my bride;

you have stolen my heart

with one glance of your eyes,

with one jewel of your necklace.^†

¹⁰How delightful^† is your love^†, my sister, my bride!

How much more pleasing is your love than wine,

and the fragrance of your perfume than any spice!

¹¹Your lips drop sweetness as the honeycomb, my bride;

milk and honey are under your tongue.^†

The fragrance of your garments is like that of Lebanon.^†

¹²You are a garden locked up, my sister, my bride;

you are a spring enclosed, a sealed fountain.^†

¹³Your plants are an orchard of pomegranates^†

with choice fruits,

with henna^† and nard,

¹⁴nard and saffron,

calamus and cinnamon,^†

with every kind of incense tree,

with myrrh^† and aloes

and all the finest spices.^†

¹⁵You are^[9] a garden fountain,

a well of flowing water

streaming down from Lebanon.

Beloved

¹⁶Awake, north wind,

and come, south wind!

Blow on my garden,

that its fragrance may spread abroad.

Let my lover come into his garden

and taste its choice fruits.^†

Lover

Song of Songs 5

¹I have come into my garden, my sister, my bride;^†

---

*

Cedars of Lebanon

Song of Songs 5 A tall (averaging 120 ft [37 m] in its maturity) and majestic evergreen tree, the cedar of Lebanon was highly valued in antiquity.¹ Its durability and dimensions provided building materials for palaces, temples, ships and furnishings, and Egyptians prized its resin for mummification. Nebuchadnezzar wrote of hauling felled cedars to Babylon from Mount Lebanon, an abundant source of timber in the ancient Near East (cf. Isa 37:24). The temple and palace complex in Jerusalem were lavishly adorned with cedar (1Ki 7:2; 1Ch 22:4), and cedar wood was used for purification rituals (Lev 14:4).² Attesting to the use of cedar in monumental architecture, remnants of charred cedar beams were found in a Middle Bronze Age³ palace (sixteenth century B.C.), as well as in a Late Bronze Age temple (thirteenth century B.C.) at Lachish.⁴

The height and commanding presence of the species yields vivid Biblical images. Yahweh’s majesty stands above all cedars (Ps 148:9, 13), and his voice is so powerful that it shatters them (Ps 29:5). The development of a righteous person is compared to the cedar’s steady maturing process (Ps 92:12). In the Song of Songs the lover’s appearance evokes the tree’s exquisite worth (SS 5:15). Yet the cedar’s height can also be a visual picture of human pride and arrogance (Isa 2:12–13; Eze 31:3, 10–12).

1. See “Byblos.”

2. See “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East.”

3. See “Archaeological Periods Chart” in the beginning of this Bible.

4. See also “Trees of Ancient Israel.”

---

I have gathered my myrrh with my spice.

I have eaten my honeycomb and my honey;

I have drunk my wine and my milk.^†

Friends

Eat, O friends, and drink;

drink your fill, O lovers.

Beloved

²I slept but my heart was awake.

Listen! My lover is knocking:

“Open to me, my sister, my darling,

my dove, my flawless^† one.^†

My head is drenched with dew,

my hair with the dampness of the night.”

³I have taken off my robe—

must I put it on again?

I have washed my feet—

must I soil them again?

⁴My lover thrust his hand through the latch-opening;

my heart began to pound for him.

⁵I arose to open for my lover,

and my hands dripped with myrrh,^†

my fingers with flowing myrrh,

on the handles of the lock.

⁶I opened for my lover,^†

but my lover had left; he was gone.^†

My heart sank at his departure.^[10]

I looked^† for him but did not find him.

I called him but he did not answer.

⁷The watchmen found me

as they made their rounds in the city.^†

They beat me, they bruised me;

they took away my cloak,

those watchmen of the walls!

⁸O daughters of Jerusalem, I charge you^†—

if you find my lover,

what will you tell him?

Tell him I am faint with love.^†

Friends

⁹How is your beloved better than others,

most beautiful of women?^†

How is your beloved better than others,

that you charge us so?

Beloved

¹⁰My lover is radiant and ruddy,

outstanding among ten thousand.^†

¹¹His head is purest gold;

his hair is wavy

and black as a raven.

¹²His eyes are like doves^†

by the water streams,

washed in milk,^†

mounted like jewels.

¹³His cheeks^† are like beds of spice^†

yielding perfume.

His lips are like lilies^†

dripping with myrrh.

¹⁴His arms are rods of gold

set with chrysolite.

His body is like polished ivory

decorated with sapphires.^{[11] †}

¹⁵His legs are pillars of marble

set on bases of pure gold.

His appearance is like Lebanon,^†

choice as its cedars.

¹⁶His mouth^† is sweetness itself;

he is altogether lovely.

This is my lover,^† this my friend,

O daughters of Jerusalem.^†

Friends

Song of Songs 6

¹Where has your lover^† gone,

most beautiful of women?^†

Which way did your lover turn,

that we may look for him with you?

Beloved

²My lover has gone^† down to his garden,^†

to the beds of spices,^†

to browse in the gardens

and to gather lilies.

³I am my lover’s and my lover is mine;^†

he browses among the lilies.^†

Lover

⁴You are beautiful, my darling, as Tirzah,^†

lovely as Jerusalem,^†

majestic as troops with banners.^†

⁵Turn your eyes from me;

they overwhelm me.

Your hair is like a flock of goats

descending from Gilead.^†

⁶Your teeth are like a flock of sheep

coming up from the washing.

Each has its twin,

not one of them is alone.^†

⁷Your temples behind your veil^†

are like the halves of a pomegranate.^†

⁸Sixty queens^† there may be,

and eighty concubines,^†

and virgins beyond number;

⁹but my dove,^† my perfect one,^† is unique,

the only daughter of her mother,

the favorite of the one who bore her.^†

The maidens saw her and called her blessed;

the queens and concubines praised her.

Friends

¹⁰Who is this that appears like the dawn,

fair as the moon, bright as the sun,

majestic as the stars in procession?

Lover

¹¹I went down to the grove of nut trees

to look at the new growth in the valley,

to see if the vines had budded

or the pomegranates were in bloom.^†

¹²Before I realized it,

my desire set me among the royal chariots of my people.^[12]

Friends

¹³Come back, come back, O Shulammite;

come back, come back, that we may gaze on you!

Lover

Why would you gaze on the Shulammite

as on the dance^† of Mahanaim?

Song of Songs 7

¹How beautiful your sandaled feet,