131:2 For “soul,” see the note on 6:3. A “weaned child” refers to a child of four or five years of age who walks trustingly beside his or her mother.

132:6 Ephrathah is the region around Bethlehem, David’s hometown (see “Bethlehem”). Jaar is another name for Kiriath-Jearim, where the ark was kept after its return by the Philistines (see “Kiriath Jearim”).

133:2 The oil of Aaron’s anointing (Ex 29:7; Lev 21:10) saturated all the hair of his beard and ran down on his priestly robes, signifying his total consecration to holy service.

133:3 With its high altitude, regular precipitation and heavy dew, Mount Hermon is known for its lush greenery even during the summer. The experience of the pilgrims was like Hermon’s refreshing dew. From May to October virtually no rain—or even dew—falls on Jerusalem. During these months at least two pilgrimages were held. Regardless of the harsh conditions of life in general, or of the pilgrimage in particular, the unity of God’s people was refreshing.

135:4 “Jacob” is a synonym for Israel (see Ge 32:28).

135:6 The ancients viewed the heavens, earth and seas as the three great domains of the visible creation.

135:7 Baal, the Canaanite god of weather and fertility, was the “cloud-rider” (see “The Ugaritic Text of the Myth of Baal” and “Baal and the Fertility Cults”). But the Lord, the God of Israel, brings the life-giving rains and “makes the clouds his chariot” (104:3).

136:1–26 See the note on Psalm 113:1–118:29 regarding the “Hallel” psalms.

136:26 “The God of heaven” was a Persian title for God frequently found in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Daniel.

137:1 “Rivers” is a reference to the Tigris and Euphrates and to the many canals associated with them.

137:2 They “hung [their] harps” because the callous Babylonians demanded exotic entertainment, while the exiles’ instruments were only “tuned to mourning” (Job 30:31). See “Ancient Musical Instruments.”

137:7 The enduring animosity of the Edomites—descendants of Esau, Jacob’s brother—showed its most dastardly face in Jerusalem’s darkest hour (Ob 8–14).

137:8 “Daughter” is here a personification of Babylon and its inhabitants.
For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

137:9 War was as cruel then as now, and women and children were not spared its horrors (see 2Ki 8:12; 15:16; Isa 13:16, 18; Hos 10:14; 13:16; Am 1:13; Na 3:10).

138:1 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7. The word “gods” refers either to pagan kings (see 138:4–5) or to the gods they claimed to represent (see the note on 82:1).

139:9 The “wings of the dawn” and the “far side of the sea” represent the two horizontal extremes: east and west. The “sea” is the Mediterranean.

139:13 The term “inmost being” (lit., “kidneys”) is a Hebrew idiom referring to an individual’s most intimate center of emotions and of moral sensitivity—that which God tests and examines when he “searches” a person (see the note on 7:9). (see “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”)

139:15 This verse describes the womb, called “the secret place” because it conceals (see 2Sa 12:12). It is like the “depths of the earth” in that it is dark, damp and separated from the visible realm of life.

139:19–22 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

139:21–22 These verses echo the pledge of loyalty that ancient Near Eastern kings required of their vassals. A fourteenth-century B.C. treaty between Mursilis II, a Hittite king, and Tette of Nuhassi states, “With my friend you shall be friend, and with my enemy you shall be enemy.”

139:23 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.

141:4 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.

143:1–12 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”

144:12 It was not uncommon in the ancient world for temple columns to be shaped in the form of women (e.g., on the Acropolis in Athens).

145:1–2 In Jewish practice this psalm was recited twice each morning and once each evening.

149:3 Dance (mâchôl) was considered an integral part of the religious ceremonies in ancient Israel. This Hebrew word is found in Scripture associated with the word tôph or timbrel (see Ex 15:20 and Jdg 11:34, where “tambourine” is used). We are told also that “David, wearing a linen ephod, danced before the LORD with all his might” (2Sa 6:14). Religious dancing fell into disuse in the Jerusalem temple and is mentioned only twice in the Psalms (here and in 150:4). On the Feast of Tabernacles, at the celebration of “water libation,” prominent men would dance, displaying their artistic skill in throwing and catching burning torches. The custom of a procession around the sanctuary or around the altar on the Feast of Tabernacles was retained in the temple, accompanied by singing.

150:4 See the note on dancing at 149:3.

150:6 All God’s creation that “has breath”—particularly humanity—is called to praise the Lord (cf. 148:7–12). The Hebrew word used here applies to all living creatures endowed with life by the Creator.

1:1–9 Damage has been done by some who find in the book of Proverbs merely a collection of ancient maxims for success—a kind of Poor Richard’s Almanac. Actually, the book is a compendium of moral instruction. It deals with sin and holiness, and the vehicle of instruction is a favorite Semitic device: teaching by contrast. The style of Proverbs with its trenchant contrasts or more extended climactic poems can be paralleled in ancient literature in Egypt and Mesopotamia (see “Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom”). The Hebrew authors, however, have given instruction on life and holiness in proverbial form. The case is similar in Christian hymnody. There are countless examples of secular poetry and melody combined in ordinary song. But Christian hymns use the vehicles of poetry and song to express distinctively Christian thought and experience.

1:1–7 The prologue connects the book of Proverbs with Solomon, who was renowned for his wisdom in general and for his prolific composition of proverbs in particular (cf. 1Ki 4:29–34). Although some compiling and editing were involved, it is likely that Solomon was the source of most of Proverbs (but see the NIV sectional headings regarding authorship). The prologue also states the book’s purpose: to pass along wisdom. Such an introductory statement was not unusual in the ancient world. Egyptian instructions in wisdom often named the speaker and recipient as part of their purpose statement: to pass along wisdom for successful living from one generation to the next.

1:1 The Hebrew word translated “proverb” is also rendered “oracle” (Nu 23:7, 18), “taunt” (Isa 14:4) and “parable” (Eze 17:2), so its meaning is considerably broader than the one English term. This may help to explain the presence of the longer discourse sections in Proverbs 1–9. Most proverbs are short, pithy statements that express universal truths about human behavior.

1:4 “Prudence” means good judgment or good sense (see 15:5; 19:25). Elsewhere in the Old Testament the Hebrew word is used in the negative sense of “crafty” (Ge 3:1; Job 5:13). “Simple” is used to describe an individual who lacks judgment or who is easily persuaded, immature, inexperienced or naive (cf. Ps 19:7). The Hebrew word generally refers to someone lacking moral direction and inclined to evil.

1:6 The Hebrew for “riddles” can sometimes refer to allegories (cf. Eze 17:2). On the popularity and function of riddles in the ancient world, see the note on Judges 14:12–14.

1:7–9:10 The first section of the book (note the slight variation in this alternative outline scheme to the outline in the introduction to this book) both begins and ends with the statement that “the fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge [wisdom].” Thus the wisdom extolled in Proverbs is not just a high degree of intelligence but a moral virtue. This is made plain by the contrasts involved. Wisdom is personified as a righteous woman (8:1). This is natural because wisdom in the Hebrew is a feminine noun. The foolish woman is depicted as using words similar to those of wisdom—to invite men into her house (9:4, 16), but she invites them to sin. The harlot, who is given prominence in this section, represents all sin. Murder and theft are the opposite of wisdom in chapter 1, but usually the harlot, also called the strange woman, the simple woman or the foolish woman, is held up as the opposite of personified righteousness.

1:8 Proverbs was written to instruct the young and to guide them into a happy and prosperous life. This verse depicts a father preparing his son for life in the world. Here and in 6:20 the mother is also depicted as a teacher. See “The Israelite Family.”

1:12 For information on the “grave,” see the note on Psalm 6:5; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

1:17 Nets were used to catch both birds and land animals (see 6:5; 7:23; Ecc 9:12; Isa 51:20; Jer 5:26).

1:20–21 Mesopotamian and Egyptian writings of the second millennium B.C. often embodied abstract ideas. In Proverbs, Wisdom and Folly are personified as women, each of whom seeks to persuade “simple” youths to follow her ways. Wisdom employs appeals and warnings, whereas Folly relies upon enticements. In these discourses the young man is depicted as being enticed to folly by men who exploited others (1:10–19) and by women who sought sexual pleasure outside the bond of marriage (ch. 5; 6:20–35; ch. 7). In the culture of that day these were the two most alluring temptations for young men.
A public square was an open area inside the gate of a fortified city (see 8:3). The city gate was the place where the leaders of the city met to hold court, where the marketplace was located and where official business transactions took place (see “The City Gate”).

2:1–5 As was common in the ancient Near East, each section of teaching follows a predictable pattern or form. An address (“My son,” v. 1) is followed by a charge or condition (“if you accept my words”), which is followed in turn by a series of motivations or rewards (“then you will understand the fear of the LORD,” v. 5).

2:4 Job 28:1–11 describes ancient mining techniques, comparing this activity with the search for wisdom.

2:7 “Blameless” refers to those who are spiritually and morally upright. It does not imply sinlessness (see 19:1).

2:18 For “spirits of the dead,” see Job 10:21, 26:5 and their notes. The deceased are in the grave (or Sheol), “the chambers of death” (Pr 7:27). See the note on Psalm 6:5, as well as “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

2:21 See the note on verse 7.

4:9 Wreaths or crowns were worn on joyous occasions, such as weddings or feasts (see SS 3:11; Eze 16:12; 23:42; cf. 1Pe 5:4).

5:4 Gall is a bitter herb (see Dt 29:18; La 3:15, 19; Am 6:12), and a “double-edged sword” was a lethal weapon (see Jdg 3:16; Ps 55:21; 149:6; Heb 4:12; cf. Rev 1:16).

5:15 “Your own cistern … your own well” implies “your own wife” (see SS 4:12, 15)—the only legitimate source of sexual pleasure. In the Near East wells and cisterns were privately owned (Jer 38:6) and of great value (2Ki 18:31). See “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World.”

6:1 Taking on responsibility for someone else’s debt (cf. 22:26) or obligation could result in poverty (cf. 22:27) or even slavery. For example, Judah offered himself to Joseph as a slave (Ge 44:32–33) in order to fulfill his personal guarantee of Benjamin’s safe return to Jacob. Such an arrangement was sealed by “striking hands,” equivalent to the modern-day handshake (see Pr 11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 22:26; cf. Job 17:3).

6:31 Hebrew law demanded no more than fivefold payment as a penalty for any theft (Ex 22:1–9). The number seven is symbolic; the thief would pay in full.

7:2 For “apple of your eye,” see the note on Psalm 17:8.

7:10 The phrase “dressed like a prostitute” may mean dressed in a gaudy manner (see Eze 16:16).

7:13 A kiss was a bold form of greeting. See “The Jewish Custom of Kissing.”

7:16 Linen was associated with the wealthy. Egyptian linen in particular was of great value (see Isa 19:9; Eze 27:7).

7:17 The use of perfume in the form of ointment or impregnated oil was a Middle Eastern practice long before it spread to the Mediterranean world. In all probability such ointment was originally used for ceremonial purposes, first religious and then secular, and eventually became a personal habit with the growing sophistication of society and the need for deodorants in hot lands (see also Est 2:12; Pr 27:9; Isa 57:9). So universal was the practice that its suspension was an accepted sign of mourning (Dt 28:40; Ru 3:3; 2Sa 14:2; Da 10:3; Am 6:6; Mic 6:15). The skin as well as the hair was perfumed and anointed (Ps 104:15), and especially on high occasions a scented unguent was used with profusion (Ps 133:2). See “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”

7:20 Pieces of silver of various weights were a common medium of exchange; coinage was not invented until a later period.

7:27 See the note on 2:18.

8:1 For commentary on Wisdom’s portrayal as a righteous woman, see the note on 1:7–9:10.

8:30 Those skilled in various crafts were sometimes called “wise.” Here, however, the term refers to the skill demonstrated in creation.

9:4 For commentary on the foolish woman, see the note on 1:7–9:10.

9:13 For further commentary on the woman Folly, see the notes on 1:7–9:10 and 10:1–22:16.

9:18 See the note on 2:18.

10:1–22:16 In the major section of Proverbs, the same contrast between wisdom and folly (see the note on 1:7–9:10) appears in single-verse aphorisms. Here the personification of sin and righteousness does not appear, but the same synonyms for virtue and vice are repeatedly used and should be understood as such. Perhaps the greatest error in interpreting the book comes from the tendency to quote these proverbs as mere secular maxims instead of godly instruction. “Folly” here does not mean stupidity, just as “the woman Folly” (9:13) does not refer to an ignoramus. Both terms relate to sin. Throughout this whole section the terms wisdom, understanding, integrity and knowledge are synonymous references to holiness. Their opposites—fool, folly, simple, mocker, quarrelsome, etc.—refer to wickedness. In short, a “foolish son” is not a dullard but a scoundrel. A “mocker” is not just disdainful but a rebel against wisdom. The lack of context sometimes clouds the interpretation. But occasionally a verse is partially repeated elsewhere, where the variant form clarifies the meaning (cf. 27:15 with 21:19).

11:1 Dishonest scales are denounced in the law (see Lev 19:35) and the Prophets (Am 8:5; Mic 6:11). Silver was weighed on scales balanced against a stone weight, and weights with dishonest labels were used by cheaters. For “accurate weights,” see the note on Proverbs 16:11.

11:22 It was common practice throughout the ancient Near East for women to wear gold rings in their noses (see Ge 24:47; Eze 16:12 and its note).

12:9 Even people of moderate means commonly had servants (see Jdg 6:15, 27).

14:4 Taking good care of one’s oxen (the means of production) was a prerequisite for a good harvest.

14:21 The book of Proverbs is replete with admonitions concerning one’s neighbor, of which this verse is the epitome. Due regard for one’s neighbor is expressed in the great Old and New Testament precept, “Love your neighbor as yourself” (Lev 19:18; Mt 19:19). The parable of the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:30–37) was given to answer the question, “And who is my neighbor?” (Lk 10:29).

15:1 The truth that “a harsh word stirs up anger” is exemplified in Nabal’s sarcastic response that put David in a fighting mood (1Sa 25:10–13). See “Bywords and Insults in the Ancient World.”

15:11 See “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

15:25 In ancient times boundary stones marked the periphery of a person’s property. Anyone who moved such a stone was, in effect, stealing land (see Job 24:2; Ps 68:5; Pr 22:28; see also Dt 19:14 and its note).

16:10 As God’s representative, a king acted as judge, discerning between right and wrong (see 1Ki 3:9). His judgments were like divine oracles for the people (see 2Sa 14:17; 1Ki 3:28).

16:11 Stones of different sizes were used by merchants to weigh and measure quantities of silver for payment (cf. Mic 6:11). Weights with dishonest labels allowed for cheating.

16:14 An angry king could quickly and effectively bring about someone’s death (see 19:12; Est 7:7–10; Mt 22:7; Lk 19:27). Compare Daniel’s response to the rage of Nebuchadnezzar (Da 2:12–16).

16:15 Spring rain was a sign of good things to come, a precursor to abundant barley and wheat harvests (from mid-April to mid-June). See “Food and Agriculture.”

16:17 There are about 25 Hebrew and Greek words translated “way” in the Bible. The term is often used metaphorically in the Old Testament to describe conduct or manner of life, whether of God or of human beings (see also Dt 5:33; Ps 1:6).

16:31 Deep respect was considered the due of the elderly (see Lev 19:32).

16:33 Casting lots was a commonly used method for making decisions or for determining God’s will (see Ex 28:30; Nu 26:53; Ne 11:1; Ps 22:18; Jnh 1:7; Ac 1:26). There were various methods of casting lots; here the lot may have involved several pebbles placed in the fold of a garment and then drawn out or shaken to the ground. God, not chance, was in control of the outcome (see 16:1, 3–4, 9). See “Casting Lots.”

17:3 Silver and gold were refined to remove their impurities (see Ps 12:6).

17:6 To live to see one’s grandchildren was considered a great blessing (see Ge 48:11; Ps 109:12 and its note; 128:5–6; “The Israelite Family”; and “The Role of the Patriarch in Family Life”).

18:18 See the note on 16:33.

19:26 Children were expected to care for their sick or elderly parents (cf. Isa 51:18; see the note on Ps 109:12; “The Israelite Family”; and “The Role of the Patriarch in Family Life”). Robbing one’s parents (cf. Jdg 17:1–2), attacking them or calling down curses on them (Ex 21:15, 17) were all viewed as serious crimes.

20:10 See the notes on 11:1 and 16:11.

20:14 Prices were often finalized through a bargaining process. Here the buyer was discrediting the quality of the article in order to purchase it more cheaply.

20:16 A garment could be taken as security for a debt (Dt 24:10–13). Accepting responsibility for someone else’s debt was a serious and risky business (see the note on Pr 6:1).

20:26 For a description of the threshing process, see the note on Ruth 1:22 and “The Threshing Floor.”

21:9 Houses had flat roofs on which produce could be spread out to dry (see Jos 2:6). Small rooms could also be constructed there (see 2Ki 4:10; see also “The Israelite Town and Home”).

21:17 Wine and oil were common components of a lavish ancient Near Eastern lifestyle (see 23:20–21; Am 6:6). Oil was used in various lotions or perfumes, some of which were extremely expensive (Jn 12:5; see “Perfumes and Anointing Oils”).

22:6 This verse is an exhortation extolling the importance of parental instruction (see “The Israelite Family”). The training was imparted primarily through conversation, example and imitation; it utilized effectively the interest aroused by actual life situations, such as the Passover, the redemption of the firstborn and family rites (Ex 12:26–27; 13:14–16). The well-known penchant of the East for storytelling was also used in the vital transmission of religious truth and faith to the children. The command to the Israelites to write the precepts of the law on their doorposts and gates (Dt 6:9; 11:20) and on great plastered stones in the land (Dt 27:2–8) implies a general ability among the people of the time to read and write.

22:14 The “deep pit” may refer to a well or to a hunter’s trap.

22:19–29:27 This section (again, this outline scheme differs somewhat from that found in the introduction to this book) is more general (see the notes on 1:7–9:10 and 10:1–22:16) but uses the same vocabulary of morality. In this part of the book are some special parallels with an Egyptian work titled The Wisdom of Amenemope (see “The Teaching of Amenemope”). The correspondence, however, does not invalidate the claim that the author(s) of Proverbs gave distinctive treatment to this theme.

22:28 See the notes on Deuteronomy 19:14 and Proverbs 15:25.

22:29 Craftsmen were considered wise, and some, such as the following, did indeed serve before kings: Joseph, an administrator (Ge 41:46); David, a musician (1Sa 16:21–23); and Huram, a worker in bronze (1Ki 7:13–14).

23:10 See the notes on Deuteronomy 19:14 and Proverbs 15:25.

23:11 “Defender” refers to a kinsman-redeemer, someone who helped close relatives regain their land (see “The Kinsman-Redeemer”) or avenged their deaths (Nu 35:12, 19).

24:7 The city gate was the place where the leaders of the city met to hold court, where the marketplace was located and where official business transactions took place (see “The City Gate”).

24:17–18 Edom was destroyed because she gloated over Israel’s destruction (see Ps 137:7 and its note; see also Eze 35:15).

25:1 The book of Proverbs returns here to the proverbs of Solomon, noting that these were “copied by the men of Hezekiah king of Judah.” Hezekiah’s reign, more than 200 years after Solomon’s, saw a great revival—which explains his interest in a compilation of Solomon’s proverbs. Many of the sayings in this section (25:1–29:27) were intended to be read and interpreted as pairs, one shedding more light upon the other.

25:4 The process of removing the dross from the silver is a picture of purification.

25:12 For earrings or nose rings, see the note on Ezekiel 16:12.

25:22 Heaping burning coals upon a person’s head was a horrible punishment reserved for the wicked. Here, however, the picture could have been one of kindness; though painful, the consequence might have served to win the individual over. Alternatively, the practice may reflect an Egyptian expiation ritual in which a guilty person, as a sign of his repentance, carried a basin of glowing coals on his head. The meaning here, then, would be that in returning good for evil—and so expressing kindness to an enemy (see Ro 12:20)—a person might motivate that adversary to repent or change.

25:28 A city whose walls were broken down was considered defenseless and disgraced (cf. Ne 1:3 and its note).

26:1 Grain was harvested from mid-April until mid-June (barley first; wheat a few weeks later). It rarely rains in Palestine from June through September.

26:8 A sling was useless as a weapon if the stone was tied into it.

26:18 Firebrands would easily have ignited sheaves of grain (cf. Zec 12:6).

27:9 For commentary on perfume, see the note on 7:17. See also “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”

27:22 A mortar was a bowl (see Nu 11:8) and a pestle a club-like tool for pounding grain in a mortar.

27:25 Removal of hay began in March or April.

27:26 Sheep and goats sometimes served as tribute payments (see 2Ki 3:4).

27:27 Goats’ milk was commonly drunk along with cows’ milk (see Dt 32:13–14; Isa 7:21–22).

28:6 For “blameless,” see the note on 2:7.

28:15 See “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel.”

30:1–33 Agur is the otherwise unknown author of Proverbs 30. His words are described in verse 1 as “an oracle,” thus claiming divine inspiration. Many scholars, however, believe that the Hebrew indicates instead the place name Massa (cf. the NIV text note on v. 1, and see also Ge 25:14, 16).

30:1 Agur was likely a non-Israelite wise man like Job and his friends.

30:11 See 19:26 and its note.

30:16 In the ancient Near East a wife without children was considered disgraced and desperate (see Ge 16:1–2; 2Ki 4:14; Ps 113:9 and their notes).

30:17 The loss of an eye was considered a terrible curse (see Jdg 16:21). Since vultures typically devoured the dead (see Jer 7:33; Mt 24:28), the meaning may be that the body of a disgraceful son would lie unburied and exposed.

30:23 An “unloved woman who is married” probably refers to an unloved woman whose husband had several wives (cf. Leah in Ge 29:31–32). If she were barren, she could be replaced by a maidservant who was able to bear children (cf. Hagar and Sarah in Ge 16:1–6; see the note on Ge 16:1–2).

31:1 King Lemuel was a non-Israelite; otherwise he is unknown.

31:4–7 Total abstinence from alcohol was rare in the ancient world, even while the problems of addiction to drink were recognized (see “The Instructions of Anii”). Behind the recommendation to offer alcohol (vv. 6–7) lay a concern for the least powerful members of the kingdom. The king was to offer wine (instead of storing it) to comfort those who were hurting.

31:10–31 Over the centuries this poem has taken on a life of its own. In Jewish tradition it is recited by a husband to his wife on Sabbath evenings, and many Christians read it on Mother’s Day.

31:21 Scarlet clothing was associated with high quality and was probably made of wool (cf. 2Sa 1:24; Rev 18:16).

31:23 See the note on 24:7.

1:1–2:23 This book presents a pessimistic view of life apart from God. The writer’s observation of nature and human experience led him to conclude that they, in and of themselves, do not impart purpose and meaning to life. He observed the endless cycles of nature (1:2–11) and found in them only tedium. They do not offer satisfaction, for “the eye never has enough of seeing” (1:8). Even wisdom (1:16–18; 2:12–17), pleasure (1:1–8) and toil (1:9–11; 2:18–23) are meaningless. There is no substance or satisfaction in them. They are “a chasing after the wind” (2:17).

1:1 “Ecclesiastes” (Greek, ekklesiastes) comes from the Hebrew Qoheleth, which can be translated “teacher” or “speaker in an assembly” (see the NIV text note; see also Ex 16:3; Nu 16:3). The Teacher, an instructor of wisdom whose work is described in Ecc 12:9–10, may also have held an office in the assembly.
The Hebrew word for “son” can refer to a descendant (even many generations removed)—or even to someone who follows in the footsteps of another (see Ge 4:21; see also the introduction to this book, as well as “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs”).

1:13 The writer consistently referred to God by the name Elohim (almost 30 instances), which emphasizes God’s absolute sovereignty. In no instance did he use the covenant name Yahweh (translated “LORD”; see “The Elohistic Psalter” and “YHWH: The Name of God in the Old Testament”).

1:16 The phrase “anyone who has ruled over Jerusalem before me” does not necessarily exclude Solomon as the Teacher. The reference could include kings prior to David, such as Melchizedek (Ge 14:18), Adoni-Zedek (Jos 10:1) and Abdi-Khepa (mentioned in the Amarna Letters from Egypt). See “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs.”

2:4–11 Ancient kings tended to grasp after god-likeness, attempting to burst through the confines of human life and achieve some real “gain.” Biblical examples include Sennacherib (2Ki 18–19; see “The Death of Sennacherib” and “The Sennacherib Prism”) and Nebuchadnezzar (Da 1–4; see “Nebuchadnezzar”). Such individuals had resources at their disposal to make what they saw to be a credible attempt at equivalence with “the gods.”
For a description of Solomon’s splendor and commentary on his many wives, see 1 Kings 10:14–11:3.

2:4–6 Solomon’s gardens and fruit orchards with pools of water for irrigation very likely suggested the imagery of Song of Songs 4:12–15.
There is no Hebrew or Greek equivalent to the word irrigation, although its use for watering plants and trees is frequently implied in the Bible (cf. Isa 58:11). There was less need of irrigation in the region later known as Palestine and in Syria than in Egypt and Babylonia. In Palestine irrigation was necessary only in the summer.

2:6 Among the most famous reservoirs of the region now known as Palestine were the pools of Solomon, 13 miles (22 km) from Jerusalem. Three in number, they were fed by two chief sources: surface water and springs. Cleverly engineered aqueducts carried water from the desired spring to the pools. From these pools the water was conveyed by the same means to the wells under the temple area.
In the summer of 1962 Solomon’s Pools were in the news, when a severe drought made necessary an emergency pipeline from a large new well at Hebron to alleviate Jerusalem’s water shortage. The 18 miles (30 km) of pipe, furnished by the United States Agency for International Development, was laid within days, and the water was pumped into the ancient reservoirs. See Time magazine, August 18, 1962.

2:8 “Provinces” probably refers to the administrative divisions from which provisions were collected (see “Egyptian and Israelite Administration”).
The Hebrew for “harem” occurs only here in Scripture (see the NIV text note). An early Egyptian letter uses a similar Canaanite term for concubines. It fits the situation of Solomon, who had 300 concubines in addition to 700 wives (1Ki 11:3).

2:17 In general, life throughout Bible times was simple, work arduous, hours long and wages minimal. “Then man goes out to his work, to his labor until evening” (Ps 104:23).

2:24–26 In the history of its interpretation this book has been characterized as hedonistic because of the conclusion in verse 24. But this characterization of Ecclesiastes is rendered difficult by the fact that the writer concluded that pleasure does not lead to satisfaction either (v. 1). The book is also understood by some to be fatalistic in its approach to life. This perception is based on 3:16–22, which seems to conclude that a human being is no better off than an animal. This conclusion, however, is true only when people are viewed in and of themselves, apart from God.
Still, a positive view—a theology of contentment—emerges from the book. In view of the lack of substance and meaning in life, the Teacher urged his readers to enjoy life, for it is God who gives us that privilege (2:24–25). This satisfaction does not belong to all of humankind, for the work of the sinner ends in futility (v. 26). See also the note on 12:13–14.

3:20 “The same place” refers not to heaven or hell but to humankind’s observable destination: a return to dust, just like the animals. Death is the great leveler of all living things (see Ge 3:19; Ps 103:14).

6:3 The phrase “not receive proper burial” probably refers to dying unlamented or dishonored, like King Jehoiakim (Jer 22:18–19).

9:7–9 The Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh (see “Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh”) contains a section (10.3.6–14) remarkably similar to this passage, illustrating the international flavor of ancient wisdom literature (see “Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom”).

10:12 “Words” are a common theme in wisdom literature (see, e.g., Pr 15; Jas 3:2–12).

11:1 This verse probably refers to the benefits of sea trade (see “Seafaring in the Ancient World”). The Teacher advocated being adventurous, for those who accept the risks will reap the returns.

11:2 The Teacher encouraged diversification of investments, because an individual can never know in advance which ventures may succeed or fail.

12:5 This verse describes the aging process. The almond tree’s pale blossom possibly suggests the white hair of old age. A grasshopper, which is normally agile, slows its movements on a cold morning (cf. Na 3:17)—a depiction of the stiffness of age. In context, “eternal home” probably points simply to the grave, not beyond it (see Job 10:21 and its note).

12:6 This verse illustrates the fragility of life. The “silver cord” and “golden bowl” picture a hanging lamp suspended by a silver chain. If only one link snaps, its light is extinguished and its beauty perishes.

12:13–14 See the note on 2:24–26. Godly contentment is not the ultimate good for humanity. The Teacher reminds us of a future time when God will bring all things into judgment. This is the ultimate conclusion of his search for meaning in life (cf. Ro 8:20, 22–25). The Teacher urges us to fear God and to obey him. Only when God is taken into account (Ecc 12:1) and his will observed (v. 13) does life impart purpose and satisfaction.

1:1 The Hebrew name for this book, “Song of Songs,” is taken from 1:1 and introduces the book as “the song of songs which is Solomon’s.” This use of the Hebrew superlative declares that the book is the best of the 1,005 songs of Solomon (1Ki 4:32), or perhaps the greatest of all songs. It also provides the basis for the older title of the book in English versions, “Song of Solomon,” as well as for the title in the NIV, “Song of Songs.” But see “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs.”

1:3 Perfumes were made by blending aromatic spices and gums in cosmetic oil (see “Perfumes and Anointing Oils”).
“Maidens” probably refers to young women of the court or of the royal city (see 6:8–9). The Old Testament has two words that English versions translate “virgin” (or, as here, “maiden”). The word bethûlâh is widely supposed to be the Hebrew technical word for an unmarried and therefore virgin girl, while ‘almâh presupposes a young woman of marriageable age and, if the context requires, married. These words are used in the Old Testament as follows: Nine times ‘almâh is found—four singular (Ge 24:43; Ex 2:8; Pr 30:19; Isa 7:14) and five plural (1Ch 15:20; Ps 46 superscript; 68:25; SS 1:3; 6:8). In 1 Chronicles 15 and in the superscript of Psalm 46 the word occurs in a way no longer understood and can therefore tell us nothing of its meaning.

1:5 Although the beloved was “lovely,” she was self-conscious about her dark skin—considered undesirable by privileged women of the time.
The phrase “daughters of Jerusalem” probably refers to the maidens of verse 3 and usually to the “friends” in the sectional headings.
Kedar, a territory in the Arabian Desert where the Bedouin roamed, was known for its flocks; tents and tent curtains were woven by hand from black goat hair. This woman was obviously from a family in which the females were expected to contribute to the work of caring for the livestock. She was compelled to devote herself to the family concerns at the expense of her own body (see v. 6 and its note, below).

1:6 The phrase “my own vineyard” refers to her body, as in 8:12 (see also 2:15). “Vineyard” is an apt metaphor since a vineyard yields wine, and the delights of love are compared with those produced by wine (see v. 2). The beloved is also compared to a garden, yielding precious fruits for the lover (see the note on 4:12).

1:12–13 Myrrh—an aromatic resin secreted in the bark of balsam trees that grow in Arabia, Ethiopia and India—was commonly used as an alluring, feminine perfume (Est 2:12; Pr 7:17). It was also used to perfume royal nuptial robes (Ps 45:8) and as an ingredient in holy anointing oil (Ex 30:23). The Magi brought myrrh to the young Jesus as a gift fit for a king (Mt 2:2, 11).

1:14 “Henna” refers to a shrub of Palestine (perhaps the cypress) with tightly clustered, aromatic blossoms. En Gedi was an oasis watered by a spring, located on the western side of the Dead Sea (see “En Gedi”).

1:15 “Doves” is probably a reference to the shape and cosmetic highlighting of the woman’s eyes (see 4:1).

1:16–17 The wedding of patriarchal times (see also the note on Jdg 14:17) was a festive affair. Often a separate small tent or hut was erected to be used by the bride and groom for the wedding night (2Sa 16:22; Ps 19:4–5; SS 1:16–17). The tent was typically round in shape and was pitched in the early evening by the women. To the accompaniment of considerable merriment, they also made ready a bed for the bridal pair. For the very poor, who could not afford this privacy, a small section of the groom’s parents’ tent was partitioned off for the use of the young couple. At sunset certain female relatives of the groom would enter the tent of the bride’s parents and escort the young bride back to the nuptial chamber, to be joined subsequently by the bridegroom.

2:4 The king’s love for her was displayed for all to see, like a large military banner.

2:5 “Raisins” and “apples” are probably metaphors for love’s caresses and embraces (see v. 3).

2:7 For “daughters of Jerusalem,” see the note on 1:5.

2:9 The gazelle is known for its form and beauty. “Young stag” is an apt simile for youthful vigor (cf. Isa 35:6).

2:15 For “vineyards,” see the note on 1:6. Foxes are mentioned in ancient texts as a nuisance to vintners, since they ate the young grapes (see “Food and Agriculture”).

2:16 The two belonged to each other in an exclusive relationship. Browsing is a metaphor for the lover’s intimate enjoyment of her charms (see 6:2–3).

2:17 The lover is again compared to a gazelle or to a young stag (see the note on v. 9).

3:3 Watchmen were stationed at the city gates (see Ne 11:19) and on the walls (see 2Sa 18:24–27; 2Ki 9:17–20; Isa 62:6). They also patrolled the streets at night (see SS 5:7).

3:6–11 This section is perhaps spoken by the friends (see 8:5). If so, it probably portrays the wedding procession of Solomon and his bride as they approached the city.
Following the example of King Solomon, the bridegroom in a traditional Old Testament Jewish wedding was crowned king of the festival. (For additional wedding traditions, see the notes on 1:16–17 and Jdg 14:12; see also “Weddings in Ancient Israel.”) As a tradition evidently from about the same period (900 B.C.), the bride also submitted to a ceremonial crowning, which in effect made her queen for the duration of the celebration (Eze 16:8–13). There seem to have been some occasions when, upon the arrival at the house of the groom, the men participated in the banquet (Ge 29:22) while the women, including the bride, enjoyed a separate feast at the home of the bride’s parents.

3:6 “Desert” refers to uncultivated seasonal grasslands. The spices used to make the incense were imported (see the note on 4:10, as well as “Incense”).

3:7 The “carriage” was a richly adorned, curtained sedan chair, carried on the shoulders of men by means of poles.

3:9 The “wood from Lebanon” refers to the famous cedars of Lebanon (see “Cedars of Lebanon”).

3:10 The posts supporting the canopy were probably made from cedar overlaid with silver and gold.

3:11 The “daughters of Zion” are elsewhere called “daughters of Jerusalem” (see the note on 1:5). The “crown” refers to a wedding wreath (see Isa 61:10).

4:1 For “doves,” see the note on 1:15. The goats of Canaan were usually black (see the note on 1:5). The beloved’s black tresses flowing from her head evidently reminded the lover of a flock of sleek black goats streaming down the hills of Gilead (noted for its good pasturage). The lover’s hair was also black (5:11).

4:2 Sheep “just shorn” and “coming up from the washing” were clean, white and wet.

4:3 The beloved’s lips were red, perhaps painted like those of Egyptian women. Her temples were round and blushed with red, like a pomegranate.

4:4 The beloved’s long, elegant, ornamented neck was like a tower on the city wall adorned with warriors’ shields (cf. 7:4).

4:5 Fawns represent tender, delicate beauty and promise, rather than full growth (cf. 8:8). For “gazelle,” see the note on 2:9. For a different use of “browse among the lilies,” see 2:16 and its note.

4:8 Lebanon, Amana and Hermon are mountain peaks on the northern horizon. “Senir,” the Amorite name for Mount Hermon, is also found in Assyrian sources. It rises 9,200 feet (2,804 m) and is snowcapped all year round.

4:9 The man called the woman his “sister,” a common term of endearment in the love poetry of the ancient Near East.

4:10 Spices were imported luxury items (see 1Ki 10:2; Eze 27:22) used in the making of anointing oil (Ex 25:6; 30:23–25), incense (Ex 25:6; see “Incense”) and perfume (see “Perfumes and Anointing Oils”).

4:11 People in the ancient Near East associated sweetness with the delights of love.

4:12–15 Solomon’s gardens and fruit orchards with pools of water for irrigation (Ecc 2:4–6) very likely suggested the imagery in these verses.

4:12 “Garden” refers to a place of sensual delights and is an apt metaphor for the beloved’s body (see v. 16; 5:1; 6:2, 11; 8:13; see also the note on 1:6). Being “locked up,” “enclosed” and “sealed” are metaphors for the beloved’s virginity—or perhaps for the fact that she has kept herself exclusively for her husband. Springs and fountains are sources of refreshment, metaphors for the beloved as a sexual partner (see Pr 5:15–20).

4:13 “Your plants” is a reference to all of the beloved’s features that have delighted the lover. “Orchard” comes from the Hebrew pardes (the root of the English “paradise”), a loanword from the Old Persian language meaning “enclosure” or “park.” Elsewhere in Scripture it refers to forests (Ne 2:8) and royal parks (Ecc 2:5). For “henna,” see the note on Song of Songs 1:14. “Nard” is an aromatic oil extracted from the roots of a perennial herb that grows in India.

4:14 Saffron, a plant of the crocus family, bears purple or white flowers, parts of which, when dried, are used as a cooking spice. Calamus (the Hebrew word is translated “cane” in Ex 30:23) refers to an aromatic spice probably imported from India. It was used in the holy anointing oil (Ex 30:23, 25) and in incense (Isa 43:23–24; see “Incense”). Cinnamon was also used in the holy anointing oil (Ex 30:23, 25) and as an alluring fragrance (Pr 7:17). For “myrrh,” see the note on Song of Songs 1:12–13. Aromatic aloes were used to perfume royal nuptial robes (Ps 45:8).

4:15 Fresh, cool, sparkling water flowed from the snowfields on the mountains of Lebanon.

4:16 This verse expresses the beloved’s desire that her fragrance be blown about to draw her lover to her so that they can enjoy love’s intimacies.

5:1 The lover claimed the beloved as his garden and enjoyed all of her delights (see the note on 4:12). For “my sister,” see the note on 4:9.

5:3 There are a number of Hebrew and Greek words that in general mean “to profane, pollute, render unclean.” In the Old Testament defilement was physical (this verse), sexual (Lev 18:20), ethical (Isa 59:3; Eze 37:23), ceremonial (Lev 11:24; 17:15) and religious (Nu 35:33; Jer 3:1). In the New Testament it was exclusively ethical or religious (Mk 7:19; Ac 10:15; Ro 14:20). The teaching of the New Testament does not include the idea of ceremonial defilement, but the culture of that day certainly still held it as important.

5:5 The primitive locks used to fasten city gates consisted simply of heavy beams of wood, the ends of which were dropped into slots cut into the masonry of the gate (Ne 3:3–15; cf Dt 3:5; 1Sa 23:7). To strengthen them, iron bars were used (1Ki 4:13; Isa 45:2). When used to lock house doors (Jdg 3:23–24), they were smaller and the bolts flat. Usually several sliding pins dropped into corresponding holes in the bar, requiring a key to release them. Keys varied in size but were often large enough to be carried on the shoulder (Isa 22:22). To open the door from the outside, the key was inserted through the hole in the door, which might be large enough to admit the hand with it (SS 5:5).

5:10–16 This is one of only a few poems that have come down to us from the ancient world in which the female gives an inventory of the male’s features.

5:12 For “doves,” see the note on 1:15. The lover’s eyes sparkled: Their whites were clear and bright, setting off his irises like sparkling jewels.

5:13 These similes probably compare sensuous effects rather than appearances, as do the following similes and metaphors, at least in part.

5:14 The precise identification of “chrysolite” is uncertain.

5:15 For “cedars,” see the note on 3:9.

5:16 For “daughters of Jerusalem,” see the note on 1:5.

6:2 For “his garden,” see the note on 4:12. “Beds of spices” is a reference to the beloved’s sensuous attractions (cf. 5:13). To “browse” means to enjoy (see the note on 2:16). The lover, enjoying intimacies with the beloved, is compared to a graceful gazelle (see the note on 2:9) nibbling from lily to lily in undisturbed enjoyment of exotic delicacies.

6:4 Tirzah was chosen by Jeroboam I as the first capital of the northern kingdom (see “Tirzah”). Its name, which means “pleasure” or “beauty,” suggests that—like Jerusalem—it was a beautiful city. Comparing the beloved’s beauty to that of a city was not surprising, since cities of the day were regularly depicted as women.

6:8 If Solomon wrote this poem (see “The Authorship of Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs”), this verse may indicate that he did so when he was relatively young—before he had acquired 700 wives and 300 concubines (1Ki 11:3). But if the “lover” was a commoner, he was simply boasting that his bride was more impressive than a royal harem and virgins without number.
See the note on 1:3 for a discussion of the term “virgins” (or “maidens”).

6:9 The woman was not literally an “only daughter” but the one uniquely loved.

6:13 There is some difference of opinion as to the origin of the term Shulammite (Hebrew shûlammîth, meaning “peaceful”). It is not unlikely that this is a feminine form of Solomon. If the word is the same as “Shunammite,” however, as the Septuagint rendering would imply, it could have been derived from the town of Shunem.

7:2 For a discussion of sheaves and threshing, see the note on Ruth 2:7. See also “The Threshing Floor” and “Food and Agriculture.”

7:4 Heshbon, once the royal city of King Sihon (Nu 21:26), was blessed with an abundant supply of spring water. Bath Rabbim (“daughter of many”) may have been a popular name for Heshbon. The “tower of Lebanon” likely refers to the towering Lebanon mountain range.

7:5 Mount Carmel, a high ridge next to the Mediterranean Sea, was known for its beauty and wooded peak and still today is an impressive backdrop to the port of Haifa.

7:7 The “palm” here refers to the stately date palm.

7:13 The mandrake plant, with its pungent blossoms and forked roots resembling the lower part of a human body, was associated with the ability to arouse sexual desire and to increase fertility (cf. Ge 30:9–18).

8:1 The beloved was frustrated by the cultural standard that allowed family members to show public affection but forbade married couples from doing so.

8:2 The Hebrew for “nectar” refers to intoxicating juices.

8:5 In the ancient world sexual union and birth were often associated with fruit trees.

8:6–7 The “grave,” a “blazing fire” and “many waters” characterize marital love as the strongest, most unyielding and invincible force in human experience.

8:6 Seals were precious to their owners, as personal as their names (see the note on Ge 38:17–18; see also “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”).

8:7 The phrase “many waters” suggests not only the ocean depths (see Ps 107:23) but also the primeval waters that the people of the ancient Near East regarded as a permanent threat to the world (see the note on Ps 32:6). The waters were also associated with the realm of the dead.

8:11 The location of Baal Hamon is unknown.

8:12 For “my own vineyard,” see the note on 1:6.

8:13 For “gardens,” see the note on 4:12. “Friends” is male; perhaps they were the companions of the lover (see 1:7).

1:1–5:30 These introductory chapters of Isaiah contain the “great arraignment.” Like so many of Isaiah’s utterances, the section combines dire threatenings with urgent calls to repentance and gracious offers of forgiveness and blessing. This is followed by the promise of world redemption (2:1–5). Then comes a series of threatening passages, including a detailed description of the finery of the women of Jerusalem that serves as an illustration of the sinful frivolity of the people as a whole. The land is likened to an unfruitful vineyard, which will soon become desolate. The section concludes with a series of six woes that end in gloom: “Even the light will be darkened by the clouds” (5:30). For a synopsis of the entire book, see the notes on 6:1–13, 7:1–12:6, 13:1–23:18, 24:1–35:10, 36:1–39:8 and 40:1–66:24. Note that these divisions roughly follow the brief outline of Isaiah found here.

1:1 Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah were kings of Judah who reigned from 792 to 686 B.C. None of the kings of Israel is mentioned, since Isaiah ministered primarily to the southern kingdom of Judah.

1:7–8 The desolation of the land of Judah was the result of the Assyrian invasion (see “The Sennacherib Prism”).

1:8 The terms “shelter” and “hut” both refer to the temporary structures used by watchmen (e.g., Job 27:18) on the lookout for thieves and intruders.
The Hebrew word here translated “melons” may actually refer to cucumbers.

1:9 Sodom and Gomorrah were classic examples of sinful cities that were completely destroyed (see Ge 19; see also “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah”).

1:14 The observance of New Moon festivals, which were celebrated on the first day of every Hebrew month, included special sacrifices and feasts (see Nu 28:11–15). “Appointed feasts” refers to the more significant annual celebrations, such as Passover, Weeks (Pentecost) and Tabernacles (Ex 23:14–17; 34:18–25; Lev 23; Dt 16:1–17). See “The Festivals of Israel.”

1:17 City life had tended to fragment the family, and the size of the houses excavated during this period indicates that by this time the family unit consisted only of father, mother and children. During the kingdom period, as family/clan ties loosened, the absolute authority and responsibility of the father was transferred to the king. By the eighth century B.C. the individual, instead of working primarily for the good of the larger group, labored for his immediate family and for the ultimate benefit of the king or nation. Not surprisingly, as the focus of the family unit sharpened, the sense of communal responsibility lessened, and Biblical reminders concerning obligations toward widows and orphans, who had little power and were particularly vulnerable to oppression, became more frequent (cf. Jer 7:6; 22:3; see also “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

1:25 The process of removing dross from silver is a picture of purification.

1:29 A widely held notion throughout the ancient Near East was that oak trees were sacred. It was typical for both pagan sacrifices and sexual immorality to occur beneath oak trees and in garden settings (see 65:3; 66:17).

2:1–4 For similarity between this passage and Micah 4:1–8, see the note on this section of Micah.

2:2–3 See “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God.”

2:4 The object described here as a plowshare was in reality an iron point mounted on a wooden beam (ancient plows did not include what we know as a plowshare).
The pruning hook, an agricultural tool used in the cultivation of the vine, had a sharp, knifelike end for pruning (see also Joel 3:10; Mic 4:3).

2:6 “East” probably signifies Aram (Syria) and Mesopotamia. (see “Syria/Aram.”)

2:10 When faced with relentless oppression, the beleaguered Israelites were known to find shelter in caves and holes in the ground (see Jdg 6:1–2; 1Sa 13:6).

2:13 Lebanon was famous for its luxuriant stands of cedar trees (see “Cedars of Lebanon”).
“Bashan,” a region east of the Jordan River and north of Gilead, was known for its oaks (Eze 27:6) and animals (Eze 39:18).

2:16 “Trading ship” refers to one of the ships of Tarshish (see the NIV text note)—large, maritime vessels used by Solomon (1Ki 10:22) and the Phoenicians (Isa 23:1, 14) to ply the seas in ambitious commercial ventures to remote locations (see “Seafaring in the Ancient World”). For the location of Tarshish, see “Where Was Tarshish?.”

3:2–3 The terms “soothsayer” (v. 2) and “enchanter” (v. 3) refer to occult practitioners and snake charmers, whose activities were condemned (see Dt 18:10; see also “Akkadian Divination”).

3:3 Fifty was a common number for either a military unit (see 2Ki 1:9) or a civil grouping (Ex 18:25).

3:9 For “Sodom,” see the note on 1:9.

3:12 It was atypical, and generally frowned upon, in the ancient Near East for young men—or women of any age—to hold leadership positions.

3:15 In this graphic image, much as women would grind grain between two millstones (see the note on Jdg 9:53), Israel’s leaders were systematically grinding the poor.

3:16 Ankle ornaments prohibited long, striding steps (see “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry”).

3:17 Baldness, an unnatural condition for most Israelite males, was commonly associated with mourning over some disaster. See “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”

3:18–23 In this interesting inventory of 21 items of feminine adornment, the word for “bracelets” could be rendered “twisted chains.” Bracelets and other showy adornments (necklaces, anklets, nose rings, armlets, etc.) were much admired in ancient days. See “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry.”

3:18 For information on crescent necklaces, see the note on Judges 8:21.

3:20 “Headdresses” may have been turbans (see Eze 24:17, 23).
Anklets, consisting of metal or glass spangles, were sometimes linked together by ankle chains.
Isaiah spoke of the women of his day wearing charms. The Hebrew word, lâhash, is used in Ecclesiastes 10:11 and Jeremiah 8:17 specifically of snake-charming (cf. the related verb in Ps 58:4–5). At root it means “a whisper.” Isaiah saw the existence of those “instructed in whispering” (i.e., holding whispered communication with the dead or with spirits or making whispered communication purporting to come from “the other side”) as evidence that society was about to collapse. The same word also refers to objects, such as personal ornaments, into which some magic charm has been whispered, supposed therefore to afford protection or some other “lucky” benefit to the wearer. Archaeology has revealed such practices all over the ancient world. The same Hebrew word is used in Isaiah 26:16 without any overtones of superstition or magic to mean “whisper a prayer.”

3:21 A signet ring, which carried the wearer’s seal, signified authority (see “Signet Rings”), whereas nose rings, cast of gold, were often part of the apparel of Israelite brides (but see the paragraph below; see also Ge 24:22, 53 and “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry”).
The ancient Hebrews had no specific word for earrings; these jewels were just rings or hoops, ordinarily made of gold (although sometimes the metal is not specified). They were worn by both men and women, either on the nose or on the ears: a nose ring in some passages (Ge 24:47; Isa 3:21; Eze 16:12) and an earring in others (Ge 35:4; Ex 32:2–3; Eze 16:12). In the rest of the passages where such rings or hoops are mentioned, they may be either nose rings or earrings (Ex 35:22; Nu 31:50; Jdg 8:24–26; Job 42:11; Pr 11:22; 25:12; Hos 2:13). When worn as earrings the ring was passed, as it is today, through a hole pierced in the ear lobe. It is probable that pendants were suspended from them.

3:24 Captives were often led away by ropes and were sometimes branded. A shaved head was viewed as a sign of disgrace, devastation or intense mourning.

4:1 War decimated the male population, leaving many women with the double disgrace of being both widowed and childless.

5:1–7 The common grapevine is mentioned throughout Scripture, often in a figurative sense. Grapes were grown in ancient Egypt and in Canaan prior to the time of Abraham (Ge 14:18; Nu 13:20, 24). The mountain regions of Judea and Samaria, largely unsuited for grain, were well adapted for vine growing. A vineyard was usually surrounded with a protecting wall of stones or thorny hedges to keep out destructive animals (Nu 22:24; Ps 80:8–13; Pr 24:30–31; Isa 5:5). In every vineyard was a tower for the watchman, a winepress hollowed out of a flat rock and a vat into which the juice flowed from the winepress (1:8; 5:1–7; Mt 21:33–41). The vine branches were usually allowed to lie along the ground or to fall over the terraces, but sometimes they were raised above the ground with sticks or supported on poles to form a bower.
Tending a vineyard required preparation and constant care. The first year was dedicated to clearing the land of its foliage and abundant rocks. The second year the farmer purchased and carefully planted the finest vines he could afford, then piled up the cleared rocks into fences and watchtowers (see above) to keep out intruders. Finally, in the third year, the fruit of all that labor was ready for harvesting.
Vines were pruned every spring, and the ground was plowed and kept free of weeds. Pruned branches were gathered and burned (Jn 15:6). During the harvest season watchmen were stationed in the towers, and sometimes the whole family of the owner took up residence in booths as a protection against thieves. The harvest season was invariably one of special happiness. The treaders of the winepress shouted and sang as they trod the grapes (Jdg 9:27; Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; 48:33). The gleanings were left to the poor (Lev 19:10; Dt 24:21; Jdg 8:2), and the wine was stored in new goatskin bags (Mt 9:17) or in large pottery containers. Every seventh year the vines were to be allowed to lie fallow (Ex 23:11; Lev 25:3)—although it is not clear that the Israelites were at all consistent at keeping this command.
See also “Food and Agriculture” and “The Winepress.”

5:6 In a region so dependent upon rain for agricultural success and ultimate survival, its absence was viewed as a curse upon the land (see Dt 28:23–24; 2Sa 1:21; 1Ki 17:1).

5:10 In this verse, as well as in 1 Samuel 14:14, the area referred to by the English term “acre” is actually the average amount of ground a yoke of oxen could plow in a day. The actual area is unknown, and the translation “acre” is merely conventional.
An ephah was a tenth of a homer (see Eze 45:11). The scanty amount of wine and grain here specified amounted to the smallest fraction of what a “ten-acre vineyard” and a “homer of seed” would ordinarily have been expected to produce.

5:12 See “Ancient Musical Instruments.”

5:14 For information on the “grave” and its insatiable appetite, see the notes on Job 18:13–14, Psalm 6:5, 49:14; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”

5:22 The quality of the beer and wine was enhanced by the addition of spices (see “Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World”).

5:24 The word chaff (“dry grass” in this v. in the NIV) generally refers to the refuse of the grain that has been threshed and winnowed. This is partly dust and dirt, but the real chaff is the hard and inedible coating of the grain. By threshing, most of this is separated; then on a windy day the grain is tossed into the air and the chaff and the shorter pieces of grain are blown away. In this verse and in 33:11, the Hebrew word properly means “dry hay” fit for burning. The more common Hebrew word is generally used as a figure for worthless or godless men (e.g., Ps 1:4) or nations (Isa 17:13). The brevity of the human existence of the wicked is likened in Hosea 13:3 to the morning mist, the early dew, “chaff swirling from a threshing floor” and “smoke escaping through a window.” In Daniel 2:35 the Aramaic word rendered “chaff” signifies the small irritants that can get into the eye. The word in Jeremiah 23:28 refers to broken straw. In Matthew 3:12 and Luke 3:17 John the Baptist proclaimed God’s intention to destroy the wicked (burning “up the chaff with unquenchable fire”).

5:26 A banner attached to a pole was often erected on a hilltop as a signal for gathering troops (13:2). In Isaiah it was a symbol for summoning the nations and bringing Israel back home (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10).

6:1–13 Whether this chapter, dealing with the temple vision, represents the initial call of Isaiah has been much debated. The “Holy One of Israel” was to become one of Isaiah’s favorite titles for the deity in whose name he spoke.

6:1 Uzziah, who was also known as Azariah (2Ki 14:21; 2Ch 26:1) and reigned from 792 to 740 B.C., was a godly and powerful king. When he burned incense without authorization in the temple, however, he was struck with “leprosy,” a condition from which he suffered until his death (see 2Ch 26:16–21 and the NIV text note on 2Ch 26:19). See “Uzziah, King of Judah, and Jeroboam II, King of Israel.”
See “Thrones in the Ancient World.”

6:6 On the annual Day of Atonement coals of fire were conveyed by the high priest into the Most Holy Place (Lev 16:12), where sacrifice was made to atone for his own sin and that of the people. See “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East” and “The Day of Atonement.”

7:1–12:6 This group of chapters, the Book of Immanuel, belongs to the period of the Syro-Ephraimite War (2Ki 16:1–20; 1Ch 28). In the midst of this time of peril, Isaiah uttered his great prophecies regarding Immanuel (Isa 7:14–16; 9:6–7; 11:1–10), concluding with a song of triumphant faith that ends with the assurance, “Great is the Holy One of Israel among you” (12:6). Here again, woe (10:1–4) and threats (10:5–19) stand in vivid contrast to Messianic blessings (11:1–16).

7:1 The invasion of Rezin and Pekah (the Syro-Ephraimite War) probably took place in 735/734 B.C. Aram (Syria) and Israel (Ephraim) were attempting to convince Ahaz to join them in a coalition against Assyria, while Isaiah was exerting pressure on Ahaz from the other side to prevent him from entering into a counter-alliance with Assyria (see 2Ki 16:5–18; 2Ch 28:16–21). See “The Syro-Ephraimite War”, “Syria/Aram”, “Ahaz, King of Judah, and Rezin, King of Aram” and “Menahem and Pekah of Israel, Jotham of Judah and Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria.”

7:2 “Ephraim” is synonymous with Israel, the northern kingdom.

7:3 The process of laundering clothes in Isaiah’s day involved trampling on them in cold water. A soap (soda) or bleach was used as a cleaning agent.

7:4 Damascus, the capital of Aram (see v. 8), was demolished by Tiglath-Pileser III in 732 B.C.—the same year that Israel was thoroughly defeated (see “Damascus”).

7:6 “Tabeel,” an Aramaic name, may be associated with the “land of Tob” east of the Jordan River.

7:8 Beginning in about 670 B.C., Esarhaddon and later Ashurbanipal, both kings of Assyria, settled dispossessed foreign captives from other areas into Israel. The “Samaritan” race resulted from intermarriage between these newcomers and the few remaining Israelites who had not been included in the exile (see the note on 2Ki 17:24–41; see also “The Samaritans”). Israel never again existed as a separate nation, although the returnees following Judah’s later deportation included many descendants of Israelite exiles as well.

7:9 Pekah, a usurper, hardly merited attention in a challenge against Ahaz, a “son” (descendant) of David. See “Menahem and Pekah of Israel, Jotham of Judah and Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria.”

7:15 The phrase “when he knows … wrong … right” suggests the age of twelve or thirteen years, the time of moral determination and responsibility under the law. Thus, “when” this young boy was twelve or thirteen years of age (722/721 B.C.), he would be eating curds (a kind of yogurt) and honey instead of agricultural products—due to the devastation of Israel by Assyria. Some believe that this expression involved a shorter period of time, identical to that in verse 16 and in 8:4.

7:16 Both Aram and Israel would be plundered before this lad had reached adolescence. As events transpired, this actually happened when he was only about two years old, in 732 B.C.

7:20 For an Israelite male to be shaved, particularly against his will, was considered the height of insult (see 2Sa 10:4 and its note; see also “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World”). “Hair of your legs” is a euphemistic reference for pubic hair.

7:21–22 See “Food and Agriculture.”

8:2 Uriah the priest served during the time of King Ahaz (see 2Ki 16:10–11).

8:3 See the note on prophetesses at Exodus 15:20–21.
Isaiah’s own name (“Salvation of Yahweh”) is almost identical in meaning with Joshua (“Yahweh is Salvation”), which appears in the New Testament as Jesus, the name of the Messiah whom Isaiah heralded. That the prophet’s name played a formative role in his life is not improbable, since it expresses the great theme of his prophetic ministry. His father, Amoz, may have been a person of prominence, since the prophet is in 13 different instances called “the son of Amoz,” but nothing is known about him. Isaiah was married and had two children, to each of whom he gave a significant name (Isa 7:3; 8:3).

8:4 At about the age of two the boy would have been able to pronounce the simple phrases “my father” or “my mother.” The time period here matches that in 7:16. The destruction of the northern kingdom was prefaced by this carrying off of plunder, although Samaria’s complete annihilation did not occur until 722/721 B.C.

8:6 Shiloah may refer to the water flowing from the Gihon spring (see 2Ch 32:30) to the Pool of Siloam (see Jn 9:7; see also “The Pool of Siloam”).

8:7 The image of mighty floodwaters was often employed in antiquity to symbolize a powerful, invading army.

8:8 See 30:28 and its note. Of all the cities in Judah, only Jerusalem, the “head” of the southern kingdom, was spared in Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 B.C.

8:14 Israel and Judah, the northern and southern kingdoms, respectively, were intended by the term “both houses.”

8:19 For “mediums and spiritists,” see “Akkadian Divination.” Desperate for answers about an uncertain future, people were attempting to contact the spirits of the dead, as Saul had done when he had succeeded through a medium, the Witch of Endor, in calling up the spirit of Samuel (1Sa 28:8–11; see “Ancient Necromancy”).

9:4 The “day of Midian’s defeat” refers to Gideon’s victory over the hordes of Midian, who had dominated Israel (Jdg 7:22–25).

9:5 In ancient times wood, charcoal and various kinds of thorn bushes, dried grass and the dung of camels and cattle were used as fuel. There is no evidence that coal was used by the Hebrews as fuel; their houses had no chimneys (9:5, 19; Eze 4:12; 15:4, 6; 21:32).

9:9 For “Ephraim,” see the note on 7:2.

9:10 Simple, sun-dried clay bricks tended to crack and deteriorate. Accordingly, God had instructed the Israelites to construct their altars from undressed (uncut) stones (see Ex 20:25; see also “Ancient Altars”).
The costliest wood in the ancient Near East came from the cedars of Lebanon (see 1Ki 7:2–3; see also “Cedars of Lebanon”).

9:14 Both contrasting sets—“head and tail” and “palm branch and reed”—here refer to Israel’s leaders, although the same two pairings refer in 19:15 to the Egyptian rulers.

9:17 Even the orphans and widows, who frequently suffered oppression and were typically presented in the Prophets as innocent victims (see the note on 1:17), are here depicted as depraved and evil.

9:19 See the note on verse 5 regarding fuel.

9:21 Manasseh and Ephraim, the northern kingdom’s most prominent tribes, were descended not directly from Judah but from Joseph’s two sons (see Ge 46:20; 48:5 and its note). Centuries earlier Judah and Ephraim had vied with one another (Jdg 12:4).

10:2 See the notes on 1:17 and 9:17.

10:9 Calno (“Calneh” in Am 6:2) was a region in northern Aram (Syria); Carchemish a great fortress on the Euphrates River northeast of Calno; Hamath a city on the Orontes River that marked the northern extent of Solomon’s rule (2Ch 8:4); and Arpad a city near Hamath and just north of Calno.

10:12–19 Wise men, unlike prophets, claimed no special inspiration. They exercised no priestly functions and were not, like the scribes, devoted exclusively to the study of the sacred writings. Eventually wise men and scribes coalesced into one class. With worsening political conditions and a deepening sense of moral problems during the period of the prophets and later kings, people came to despise worldly wisdom as irreligious and as characteristic of pagans, who might be superior in secular culture but who were inferior from a moral and religious point of view.

10:16 The angel may have employed a particularly virulent and contagious plague in putting to death 185,000 of Sennacherib’s soldiers in 701 B.C. (see the note on 37:36; cf. 2Sa 24:15–16; 1Ch 21:22,27).

10:18–19 “Forests” here depict the Assyrian army. This prophecy was most likely fulfilled between 612 B.C. (Nineveh’s fall) and 605 (the battle of Carchemish).

10:20–21 A faithful remnant led by Hezekiah survived the Assyrian invasion of 701 B.C. (see 37:4). Later, a vestige (small group of people) returned from Babylonian exile.

10:26–27 These verses predict that God would destroy the Assyrian army and break Assyria’s oppressive yoke. This prophecy was fulfilled in 701 B.C.

10:26 Oreb was a Midianite leader (Jdg 7:25).

10:28 For “Micmash,” see “The Pass at Micmash.”

10:29–30 Ramah, about 5 miles (8 km) north of Jerusalem, was the hometown of Samuel; Gibeah, about 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Jerusalem, was Saul’s capital (see “Gibeah”); Gallim, about 4 miles (6.4 km) north of Jerusalem, was a Benjamite town associated with Saul (see 1Sa 25:44); and Anathoth, about 2.5 miles (4 km) northeast of Jerusalem, was the hometown of Jeremiah (Jer 1:1).

10:32 Nob may have been associated with Mount Scopus, which rose near the outskirts of Jerusalem. “Daughter of Zion” embodied Jerusalem itself.

10:34 The reference to Lebanon is shorthand for its renowned cedar forests (see “Cedars of Lebanon”).

11:5 Not wanting to be encumbered by his flowing garments, a man anticipating vigorous action would have tied them up with a belt (see 5:27).

11:10 For “banner,” see the note on 5:26.

11:11 “Lower Egypt” was actually the northern delta region of the Nile, while “Upper Egypt” was the southern part of the country, upstream from the delta. Elam lay northeast of the lower Tigris Valley, and Hamath, on the Orontes River, marked the northern boundary of Solomon’s territory (2Ch 8:4). The “islands of the sea” were most likely the Mediterranean coastlands and islands.

11:13 See the note on 7:2 for a discussion of “Ephraim.” Prior to the exile Ephraim and Judah were frequently in conflict (see 9:21 and its note).

11:14 The “people to the east” probably included, among others, the Midianites, who had frequently raided and pillaged Israel (see 9:4; see also “Midian”). After the exodus Israel had refrained from attacking Edom, Moab and Ammon (see Jdg 11:14–18; see also “Edom”, “Moab” and “Ammon”).

11:16 Isaiah 57:14 and 62:10 also describe the removal of obstacles and the construction of a highway to Jerusalem (cf. 35:8–10; 40:3–4 and the note on 40:3).

13:1–23:18 These prophecies against the nations are composed of ten “oracles” (weighty, solemn and grievous utterances; see Jer 23:33 and the NIV text note there) against nations that either were or would be a menace to God’s people: Babylon (Isa 13:1–14:27), Philistia (14:28–32), Moab (15:1–16:14), Damascus (17:1–18:7, Egypt (19:1–20:6), Babylon a second time (21:1–10), Dumah (21:11–12), Arabia (21:13–17), Jerusalem (22:1–25) and Tyre (23:1–18). Here prophecies regarding the near future (16:14; 21:16; cf. 22:20 with 37:2) appear along with others that refer to a more distant (23:17) or quite remote time. The fall of Babylon was so certain that Israel was apprised of the taunt that would be sung on the day of that city’s fall. Compare 21:6–20, which describes this event as having already taken place, with 39:6, which speaks of the Babylonian captivity as still future—a method of prophetic description frequently employed in Isaiah. This group of prophecies was chiefly threatening, but it also contains wonderful promises of blessing. Israel’s mightiest foes would share with her in this future blessedness (19:23–25).

13:1 The Hebrew for “oracle” is related to a Hebrew verb meaning “to lift up, carry.” The term may, therefore, include a nuance of meaning related to lifting up one’s voice or carrying a burden. Such an oracle often contained a message of doom (see “Oracles of the Ancient World”).
The judgment on Babylon is mentioned first because of the present Assyrian threat and because Babylon would later bring about the downfall of Judah and Jerusalem (between 605 and 586 B.C.).

13:2 For “banner,” see the note on 5:26.

13:3 See “Herem, Holy War.”

13:10 For a discussion of solar and lunar eclipses, see the note on Joel 2:31.

13:12 Solomon imported significant quantities of gold from Ophir (see 1Ki 9:28; 10:11; see also the note on Ps 45:9).

13:16 The wholesale slaughter of infants and children by invading armies appears to us as senseless violence. But the motivation was actually far-thinking; the enemy would be unable to produce a future generation of warriors or to revive its vigor as a city (or country or people). Women also suffered excruciatingly in wartime, so much so that war widows were often reduced to prostitution in order to survive.

13:17 The Medes resided in the northwestern portion of modern Iran. The eighth century B.C. did see conflict between Assyria and Media, but some scholars relate the fulfillment of this verse to the period when the Medes allied themselves with the Babylonians in defeating Assyria in 612–609 B.C.—only to join forces later with Cyrus to conquer Babylon in 539.

13:21 In both Leviticus 17:7 and 2 Chronicles 11:15 “wild goats” are associated with demons (“goat idols”), and in Revelation 18:2 fallen Babylon is described as a home for demons and evil spirits. (see “Goat-Demons and Desert Satyrs.”)

14:5 For “scepter,” see the note on Zechariah 10:11.

14:8 The timbers of the highly prized cedars of Lebanon were hauled away for centuries, often as tribute payment, by the kings of Assyria and Babylon (see “Cedars of Lebanon”).

14:9 A little known fact of ancient shepherding is that a goat would often lead a flock of sheep (see Jer 50:8). The word here translated “leaders” is literally “goats”—synonymous with shepherds in Zechariah 10:3. These leaders are spoken of as rising from their thrones because conditions among the dead were described by the ancients in terms of their respective roles while on Earth. (For the ancient Near Eastern view of the afterlife, see the note on Ps 6:5 and “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”)

14:11 Music is treated here as a mark of luxury and pleasure (see Am 6:5–6; see also “Ancient Musical Instruments”).

14:13 The “sacred mountain,” Mount Zaphon (also called Mount Casius), rose about 25 miles (40 km) northeast of Ugarit in Syria (see “Ugarit/Ras Shamra”). Much like Mount Olympus for the Greeks (see Ps 48:2), the Canaanites considered this “holy” mountain to be the dwelling and meeting place of the gods. (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God.”)

14:17 Babylon followed the Assyrian practice of deporting large segments of defeated populations. The logic was that this preventative measure would subdue any latent rebelliousness among these populations and ensure their continued subservience (see 2Ki 24:14–16; see also the notes on 2Ki 17:24–41; 24:10–12 and “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East”).

14:19 A proper burial was of critical importance to the ancients. The discarding of an individual’s body was considered a dreadful and humiliating fate.

14:20–22 A man’s offspring—not simply his tombstone—were considered to be his memorial (cf. 2Sa 18:18). Babylon’s king would have neither (cf. 47:9).

14:23 Southern Babylonia, where the Chaldeans had once resided, was a territory of marshlands.

14:24 The lack of an introductory “oracle” formula here (cf. 13:1; 14:28; 15:1) clues us that this was not a separate oracle against Assyria but a conclusion to the “Babylon” oracle (see 13:1–14:27). Assyria likely represented all of the Mesopotamian powers included in the term “Babylon.”

14:28 See the note on 13:1 for a discussion of “oracle.”
King Ahaz likely died in 715 B.C., apparently on the occasion of the Philistine revolt against Assyria, while Sargon (see 20:1) was too preoccupied elsewhere to devote much attention to Canaan.

14:29 See “The Archaeology of Philistia.” Philistine territory, which lay along the primary route from Egypt to Mesopotamia, was particularly vulnerable to attack by the great empires (Egypt and Assyria).
“The rod” most likely represented Sargon of Assyria (see “The Annals of Sargon II”). If this was the intention, the reference was to the threats to his empire by a series of revolts in Babylonia and Asia Minor.
The combination of the terms “root” and “fruit” exemplifies a figure of speech referring to the whole (tree) by mentioning its opposite extremes. Sargon would be followed by his later Assyrian counterparts, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal.

15:1–16:13 Although several of the sites mentioned in chapter 15 are uncertain, many of them are also listed on the Mesha (Moabite) Stone (see “The Mesha [Moabite] Stone”). There seems to be a north-to-south progression in this listing, which would have been characteristic of the flight of the Moabites southward before a marauding army heading south along the King’s Highway. The Ravine of the Poplars (15:7) was probably at Moab’s southern border with Edom. It would have been natural for the fugitives to seek refuge in Edom, but that was not the case. Instead, they begged permission for asylum in Judah (16:1–4a).

15:1 The location of Ar is unknown. “Kir,” which means “city,” probably refers to Kir Hareseth, the capital city of Moab, usually identified with modern-day Kerak, located about 11 miles (18 km) east of the Dead Sea and 15 miles (24 km) south of the Arnon River.

15:2 Dibon, located 4 miles (6.5 km) north of the Arnon River, had been given to the tribe of Gad (see Nu 32:34).
Nebo, north of the Arnon River, may have been in the vicinity of Mount Nebo (Dt 34:1). Medeba, about 6 miles (9.7 km) south of Heshbon (see v. 4), was at one point captured by Israel from Sihon (see Nu 21:26, 30).
For a discussion of the phrase “every head is shaved,” see the note on Isaiah 3:24.

15:3 Sackcloth was the coarse garb of mourners (see the notes on 1Ki 20:31–32 and Job 16:15, as well as “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
Incense to pagan deities was often burned on rooftops (see Jer 19:13 and its note; see also “Incense”).

15:4 Heshbon, situated approximately 18 miles (29 km) east of the northern tip of the Dead Sea, was King Sihon’s capital before Israel captured the city (see Nu 21:23–26). Elealeh, about a mile (1.6 km) north of Heshbon, is always mentioned in the Bible in conjunction with it. Jahaz, just north of the Arnon River, lay about 20 miles (32 km) from Heshbon (Nu 21:23; Jer 48:34).

15:5 Zoar was probably located near the southern end of the Dead Sea. Lot fled there from Sodom (see Ge 14:2; 19:23, 30).

15:6 The “waters of Nimrim” may be a reference to the Wadi en-Numeirah, 10 miles (16 km) from the southern edge of the Dead Sea (cf. Jer 48:34).

15:7 The “Ravine of the Poplars” was probably at the border between Moab and Edom (see the note on 15:1–16:13).

15:8 Eglaim may have been in the vicinity of Moab’s northern border, while Beer Elim (“Beer” means “well”) may have been close to its southern boundary.

16:1 Sela (“cliff”) was the naturally fortified capital of the Edomites south of the Dead Sea, situated on a rocky plateau that towers 1,000 feet (305 m) above nearby Petra.
“Daughter of Zion” is a personification of Jerusalem.

16:2 The Arnon, flowing west into the midpoint of the Dead Sea, served as the border between Moab and the region of the Amorites. The women were fleeing south, away from the northern invader.

16:8 For “Heshbon,” see the note on 15:4. Sibmah lay about 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Heshbon, while Jazer was possibly situated about 15 miles (24 km) north of the Dead Sea. The “desert” refers to the eastern edge of Moab, and the “sea” may be the Dead Sea.

16:10 See “The Winepress.”

16:12 See “The High Places.”

17:1 See the note on 13:1 for a discussion of “oracle.”
Damascus (see “Damascus”), the capital of Aram (Syria), was situated northeast of Mount Hermon at the junction of strategic trade routes joining Mesopotamia, Egypt and Arabia. Since the days of the Davidic kingdom, Israel and Aram had been engaged in regular conflict (see 2Sa 8:5; 1Ki 22:31).

17:2 Aroer, which lay approximately 14 miles (22.5 km) east of the Dead Sea along the banks of the Arnon River, marked the southern boundary of Aram’s sphere of control (see 2Ki 10:32–33).

17:3 Ephraim, the northern kingdom (see the note on 7:2), is mentioned here because of its alliance with Damascus, the capital of Aram (modern Syria), against Assyria (see the note on 7:1). Aram, northeast of the Sea of Galilee (see “Syria/Aram”) is here represented by its capital city, Damascus (see “Damascus”), and by Aroer (v. 2), east of the Dead Sea at the farthest southern point of Aram’s control. In 732 B.C. Tiglath-Pileser III captured Damascus and made it an Assyrian province. Like Israel, Aram would be reduced to a remnant.

17:5 The Valley of Rephaim, a fertile area west and southwest of Jerusalem (Jos 15:8), was frequently the site of Philistine raids (1Ch 14:9).

17:8 The word “altars” probably refers here to altars to Baal (cf. 1Ki 16:32). Incense altars were associated with high places (see Lev 26:30; see also “The High Places”) and with altars for Baal (2Ch 34:4).
Asherah poles were sacred trees or wooden poles dedicated to the worship of the fertility goddess Asherah, the “consort” (partner or companion) of El, the chief Canaanite god. Recent archaeological discoveries confirm that some Israelites worshiped Asherah as the Lord’s consort. (see “Devotion to Asherah in the Khirbet El-Qom Inscription” and “The Kuntillet Ajrûd Inscriptions: The Lord’s Asherah?.”)

17:13 Chaff and tumbleweed were representative of the enemy (29:5; 41:15–16; cf. Ps 83:13). For further commentary on “chaff” (“dry grass” at this v. in the NIV), see the note on 5:24.

18:1 Cush (see “Cush”) or Nubia, located south of Egypt, was also known as Ethiopia (not to be confused with modern Ethiopia, farther to the south). In about 740 B.C. (Isaiah’s day), the Cushite (Sudanese) Piankhy took over Egypt. He and his successor, Shabako, instilled new energy into Egyptian affairs. Most likely both attempted to cement alliances with various surrounding countries in order to counter the Assyrian threat.

18:2 “Sea” may here be a reference to Egypt’s Nile River (cf. 19:5; Na 3:8, where the same Hebrew word is translated “river”). The plural “rivers” (later in the verse) in this context refers to the Nile and its tributaries.
Boats or rafts constructed of bound bundles of papyrus are sometimes pictured in Egyptian murals.
The “tall and smooth-skinned” people were most likely the Cushites and the Egyptians. Unlike the Semites (including the Israelites), these men were clean-shaven (see Ge 41:14 and its note).

18:3 See the note on 5:26 for a discussion of “banner.”
Trumpets in the ancient Near East were often used to summon troops.

18:6 See “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel.”

18:7 Second Chronicles 32:23 reports that gifts were brought to Hezekiah after Sennacherib’s death (see “The Death of Sennacherib”). In Isaiah 16:1 the Moabites were asked to send tribute to Mount Zion (cf. 45:14; Zep 3:10).

19:1 See the note on 13:1 for a discussion of “oracle.”

19:2 The Libyans clashed with the “Ethiopians” (the Cushites; see the note on 18:1), as well as with the Saites of the Egyptian Twenty-fourth Dynasty.

19:3 For “mediums” and “spiritists,” see “Akkadian Divination.”

19:4 The “cruel master” may be identified with Assyria’s king (see 20:4). In 670 B.C. Esarhaddon subjugated Egypt.

19:5–10 The Nile was the lifeline of Egypt; its annual flooding provided essential water and produced the only fertile soil there.

19:6 Canals were used for irrigation.

19:7 Egypt’s harvest was generally so abundant that some of the produce was available for export.

19:8 Fish, too, were typically in plentiful supply in the well-watered Egypt.

19:9 The processing of flax required large amounts of water—a resource readily available in lush Egypt, which was renowned as an exporter of fine linen.

19:11 Zoan (possibly synonymous with Tanis), a city in the northeastern Nile delta region familiar to the Israelites from their centuries of residency in Egypt (see Nu 13:22; Ps 78:12, 43), was the northern capital of the Egyptian Twenty-fifth Dynasty (see the note on 18:1).
Egypt was celebrated both for its “wise men” and for its profuse wisdom literature (see “Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom”).

19:13 See the note on verse 11 for commentary on “Zoan.” Memphis, too, was an important Egyptian city. Located 15 miles (24 km) south of the Nile delta, it had enjoyed the distinction of being Egypt’s capital during the Old Kingdom period (c. 2686–2160 B.C.).

19:15 See the note on 9:14 for a discussion of the paired phrases, such as “head or tail” and “palm branch or reed.”

19:18 “Speak the language of Canaan” may either refer symbolically to Egypt’s allegiance to Israel’s God (see vv. 21–22, 25) or be a literal reference to Jews residing in Egypt. After Jerusalem’s fall in 586 B.C., many Judahites had in fact taken refuge there (see Jer 44:1).
“City of Destruction” most likely refers to Heliopolis, the city of the Egyptian sun god, which was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (see Jer 43:13). A wordplay missed by the English reader involves the fact that “destruction” and “sun” are nearly identical in Hebrew.

19:19 Some scholars relate “altar” to the temple built in Egypt by the Jewish high priest Onias IV, who fled to Egypt during the second century B.C. But more appears to have been at stake. Indeed, the reference appears to be to a conversion to the Lord of a significant number of Egyptians.

19:23 With regard to “highway,” compare the references to the highway to Jerusalem in 11:16 and 35:8–10 (see also the notes on 11:16; 40:3). The Egyptians and Assyrians had been at loggerheads for years (see 20:4), but in the future they would be linked in a bond of fellowship sealed by their common allegiance to Israel’s Lord (cf. 25:3).

20:1 “The year” was most likely 712 B.C., about halfway through the reign of Sargon II (721 to 705 B.C.; see “The Annals of Sargon II”).
Ashdod, one of five major Philistine cities (see “The Archaeology of Philistia”), was situated near the Mediterranean Sea, approximately 18 miles (29 km) northeast of Gaza. It had rebelled against Assyria in 713 B.C. under the Philistine King Azuri. Three fragments of an Assyrian monument commemorating Sargon’s victory were discovered in 1963 at Ashdod.

20:2 For a discussion of “sackcloth,” see the notes on Job 16:15 and Isaiah 15:3; see also “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.” The Hebrew word here translated “stripped” could connote either full or partial nudity, such as wearing only a loincloth.

20:3 For “Cush,” see the note on 18:1.

21:1 For “oracle,” see the note on 13:1.
Isaiah 21:9 makes clear that the subject of this message—“the Desert by the Sea” (v. 1)—was Babylon. The mention of Media (v. 2) suggests that the destruction in view was the conquest by the Medes and Persians in 539 B.C., because prior to that time the Medes had been allies of Babylon. Yet the general time frame of chapters 13–23 seems to relate to events closer to Isaiah’s time (i.e., Babylon’s fall to the Assyrians in 689 B.C.). Isaiah may have been telescoping together more than one destruction in order to argue against the folly of trusting in Babylon.

21:2 The country of Elam lay to the northeast of the lower Tigris Valley. The Elamites, avowed enemies of both Assyria and Babylon, were much later on allied with the Persian army that conquered Babylon under Cyrus in 539 B.C.

21:6 “Go, post a lookout” was likely a command to station a watchman on Jerusalem’s wall (see the note on SS 3:3).

21:9 Babylon fell twice—in 689 B.C. and again in 539 B.C. The stirring cry “Babylon has fallen” was adapted by the apostle John in Revelation 14:8 and 18:2. The defeat of a kingdom implied the disgrace of its deities.

21:10 Threshing was a common Old Testament metaphor signifying judgment or destruction in battle. (see “The Threshing Floor.”)

21:11 For “oracle,” see the note on 13:1.
Dumah, meaning “silence” or “stillness,” is a wordplay on “Edom” (see the NIV text note), also known as “Seir,” the homeland of Esau’s descendants located south of the Dead Sea. Perhaps the meaning of this short oracle may be found in this pun.

21:13–17 The message in these verses was addressed to Arabian tribes who lived in the desert between Babylon and Judah. Both Dedan and Tema (v. 14) were located in an area of northwestern Arabia known as Kedar. Dedanites were merchants who used the thickets to hide their caravans from invaders. They were attacked by both the Assyrians and the Babylonians.

21:13 For “oracle,” see the note on 13:1.

21:15 The simple bows of the Arabs were woefully inadequate against Assyria’s swords and sophisticated, composite bows.

21:16 Kedar was the home of nomadic tribes in the Arabian Desert, southeast of Damascus. It was known for its flocks (60:7; Eze 27:21), tents and tent curtains, which were woven by hand from black goat hair.

22:1 For “oracle,” see the note on 13:1.
God had been known to reveal himself in visions in the “Valley of Vision,” probably a valley near Jerusalem (see the note on 22:7).
For “roofs,” see the note on 15:3.

22:3 King Zedekiah and his army, having fled Jerusalem, were captured near Jericho (see 2Ki 25:4–6).

22:6 Elam was the region northeast of the lower Tigris Valley (see the note on 21:2). Kir may have been Media.

22:7 The Kidron Valley lay east of Jerusalem, while the Hinnom Valley was located to the south and west.

22:9 It appears that the “Old” or “Upper” Pool had been built prior to Hezekiah’s time to capture the waters of the Gihon spring. Hezekiah, in constructing the Siloam tunnel, incorporated the “Lower” Pool that had been commisioned by Ahaz into what became the Pool of Siloam, a larger water reservoir (see 2Ki 20:20; see also “Hezekiah’s Tunnel” and “The Pool of Siloam”).

22:12 It is impossible to determine whether the hair was torn out or shaved off (cf. Jer 16:6; Eze 27:31).
For “sackcloth,” see the note on Isaiah 15:3.

22:15 Shebna, evidently a foreigner (possibly Egyptian) and a contemporary of King Hezekiah, was second only to the king in position (see the note on v. 21; cf. 1Ki 4:6; 2Ki 15:5; Isa 36:3).

22:16 In 1870 an inscription was discovered in a tomb hewn from rock in the village of Silwan, in southeastern Jerusalem. Finally deciphered in 1953, the restored text reads as follows: “This is the tomb of Shebaniah who is over the house. There is no silver or gold here, just his bones and the bones of his maidservant with him. Cursed is the man who opens this.” The words “over the house” mean that Shebaniah was the royal steward. He is possibly the Shebna of Isaiah 22, whom Isaiah criticized for having hewn out a tomb for himself (v. 16), and the “maidservant” of the inscription may have been a favorite concubine. Elaborate tombs from preexilic Judah are rare, and Isaiah opposed this kind of ostentation (see “Tombs in Ancient Israel”). The inscription is now housed in the British Museum.
The location of an individual’s burial site was considered to be of critical importance; Shebna desired a tomb worthy of a king (cf. 2Ch 16:14).

22:18 The use of a chariot signified high office (see Ge 41:43).

22:20–21 Shebna was demoted to “secretary” after having been replaced by Eliakim sometime prior to 701 B.C. (see 36:3).

22:22 For commentary on house doors and keys, see the note on Song of Songs 5:5.

23:1 For “oracle,” see the note on 13:1.
Tyre was the main seaport along the Phoenician coast, about 35 miles (56 km) north of Mount Carmel. Part of the city was built on two rocky islands about a half mile (.8 km) from shore, making it relatively secure from attack. (But see “The Downfall of Tyre.”)
The “ships of Tarshish” were trading ships (see the note on 2:16).

23:2 The “island” is Tyre.
Sidon, the other prominent Phoenician city, was located about 25 miles (40 km) north of Tyre. (see “Sidon” and “Phoenicia.”) The commercial ventures of Tyre and Sidon affected the entire Mediterranean world (see vv. 3, 8).

23:3 “Shihor” may well refer to the easternmost branch of the Nile (see the NIV text note on Jer 2:18). The Nile’s annual flooding produced fertile soil and abundant crops.

23:4 Tyre was the “fortress of the sea” (see the note on v. 1).

23:6 See “Where Was Tarshish?.”

23:7 Tyre, founded before 2000 B.C., was an “old, old city” that had settled “far-off lands,” such as Carthage in North Africa and perhaps Tarshish.