⁵⁴Thus he brought them to the border of his holy land,

to the hill country his right hand^† had taken.

⁵⁵He drove out nations^† before them

and allotted their lands to them as an inheritance;^†

he settled the tribes of Israel in their homes.

⁵⁶But they put God to the test

and rebelled against the Most High;

they did not keep his statutes.

⁵⁷Like their fathers^† they were disloyal and faithless,

as unreliable as a faulty bow.^†

⁵⁸They angered him^† with their high places;^†

they aroused his jealousy with their idols.^†

⁵⁹When God heard them, he was very angry;

he rejected Israel^† completely.

⁶⁰He abandoned the tabernacle of Shiloh,^†

the tent he had set up among men.

⁶¹He sent [the ark of] his might^† into captivity,^†

his splendor into the hands of the enemy.

⁶²He gave his people over to the sword;

he was very angry with his inheritance.

⁶³Fire consumed^† their young men,

and their maidens had no wedding songs;^†

⁶⁴their priests were put to the sword,^†

and their widows could not weep.

⁶⁵Then the Lord awoke as from sleep,^†

as a man wakes from the stupor of wine.

⁶⁶He beat back his enemies;

he put them to everlasting shame.^†

⁶⁷Then he rejected the tents of Joseph,

he did not choose the tribe of Ephraim;

⁶⁸but he chose the tribe of Judah,

Mount Zion,^† which he loved.

⁶⁹He built his sanctuary like the heights,

like the earth that he established forever.

⁷⁰He chose David^† his servant

and took him from the sheep pens;

⁷¹from tending the sheep he brought him

to be the shepherd^† of his people Jacob,

of Israel his inheritance.

⁷²And David shepherded them with integrity of heart;^†

with skillful hands he led them.

Psalm 79

A psalm of Asaph.

¹O God, the nations have invaded your inheritance;^†

they have defiled your holy temple,

they have reduced Jerusalem to rubble.^†

²They have given the dead bodies of your servants

as food to the birds of the air,

the flesh of your saints to the beasts of the earth.^†

³They have poured out blood like water

all around Jerusalem,

and there is no one to bury the dead.^†

⁴We are objects of reproach to our neighbors,

of scorn and derision to those around us.^†

⁵How long,^† O LORD? Will you be angry^† forever?

How long will your jealousy burn like fire?^†

⁶Pour out your wrath^† on the nations

that do not acknowledge^† you,

on the kingdoms

that do not call on your name;^†

⁷for they have devoured Jacob

and destroyed his homeland.

⁸Do not hold against us the sins of the fathers;^†

may your mercy come quickly to meet us,

for we are in desperate need.^†

⁹Help us,^† O God our Savior,

for the glory of your name;

deliver us and forgive our sins

for your name’s sake.^†

¹⁰Why should the nations say,

“Where is their God?”^†

Before our eyes, make known among the nations

that you avenge^† the outpoured blood of your servants.

¹¹May the groans of the prisoners come before you;

by the strength of your arm

preserve those condemned to die.

¹²Pay back into the laps^† of our neighbors seven times^†

the reproach they have hurled at you, O Lord.

¹³Then we your people, the sheep of your pasture,^†

will praise you forever;^†

from generation to generation

we will recount your praise.

Psalm 80

For the director of music. To [the tune of] “The Lilies of the Covenant.” Of Asaph. A psalm.

¹Hear us, O Shepherd of Israel,

you who lead Joseph like a flock;^†

you who sit enthroned between the cherubim,^† shine forth

²before Ephraim, Benjamin and Manasseh.^†

Awaken^† your might;

come and save us.

³Restore^† us,^† O God;

make your face shine upon us,

that we may be saved.

⁴O LORD God Almighty,

how long will your anger smolder

against the prayers of your people?

⁵You have fed them with the bread of tears;

you have made them drink tears by the bowlful.^†

⁶You have made us a source of contention to our neighbors,

and our enemies mock us.^†

⁷Restore us, O God Almighty;

make your face shine upon us,

that we may be saved.

⁸You brought a vine^† out of Egypt;

you drove out^† the nations and planted it.

⁹You cleared the ground for it,

and it took root and filled the land.

¹⁰The mountains were covered with its shade,

the mighty cedars with its branches.

¹¹It sent out its boughs to the Sea,^[142]

its shoots as far as the River.^{[143] †}

¹²Why have you broken down its walls^†

so that all who pass by pick its grapes?

¹³Boars from the forest ravage^† it

and the creatures of the field feed on it.

¹⁴Return to us, O God Almighty!

Look down from heaven and see!^†

Watch over this vine,

¹⁵the root your right hand has planted,

the son^[144] you have raised up for yourself.

¹⁶Your vine is cut down, it is burned with fire;

at your rebuke^† your people perish.

¹⁷Let your hand rest on the man at your right hand,

the son of man you have raised up for yourself.

¹⁸Then we will not turn away from you;

revive us, and we will call on your name.

¹⁹Restore us, O LORD God Almighty;

make your face shine upon us,

that we may be saved.

Psalm 81

For the director of music. According to gittith.^[145] Of Asaph.

¹Sing for joy to God our strength;

shout aloud to the God of Jacob!^†

²Begin the music, strike the tambourine,^†

play the melodious harp^† and lyre.

³Sound the ram’s horn at the New Moon,

and when the moon is full, on the day of our Feast;

⁴this is a decree for Israel,

an ordinance of the God of Jacob.

⁵He established it as a statute for Joseph

when he went out against Egypt,^†

where we heard a language we did not understand.^{[146] †}

⁶He says, “I removed the burden from their shoulders;^†

their hands were set free from the basket.

⁷In your distress you called^† and I rescued you,

I answered^† you out of a thundercloud;

I tested you at the waters of Meribah.^† Selah

⁸“Hear, O my people,^† and I will warn you—

if you would but listen to me, O Israel!

⁹You shall have no foreign god^† among you;

you shall not bow down to an alien god.

¹⁰I am the LORD your God,

who brought you up out of Egypt.^†

Open wide your mouth and I will fill^† it.

¹¹“But my people would not listen to me;

Israel would not submit to me.^†

¹²So I gave them over^† to their stubborn hearts

to follow their own devices.

¹³“If my people would but listen to me,^†

if Israel would follow my ways,

¹⁴how quickly would I subdue^† their enemies

and turn my hand against^† their foes!

¹⁵Those who hate the LORD would cringe before him,

and their punishment would last forever.

¹⁶But you would be fed with the finest of wheat;^†

with honey from the rock I would satisfy you.”

Psalm 82

A psalm of Asaph.

¹God presides in the great assembly;

he gives judgment^† among the “gods”:

²“How long will you^[147] defend the unjust

and show partiality^† to the wicked?^† Selah

³Defend the cause of the weak and fatherless;^†

maintain the rights of the poor^† and oppressed.

⁴Rescue the weak and needy;

deliver them from the hand of the wicked.

⁵“They know nothing, they understand nothing.^†

They walk about in darkness;^†

all the foundations^† of the earth are shaken.

⁶“I said, ‘You are “gods”;^†

you are all sons of the Most High.’

⁷But you will die^† like mere men;

you will fall like every other ruler.”

⁸Rise up,^† O God, judge the earth,

for all the nations are your inheritance.^†

Psalm 83

A song. A psalm of Asaph.

¹O God, do not keep silent;^†

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*

Curses and Imprecations

Psalm 83 To pray for someone else’s well-being is to make intercession for that person, but to pray for someone’s destruction is to make an imprecation. The Bible contains a number of examples of imprecations; one of the clearest is Psalm 83. Here the psalmist called on God to take action against his enemies (vv. 1–2), the Gentile nations all around (vv. 6–8) who were plotting harm against Israel (vv. 3–5). The prayer minces no words; the psalmist asked God to destroy them (vv. 9–18).

Prayers and rituals meant to bring about the destruction of enemies (whether personal or national) were common in the ancient world:

• Egyptians practiced an execration rite whereby they would inscribe names or figures of their adversaries on terra-cotta or pottery, after which they would pronounce a curse upon the enemy and ritually smash the pottery. Execration texts with lists of names of cities in Syria-Palestine have been located; the Egyptians who created these texts wished to call down destruction upon such places as Ashkelon, Byblos and Damascus.¹

• Mesopotamian tablets contain rituals meant to call down destruction upon enemies.

• From the Greco-Roman world archaeologists have discovered magical papyri that called down curses upon all kinds of enemies. For example, there are texts that invoke curses against adversarial parties in lawsuits, as well as those that curse business competitors.²

Are the imprecations in the Bible any different from these curses from pagan sources? Obviously there are similarities. Psalm 83, like the execration texts, delineates a list of the foes the psalmist wanted God to punish. Several factors, however, set Biblical imprecations apart:

• Biblical imprecations have no tie to magic. In magic, a person seeks to manipulate supernatural powers with ritual words and actions in order to achieve his or her desire. The Bible provides no rituals to bring about the destruction of enemies. God’s people could only call upon the Lord to punish the enemy and then leave it to him to decide whether or not to act.

• Biblical imprecations were based upon belief in the righteousness of God. When making an imprecation, a psalmist appealed to God’s justice in a tacit acknowledgment that God punishes only because it is the right thing to do—not simply in response to a psalmist’s anger. By contrast, in magic-based rituals justice was not an issue.

• Biblical imprecations were never used for personal jealousies and ambitions.

• Biblical imprecations ultimately sought to give glory to God. Verse 16 prays for the destruction of the wicked “so that men will seek your name, O LORD.” God’s honor—not Israel’s—was to be maintained.

Protective spirit charm from the late Assyrian Empire

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The British Museum

1. For more on these cities, see “Byblos” and “Damascus.”

2. See “Magic in the Greco-Roman World.”

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be not quiet, O God, be not still.

²See how your enemies are astir,^†

how your foes rear their heads.^†

³With cunning they conspire^† against your people;

they plot against those you cherish.

⁴“Come,” they say, “let us destroy^† them as a nation,

that the name of Israel be remembered^† no more.”

⁵With one mind they plot together;^†

they form an alliance against you—

⁶the tents of Edom^† and the Ishmaelites,

of Moab^† and the Hagrites,^†

⁷Gebal,^{[148] †} Ammon and Amalek,

Philistia, with the people of Tyre.^†

⁸Even Assyria has joined them

to lend strength to the descendants of Lot.^† Selah

⁹Do to them as you did to Midian,^†

as you did to Sisera and Jabin at the river Kishon,^†

¹⁰who perished at Endor

and became like refuse^† on the ground.

¹¹Make their nobles like Oreb and Zeeb,^†

all their princes like Zebah and Zalmunna,^†

¹²who said, “Let us take possession^†

of the pasturelands of God.”

¹³Make them like tumbleweed, O my God,

like chaff^† before the wind.

¹⁴As fire consumes the forest

or a flame sets the mountains ablaze,^†

¹⁵so pursue them with your tempest

and terrify them with your storm.^†

¹⁶Cover their faces with shame^†

so that men will seek your name, O LORD.

¹⁷May they ever be ashamed and dismayed;

may they perish in disgrace.^†

¹⁸Let them know that you, whose name is the LORD—

that you alone are the Most High over all the earth.^†

Psalm 84

For the director of music. According to gittith.^[149] Of the Sons of Korah. A psalm.

¹How lovely is your dwelling place,^†

O LORD Almighty!

²My soul yearns,^† even faints,

for the courts of the LORD;

my heart and my flesh cry out

for the living God.

³Even the sparrow has found a home,

and the swallow a nest for herself,

where she may have her young—

a place near your altar,^†

O LORD Almighty, my King and my God.^†

⁴ Blessed are those who dwell in your house;

they are ever praising you. Selah

⁵Blessed are those whose strength^† is in you,

who have set their hearts on pilgrimage.^†

⁶As they pass through the Valley of Baca,

they make it a place of springs;

the autumn^† rains also cover it with pools.^[150]

⁷They go from strength to strength,^†

till each appears^† before God in Zion.

⁸Hear my prayer, O LORD God Almighty;

listen to me, O God of Jacob. Selah

⁹Look upon our shield,^{[151] †} O God;

look with favor on your anointed one.^†

¹⁰Better is one day in your courts

than a thousand elsewhere;

I would rather be a doorkeeper^† in the house of my God

than dwell in the tents of the wicked.

¹¹For the LORD God is a sun^† and shield;^†

the LORD bestows favor and honor;

no good thing does he withhold^†

from those whose walk is blameless.

¹²O LORD Almighty,

blessed^† is the man who trusts in you.

Psalm 85

For the director of music. Of the Sons of Korah. A psalm.

¹You showed favor to your land, O LORD;

you restored the fortunes^† of Jacob.

²You forgave^† the iniquity^† of your people

and covered all their sins. Selah

³You set aside all your wrath^†

and turned from your fierce anger.^†

⁴Restore^† us again, O God our Savior,

and put away your displeasure toward us.

⁵Will you be angry with us forever?^†

Will you prolong your anger through all generations?

⁶Will you not revive^† us again,

that your people may rejoice in you?

⁷Show us your unfailing love, O LORD,

and grant us your salvation.

⁸I will listen to what God the LORD will say;

he promises peace^† to his people, his saints—

but let them not return to folly.

⁹Surely his salvation^† is near those who fear him,

that his glory^† may dwell in our land.

¹⁰Love and faithfulness^† meet together;

righteousness^† and peace kiss each other.

¹¹Faithfulness springs forth from the earth,

and righteousness^† looks down from heaven.

¹²The LORD will indeed give what is good,^†

and our land will yield^† its harvest.

¹³Righteousness goes before him

and prepares the way for his steps.

Psalm 86

A prayer of David.

¹Hear, O LORD, and answer^† me,

for I am poor and needy.

²Guard my life, for I am devoted to you.

You are my God; save your servant

who trusts in you.^†

³Have mercy^† on me, O Lord,

for I call^† to you all day long.

⁴Bring joy to your servant,

for to you, O Lord,

I lift^† up my soul.

⁵You are forgiving and good, O Lord,

abounding in love^† to all who call to you.

⁶Hear my prayer, O LORD;

listen to my cry for mercy.

⁷In the day of my trouble^† I will call to you,

for you will answer me.

⁸Among the gods there is none like you,^† O Lord;

no deeds can compare with yours.

⁹All the nations you have made

will come and worship^† before you, O Lord;

they will bring glory^† to your name.

¹⁰For you are great and do marvelous deeds;^†

you alone^† are God.

¹¹Teach me your way,^† O LORD,

and I will walk in your truth;

give me an undivided^† heart,

that I may fear your name.

¹²I will praise you, O Lord my God, with all my heart;

I will glorify your name forever.

¹³For great is your love toward me;

you have delivered me from the depths of the grave.^[152]

¹⁴The arrogant are attacking me, O God;

a band of ruthless men seeks my life—

men without regard for you.^†

¹⁵But you, O Lord, are a compassionate and gracious^† God,

slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness.^†

¹⁶Turn to me and have mercy on me;

grant your strength to your servant

and save the son of your maidservant.^{[153] †}

¹⁷Give me a sign of your goodness,

that my enemies may see it and be put to shame,

for you, O LORD, have helped me and comforted me.

Psalm 87

Of the Sons of Korah. A psalm. A song.

¹He has set his foundation on the holy mountain;

²the LORD loves the gates of Zion^†

more than all the dwellings of Jacob.

³Glorious things are said of you,

O city of God:^† Selah

⁴“I will record Rahab^{[154] †} and Babylon

among those who acknowledge me—

Philistia too, and Tyre^†, along with Cush^[155]—

and will say, ‘This^[156] one was born in Zion.^†’ ”

⁵Indeed, of Zion it will be said,

“This one and that one were born in her,

and the Most High himself will establish her.”

⁶The LORD will write in the register^† of the peoples:

“This one was born in Zion.” Selah

⁷As they make music^† they will sing,

“All my fountains^† are in you.”

Psalm 88

A song. A psalm of the Sons of Korah. For the director of music. According to mahalath leannoth.^[157] A maskil^[158] of Heman the Ezrahite.

¹O LORD, the God who saves me,^†

day and night I cry out^† before you.

²May my prayer come before you;

turn your ear to my cry.

³For my soul is full of trouble

and my life draws near the grave.^{[159] †}

⁴I am counted among those who go down to the pit;^†

I am like a man without strength.

⁵I am set apart with the dead,

like the slain who lie in the grave,

whom you remember no more,

who are cut off^† from your care.

⁶You have put me in the lowest pit,

in the darkest depths.^†

⁷Your wrath lies heavily upon me;

you have overwhelmed me with all your waves.^† Selah

⁸You have taken from me my closest friends^†

and have made me repulsive to them.

I am confined^† and cannot escape;

⁹my eyes^† are dim with grief.

I call^† to you, O LORD, every day;

I spread out my hands^† to you.

¹⁰ Do you show your wonders to the dead?

Do those who are dead rise up and praise you?^† Selah

¹¹Is your love declared in the grave,

your faithfulness^† in Destruction^[160]?

¹²Are your wonders known in the place of darkness,

or your righteous deeds in the land of oblivion?

¹³But I cry to you for help,^† O LORD;

in the morning^† my prayer comes before you.^†

¹⁴Why, O LORD, do you reject^† me

and hide your face^† from me?

¹⁵From my youth I have been afflicted and close to death;

I have suffered your terrors^† and am in despair.

¹⁶Your wrath has swept over me;

your terrors have destroyed me.

¹⁷All day long they surround me like a flood;^†

they have completely engulfed me.

¹⁸You have taken my companions^† and loved ones from me;

the darkness is my closest friend.

Psalm 89

A maskil^[161] of Ethan the Ezrahite.

¹I will sing^† of the LORD’s great love forever;

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*

The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation

Psalm 89 In the Bible we read of creation primarily in Genesis 1, but other texts enlighten us as to how the Israelites viewed the creative process (cf. Ps 89). With the discovery and decipherment of ancient texts in Akkadian, as well as of hieroglyphics, scholars have come to realize that many cultures from the ancient world had creation myths that could be compared to the Biblical creation account.¹ The most famous Akkadian creation story is called the Enuma Elish, a poem of about 1,100 lines.

Copies of the Enuma Elish exist in the form of cuneiform tablets dating from about 750 to 200 B.C., but the poem was no doubt composed earlier than that. The creation story contained in these tablets exalts Marduk, god of Babylon, as the greatest of the gods. Because the main purpose of the text was to glorify Marduk, some scholars resist referring to the Enuma Elish as a “creation” story. This reluctance is misplaced, however; many creation myths from the ancient world serve to glorify a particular god or shrine.

Enuma Elish begins with a pair of high gods, Apsu (male) and Tiamat (female), as well as a number of lower gods. Apsu threatens to kill the lower gods because of the noise they make, but he himself is slain by the god Ea. Ea in turn fathers Marduk, whose birth is attended by great celebration. Tiamat, who is alternatively pictured as an ocean or a dragon (i.e., sea monster),² deploys against the gods a gruesome army of monsters (lion-men, scorpion-men and the like) under the command of her second consort (partner), Kingu. Ea and the other gods are paralyzed with fear, but Marduk agrees to fight the monsters on condition that he be named king of the gods. Marduk defeats Tiamat and splits her body like a fish for drying. From one half he fashions the heavens and from the other he forms the earth. From the blood of Kingu, according to the myth, Marduk created men, after which he was indeed lauded as ruler of the gods.

Cuneiform tablet containing an ancient version of the flood story

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The British Museum

At one time many scholars believed that the Babylonian creation story provided the source material for its Biblical counterpart. Today, however, few hold that position. Indeed, the differences between the Babylonian and Biblical accounts are more significant than their similarities:

• The Biblical record does not present the creative act as that of slaying a monster and making use of its body.

Some have argued that the Hebrew word for the “deep” (tehom) in Genesis 1:2 is related to the name Tiamat. In fact, the words are unrelated, and there is no hint in Genesis of Yahweh slaying a dragon.

A monster called Rahab is mentioned in Psalm 89:10. This Biblical Rahab represents forces that oppose God; even Egypt can be identified as Rahab (Isa 30:7). Whatever we make of Rahab in the Bible, it is unrelated to creation.

• The Biblical account describes the act of creation as proceeding simply from God’s word: God spoke the cosmos and everything related to it into existence (Ge 1).

• The Biblical account leaves no room for polytheism. Even though Psalm 89:7 mentions other heavenly beings who are under God’s authority, there is no multitude of gods who marry, have offspring, fight each other for supremacy and the like.

• The Biblical record does not promote one shrine above all others. Genesis 1 never mentions Jerusalem or any other site sacred to Israel in connection with creation. Indeed, the Bible’s initial chapter never mentions Yahweh, describing the creator simply as “God.” The Biblical concept of creation is truly monotheistic; there is no elevation of one god above others, for, indeed, there is only one God.

1. See “Ancient Creation Narratives.”

2. See “The Serpent Motif in Other Ancient Near Eastern Literature.”

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with my mouth I will make your faithfulness known^† through all generations.

²I will declare that your love stands firm forever,

that you established your faithfulness in heaven itself.^†

³You said, “I have made a covenant with my chosen one,

I have sworn to David my servant,

⁴‘I will establish your line forever

and make your throne firm through all generations.’ ”^† Selah

⁵The heavens^† praise your wonders, O LORD,

your faithfulness too, in the assembly of the holy ones.

⁶For who in the skies above can compare with the LORD?

Who is like the LORD among the heavenly beings?^†

⁷In the council of the holy ones God is greatly feared;

he is more awesome than all who surround him.^†

⁸O LORD God Almighty, who is like you?^†

You are mighty, O LORD, and your faithfulness surrounds you.

⁹You rule over the surging sea;

when its waves mount up, you still them.^†

¹⁰You crushed Rahab^† like one of the slain;

with your strong arm you scattered^† your enemies.

¹¹The heavens are yours, and yours also the earth;^†

you founded the world and all that is in it.^†

¹²You created the north and the south;

Tabor^† and Hermon^† sing for joy^† at your name.

¹³Your arm is endued with power;

your hand is strong, your right hand exalted.

¹⁴Righteousness and justice are the foundation of your throne;^†

love and faithfulness go before you.

¹⁵Blessed are those who have learned to acclaim you,

who walk in the light^† of your presence, O LORD.

¹⁶They rejoice in your name^† all day long;

they exult in your righteousness.

¹⁷For you are their glory and strength,

and by your favor you exalt our horn.^{[162] †}

¹⁸Indeed, our shield^[163] belongs to the LORD,

our king^† to the Holy One of Israel.

¹⁹Once you spoke in a vision,

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Ancient Voices

When Tiamat [heard]^* these words, they pleased her,

“[As y]ou have counseled, we will make a tempest …

(For) they have been adopting [wicked ways] against the gods [thei]r parents.”

[They clo]sed ranks and drew up at Tiamat’s side,

Angry, scheming, never lying down night and day,

[Ma]king warfare, rumbling, raging,

Convening in assembly, that they might start hostilities.

* Words or partial words in brackets and parentheses added by translator for clarity or where text has gaps

—Epic of Creation

See “The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation” article.

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to your faithful people you said:

“I have bestowed strength on a warrior;

I have exalted a young man from among the people.

²⁰I have found David^† my servant;^†

with my sacred oil I have anointed^† him.

²¹My hand will sustain him;

surely my arm will strengthen him.^†

²²No enemy will subject him to tribute;

no wicked man will oppress^† him.

²³I will crush his foes before him^†

and strike down his adversaries.^†

²⁴My faithful love will be with him,^†

and through my name his horn^[164] will be exalted.

²⁵I will set his hand over the sea,

his right hand over the rivers.^†

²⁶He will call out to me, ‘You are my Father,^†

my God, the Rock my Savior.’^†

²⁷I will also appoint him my firstborn,^†

the most exalted^† of the kings^† of the earth.

²⁸I will maintain my love to him forever,

and my covenant with him will never fail.^†

²⁹I will establish his line forever,

his throne as long as the heavens endure.^†

³⁰“If his sons forsake my law

and do not follow my statutes,

³¹if they violate my decrees

and fail to keep my commands,

³²I will punish their sin with the rod,

their iniquity with flogging;^†

³³but I will not take my love from him,^†

nor will I ever betray my faithfulness.

³⁴I will not violate my covenant

or alter what my lips have uttered.^†

³⁵Once for all, I have sworn by my holiness—

and I will not lie to David—

³⁶that his line will continue forever

and his throne endure before me like the sun;

³⁷it will be established forever like the moon,

the faithful witness in the sky.” Selah

³⁸But you have rejected,^† you have spurned,

you have been very angry with your anointed one.

³⁹You have renounced the covenant with your servant

and have defiled his crown in the dust.^†

⁴⁰You have broken through all his walls^†

and reduced his strongholds^† to ruins.

⁴¹All who pass by have plundered him;

he has become the scorn of his neighbors.^†

⁴²You have exalted the right hand of his foes;

you have made all his enemies rejoice.^†

⁴³You have turned back the edge of his sword

and have not supported him in battle.^†

⁴⁴You have put an end to his splendor

and cast his throne to the ground.

⁴⁵You have cut short the days of his youth;

you have covered him with a mantle of shame.^† Selah

⁴⁶How long, O LORD? Will you hide yourself forever?

How long will your wrath burn like fire?^†

⁴⁷Remember how fleeting is my life.^†

For what futility you have created all men!

⁴⁸What man can live and not see death,

or save himself from the power of the grave^[165]? ^† Selah

⁴⁹O Lord, where is your former great love,

which in your faithfulness you swore to David?

⁵⁰Remember, Lord, how your servant has^[166] been mocked,^†

how I bear in my heart the taunts of all the nations,

⁵¹the taunts with which your enemies have mocked, O LORD,

with which they have mocked every step of your anointed one.^†

⁵²Praise be to the LORD forever!

Amen and Amen.^†

BOOK IV

Psalms 90–106

Psalm 90

A prayer of Moses the man of God.

¹Lord, you have been our dwelling place^†

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*

Form Criticism and the Psalms

Psalm 90 “Form criticism” is a relatively new method of Biblical study, pioneered by the twentieth-century German scholar Herman Gunkel. This method originally had three purposes:

• To discover the original setting of a psalm. Was it sung by an individual or as part of congregational worship? Was it a lamentation or a song of praise? Was the psalm used in a temple setting or engaged by an individual in private?

• To discover oral traditions behind the text. Are there vestiges of oral tradition the psalmist incorporated into the composition?

• To discover the structure of a psalm. What is the psalm’s basic outline? Do other psalms of the same genre have a similar structure?

Some of this slicing and dicing is of dubious value. For example, it is difficult to prove that an oral tradition lies behind a particular portion of a psalm. Also, some scholars have made claims about the original setting of certain psalms that are impossible to verify. For example, some have suggested that specific psalms were part of a New Year’s festival, but there is little evidence to support this premise. In reality, we can frequently only infer the circumstances behind individual psalms.

Still, some psalms do present fairly clear life settings (e.g., an individual is calling on God for deliverance from his enemies). Also, psalms of the same type often do have features in common (e.g., psalms in which someone is calling out for help from his enemies often use similar vocabulary and have a similar structure).

Even though form criticism as originally developed by Gunkel has only limited value, the method is important in that it has forced us to reckon with the fact that the Bible contains a variety of different types of psalms. To begin with, it is helpful to ask certain basic questions of a psalm. For example,

• Is it a prayer that addresses God or an instruction for the reader?

• Does it thank and praise God or call upon him for help?

• Does it focus on special themes, such as Zion, the king or the law?

By asking these and other questions and carefully reading the psalms, we can quickly discern that there are a number of types and subtypes, a few of which follow:

• Hymns are congregational songs that praise God.

• Praise psalms extol God for his character (Ex 15:1–18; Ps 100; 145).

• Thanksgiving psalms express gratitude to God for his actions (Ps 32; 107; Jnh 2:2–9).

• Songs of Zion celebrate Zion as the “type,” or representation, of the kingdom of God (Ps 48).

• Royal psalms focus on some aspect of Israelite kingship.

• The coronation psalm is a prayer for the success of the king’s reign (Ps 72).

• The royal wedding song celebrates the king’s wedding and anticipates the Messianic kingdom (Ps 45).

• The royal votive psalm records the king’s vow to execute justice (Ps 101).

• Wisdom and Torah psalms contrast a life lived wisely under the law with one lived foolishly. These psalms are often contemplative or address the reader directly, as though a teacher were speaking to a disciple (e.g., Ps 1; 19; 37; 119).

• Lament psalms, the most abundant psalm-type, express the anguish of worshipers due to sin, famine, enemies, etc. In these psalms a petitioner pleads with God to remove the source of his distress, often accompanied by a vow to praise God (e.g., 1Sa 2:1–10; Ps 3; 12; 22; 77; 90; La 5). Psalms of lament may be sung by the individual (Ps 13) or an entire congregation (Ps 74).¹

• Songs of trust express confidence in God (e.g., Ps 11; 23; 121), not cries for help.

Psalm 90 illustrates the pattern of a lament. It is congregational in nature in that it speaks to the situation of all people, not to that of any one individual.

• This psalm opens with an assertion that God is Israel’s refuge as the basis for an appeal for mercy (vv. 1–2).

• It laments the mortality and sinfulness of humans (vv. 3–11).

• It includes a short appeal for wisdom (v. 12), recalling the wisdom psalms.

• It closes with an appeal for God’s compassion (vv. 13–17).

By understanding the type of psalm we are engaging, we are in a better position to interpret and use it appropriately.

1. See also “Ancient Near Eastern Laments.”

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throughout all generations.

²Before the mountains were born^†

or you brought forth the earth and the world,

from everlasting to everlasting you are God.^†

³You turn men back to dust,

saying, “Return to dust, O sons of men.”^†

⁴For a thousand years in your sight

are like a day that has just gone by,

or like a watch in the night.^†

⁵You sweep men away^† in the sleep of death;

they are like the new grass of the morning—

⁶though in the morning it springs up new,

by evening it is dry and withered.^†

⁷We are consumed by your anger

and terrified by your indignation.

⁸You have set our iniquities before you,

our secret sins^† in the light of your presence.

⁹All our days pass away under your wrath;

we finish our years with a moan.^†

¹⁰The length of our days is seventy years—

or eighty, if we have the strength;

yet their span^[167] is but trouble and sorrow,

for they quickly pass, and we fly away.^†

¹¹Who knows the power of your anger?

For your wrath is as great as the fear that is due you.^†

¹²Teach us to number our days^† aright,

that we may gain a heart of wisdom.^†

¹³Relent, O LORD! How long^† will it be?

Have compassion on your servants.^†

¹⁴Satisfy^† us in the morning with your unfailing love,

that we may sing for joy^† and be glad all our days.^†

¹⁵Make us glad for as many days as you have afflicted us,

for as many years as we have seen trouble.

¹⁶May your deeds be shown to your servants,

your splendor to their children.^†

¹⁷May the favor^[168] of the Lord our God rest upon us;

establish the work of our hands for us—

yes, establish the work of our hands.^†

Psalm 91

¹He who dwells in the shelter^† of the Most High

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*

Twenty-Five of the Most Familiar Psalm Lines

1. O LORD, our Lord, how majestic is your name in all the earth! (8:1).

2. The fool says in his heart, “There is no God” (14:1).

3. The heavens declare the glory of God (19:1).

4. My God, my God, why have you forsaken me? (22:1).

5. The LORD is my shepherd, I shall not be in want (23:1).

6. The LORD is my light and my salvation—whom shall I fear? (27:1).

7. Delight yourself in the LORD and he will give you the desires of your heart (37:4).

8. As the deer pants for streams of water, so my soul pants for you, O God (42:1).

9. God is our refuge and strength, an ever-present help in trouble (46:1).

10. Be still, and know that I am God (46:10).

11. Great is the LORD, and most worthy of praise (48:1).

12. Create in me a pure heart, O God (51:10).

13. May God be gracious to us and bless us and make his face shine upon us (67:1).

14. How lovely is your dwelling place, O LORD Almighty! (84:1).

15. Sing to the LORD a new song, for he has done marvelous things (98:1).

16. Shout for joy to the LORD, all the earth (100:1).

17. For the LORD is good and his love endures forever; his faithfulness continues through all generations (100:5).

18. As far as the east is from the west, so far has he removed our transgressions from us (103:12).

19. Give thanks to the LORD, for he is good; his love endures forever (107:1).

20. Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light for my path (119:105).

21. I lift up my eyes to the hills—where does my help come from? (121:1).

22. Unless the LORD builds the house, its builders labor in vain (127:1).

23. How good and pleasant it is when brothers live together in unity! (133:1).

24. I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made (139:14).

25. Search me, O God, and know my heart (139:23).

Old Testament Today, p. 344

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will rest in the shadow^† of the Almighty.^[169]

²I will say^[170] of the LORD, “He is my refuge^† and my fortress,

my God, in whom I trust.”

³Surely he will save you from the fowler’s snare^†

and from the deadly pestilence.^†

⁴He will cover you with his feathers,

and under his wings you will find refuge;^†

his faithfulness will be your shield^† and rampart.

⁵You will not fear^† the terror of night,

nor the arrow that flies by day,

⁶nor the pestilence that stalks in the darkness,

nor the plague that destroys at midday.

⁷A thousand may fall at your side,

ten thousand at your right hand,

but it will not come near you.

⁸You will only observe with your eyes

and see the punishment of the wicked.^†

⁹If you make the Most High your dwelling—

even the LORD, who is my refuge—

¹⁰then no harm^† will befall you,

no disaster will come near your tent.

¹¹For he will command his angels^† concerning you

to guard you in all your ways;^†

¹²they will lift you up in their hands,

so that you will not strike your foot against a stone.^†

¹³You will tread upon the lion and the cobra;

you will trample the great lion and the serpent.^†

¹⁴“Because he loves me,” says the LORD, “I will rescue him;

I will protect him, for he acknowledges my name.

¹⁵He will call upon me, and I will answer him;

I will be with him in trouble,

I will deliver him and honor him.^†

¹⁶With long life^† will I satisfy him

and show him my salvation.^†”

Psalm 92

A psalm. A song. For the Sabbath day.

¹It is good to praise the LORD

and make music to your name,^† O Most High,^†

²to proclaim your love in the morning^†

and your faithfulness at night,

³to the music of the ten-stringed lyre

and the melody of the harp.^†

⁴For you make me glad by your deeds, O LORD;

I sing for joy at the works of your hands.^†

⁵How great are your works,^† O LORD,

how profound your thoughts!^†

⁶The senseless man^† does not know,

fools do not understand,

⁷that though the wicked spring up like grass

and all evildoers flourish,

they will be forever destroyed.

⁸But you, O LORD, are exalted forever.

⁹For surely your enemies, O LORD,

surely your enemies will perish;

all evildoers will be scattered.^†

¹⁰You have exalted my horn^{[171] †} like that of a wild ox;

fine oils^† have been poured upon me.

¹¹My eyes have seen the defeat of my adversaries;

my ears have heard the rout of my wicked foes.^†

¹²The righteous will flourish like a palm tree,

they will grow like a cedar of Lebanon;^†

¹³planted in the house of the LORD,

they will flourish in the courts of our God.^†

¹⁴They will still bear fruit^† in old age,

they will stay fresh and green,

¹⁵proclaiming, “The LORD is upright;

he is my Rock, and there is no wickedness in him.^†”

Psalm 93

¹The LORD reigns,^† he is robed in majesty;^†

the LORD is robed in majesty

and is armed with strength.^†

The world is firmly established;

it cannot be moved.^†

²Your throne was established long ago;

you are from all eternity.^†

³The seas^† have lifted up, O LORD,

the seas have lifted up their voice;

the seas have lifted up their pounding waves.

⁴Mightier than the thunder^† of the great waters,

mightier than the breakers of the sea—

the LORD on high is mighty.

⁵Your statutes stand firm;

holiness^† adorns your house

for endless days, O LORD.

Psalm 94

¹O LORD, the God who avenges,^†

O God who avenges, shine forth.^†

²Rise up, O Judge^† of the earth;

pay back^† to the proud what they deserve.

³How long will the wicked, O LORD,

how long will the wicked be jubilant?

⁴They pour out arrogant^† words;

all the evildoers are full of boasting.^†

⁵They crush your people,^† O LORD;

they oppress your inheritance.

⁶They slay the widow and the alien;

they murder the fatherless.

⁷They say, “The LORD does not see;^†

the God of Jacob pays no heed.”

⁸Take heed, you senseless ones^† among the people;

you fools, when will you become wise?

⁹Does he who implanted the ear not hear?

Does he who formed the eye not see?^†

¹⁰Does he who disciplines nations not punish?

Does he who teaches^† man lack knowledge?

¹¹The LORD knows the thoughts of man;

he knows that they are futile.^†

¹²Blessed is the man you discipline,^† O LORD,

the man you teach^† from your law;

¹³you grant him relief from days of trouble,

till a pit^† is dug for the wicked.

¹⁴For the LORD will not reject his people;^†

he will never forsake his inheritance.

¹⁵Judgment will again be founded on righteousness,^†

and all the upright in heart will follow it.

¹⁶Who will rise up^† for me against the wicked?

Who will take a stand for me against evildoers?^†

¹⁷Unless the LORD had given me help,^†

I would soon have dwelt in the silence of death.

¹⁸When I said, “My foot is slipping,^†”

your love, O LORD, supported me.

¹⁹When anxiety was great within me,

your consolation brought joy to my soul.

²⁰Can a corrupt throne be allied with you—

one that brings on misery by its decrees?^†

²¹They band together^† against the righteous

and condemn the innocent^† to death.

²²But the LORD has become my fortress,

and my God the rock in whom I take refuge.^†

²³He will repay^† them for their sins

and destroy them for their wickedness;

the LORD our God will destroy them.

Psalm 95

¹Come, let us sing for joy to the LORD;

let us shout aloud^† to the Rock^† of our salvation.

²Let us come before him^† with thanksgiving

and extol him with music^† and song.

³For the LORD is the great God,^†

the great King above all gods.^†

⁴In his hand are the depths of the earth,

and the mountain peaks belong to him.

⁵The sea is his, for he made it,

and his hands formed the dry land.^†

⁶Come, let us bow down^† in worship,

let us kneel^† before the LORD our Maker;^†

⁷for he is our God

and we are the people of his pasture,^†

the flock under his care.

Today, if you hear his voice,

⁸do not harden your hearts as you did at Meribah,^{[172] †}

as you did that day at Massah^[173] in the desert,

⁹where your fathers tested^† and tried me,

though they had seen what I did.

¹⁰For forty years^† I was angry with that generation;

I said, “They are a people whose hearts go astray,

and they have not known my ways.”

¹¹So I declared on oath^† in my anger,

“They shall never enter my rest.”^†

Psalm 96

¹Sing to the LORD^† a new song;

sing to the LORD, all the earth.

²Sing to the LORD, praise his name;

proclaim his salvation^† day after day.

³Declare his glory among the nations,

his marvelous deeds among all peoples.

⁴For great is the LORD and most worthy of praise;^†

he is to be feared^† above all gods.^†

⁵For all the gods of the nations are idols,

but the LORD made the heavens.^†

⁶Splendor and majesty are before him;

strength and glory^† are in his sanctuary.

⁷Ascribe to the LORD,^† O families of nations,^†

ascribe to the LORD glory and strength.

⁸Ascribe to the LORD the glory due his name;

bring an offering^† and come into his courts.

⁹Worship the LORD in the splendor of his^[174] holiness;^†

tremble^† before him, all the earth.^†

¹⁰Say among the nations, “The LORD reigns.^†”

The world is firmly established, it cannot be moved;^†

he will judge the peoples with equity.^†

¹¹Let the heavens rejoice, let the earth be glad;^†

let the sea resound, and all that is in it;

¹²let the fields be jubilant, and everything in them.

Then all the trees of the forest^† will sing for joy;^†

¹³they will sing before the LORD, for he comes,

he comes to judge^† the earth.

He will judge the world in righteousness

and the peoples in his truth.

Psalm 97

¹The LORD reigns,^† let the earth be glad;^†

let the distant shores rejoice.

²Clouds and thick darkness^† surround him;

righteousness and justice are the foundation of his throne.^†

³Fire^† goes before^† him

and consumes^† his foes on every side.

⁴His lightning lights up the world;

the earth sees and trembles.^†

⁵The mountains melt^† like wax before the LORD,

before the Lord of all the earth.^†

⁶The heavens proclaim his righteousness,^†

and all the peoples see his glory.^†

⁷All who worship images^† are put to shame,^†

those who boast in idols—

worship him,^† all you gods!

⁸Zion hears and rejoices

and the villages of Judah are glad

because of your judgments,^† O LORD.

⁹For you, O LORD, are the Most High over all the earth;^†

you are exalted^† far above all gods.

¹⁰Let those who love the LORD hate evil,^†

for he guards the lives of his faithful ones^†

and delivers^† them from the hand of the wicked.^†

¹¹Light is shed^† upon the righteous

and joy on the upright in heart.

¹²Rejoice in the LORD, you who are righteous,

and praise his holy name.^†

Psalm 98

A psalm.

¹Sing to the LORD a new song,^†

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*

The Shofar

Psalm 98 Psalm 98:4–6 instructs worshipers to offer joyful praise music to the Lord, using not only their voices but also various instruments. The Hebrew word translated “ram’s horn” here (v. 6) is shofar. This instrument belongs to a class known as aerophones, which produce a sound when air is passed through them.¹ The shofar was blown in several contexts:

• The blast of the horn summoned warriors to battle and signaled the beginning of an attack (Jdg 3:27; 7:20; Job 39:25; Jer 4:19–21). When the Israelites marched around Jericho for the seventh time, they were instructed to blow rams’ horns (Jos 6:4–5).

• The shofar summoned worshipers to Jerusalem (Isa 27:13).

• It was blown by watchmen to announce important news, whether celebratory or disastrous (1Sa 13:3; Eze 33:3–6; Joel 2:1, 17; Am 2:2).

• It was used during coronation ceremonies, such as Solomon’s (1Ki 1:34) and Jehu’s (2Ki 9:13).

• The shofar was sounded on holy occasions such as:

The Day of Atonement during the year of Jubilee (Lev 25:9),²

David’s return of the ark to Jerusalem (2Sa 6:15),

The covenant renewal ceremony during Asa’s religious reforms (2Ch 15:14) and

Regular temple worship (Ps 47:5; 81:3; 98:6; 150:3).

See also “Trumpets in the Ancient World.”

1. See “Ancient Musical Instruments.”

2. See “The Day of Atonement” and “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee.”

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for he has done marvelous things;^†

his right hand^† and his holy arm^†

have worked salvation for him.

²The LORD has made his salvation known^†

and revealed his righteousness to the nations.

³He has remembered^† his love

and his faithfulness to the house of Israel;

all the ends of the earth have seen

the salvation of our God.

⁴Shout for joy^† to the LORD, all the earth,

burst into jubilant song with music;

⁵make music to the LORD with the harp,^†

with the harp and the sound of singing,^†

⁶with trumpets^† and the blast of the ram’s horn—

shout for joy before the LORD, the King.^†

⁷Let the sea resound, and everything in it,

the world, and all who live in it.^†

⁸Let the rivers clap their hands,

let the mountains^† sing together for joy;

⁹let them sing before the LORD,

for he comes to judge the earth.

He will judge the world in righteousness

and the peoples with equity.^†

Psalm 99

¹The LORD reigns,^†

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*

Thrones in the Ancient World

Psalm 99 Royal and ritual thrones of the ancient world were typically constructed of wood frames overlaid with precious metals and inlaid with gems.¹ Popular ornamentation included engravings of lions, winged sphinxes and composite mythological creatures. According to artistic tradition throughout the ancient world, these served as images of power and authority. Solomon’s throne was inlaid with ivory and overlaid with gold. It featured a rounded top and a pair of standing lions for armrests. Six steps led up to the royal dais, and each step was flanked by two lions, one on each end (1Ki 10:19–20).

Aspects of the throne’s design recall other royal furniture of that time and region. For example, an ivory engraving from Megiddo and a sarcophagus (coffin) from Byblos, both dating roughly to the thirteenth century B.C., picture rulers seated upon thrones with curved-top backs supported by sphinxes, their feet resting on footstools.² Footstools typically accompanied thrones and were occasionally engraved with scenes of vanquished foes, an image communicating triumph over one’s enemies (Ps 110:1). An ancient king literally sought to make his enemies his footstool.³

The gods of the ancient Near East are depicted seated either upon thrones or atop animals or mythical beings (e.g., a goddess might be seated astride a lion). The creatures themselves become the seat of divinity. Images of gods carved into the hills along the Tigris River portray deities mounted upon such composite creatures.

The divine throne of Yahweh is envisioned as a living entity composed of fiery creatures whose outspread wings form the chariot upon which he transverses the heavens (2Sa 22:11; Ps 18:10; Eze 10:1). His throne is a spectacle of light, shining with a radiance of jewels (Eze 1:26; Rev 4:3) and issuing flames of fire (Ps 104:3–4; Da 7:9). Although heaven is God’s throne and Earth his footstool (Isa 66:1), the temple and Jerusalem (i.e., the temple city) are often referred to as the throne and footstool of God, respectively (1Ch 28:2; Ps 132:7).⁴ This imagery evokes the divine presence of Yahweh and his kingship over his covenant people.

1. See “Precious Stones of the Biblical World.”

2. For more on these cities, see “Megiddo” and “Byblos.”

3. See “The Ancient Near Eastern King.”

4. See also “Solomon’s Temple and Other Ancient Temples.”

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let the nations tremble;

he sits enthroned between the cherubim,^†

let the earth shake.

²Great is the LORD^† in Zion;

he is exalted^† over all the nations.

³Let them praise your great and awesome name^†—

he is holy.

⁴The King is mighty, he loves justice^†—

you have established equity;^†

in Jacob you have done

what is just and right.

⁵Exalt^† the LORD our God

and worship at his footstool;

he is holy.

⁶Moses^† and Aaron were among his priests,

Samuel^† was among those who called on his name;

they called on the LORD

and he answered^† them.

⁷He spoke to them from the pillar of cloud;^†

they kept his statutes and the decrees he gave them.

⁸O LORD our God,

you answered them;

you were to Israel^[175] a forgiving God,^†

though you punished their misdeeds.^[176]

⁹Exalt the LORD our God

and worship at his holy mountain,

for the LORD our God is holy.

Psalm 100

A psalm. For giving thanks.

¹Shout for joy^† to the LORD, all the earth.

²Worship the LORD with gladness;

come before him^† with joyful songs.

³Know that the LORD is God.^†

It is he who made us,^† and we are his^[177];

we are his people, the sheep of his pasture.^†

⁴Enter his gates with thanksgiving

and his courts with praise;

give thanks to him and praise his name.^†

⁵For the LORD is good^† and his love endures forever;^†

his faithfulness^† continues through all generations.

Psalm 101

Of David. A psalm.

¹I will sing of your love^† and justice;

to you, O LORD, I will sing praise.

²I will be careful to lead a blameless life—

when will you come to me?

I will walk in my house

with blameless heart.

³I will set before my eyes

no vile thing.^†

The deeds of faithless men I hate;^†

they will not cling to me.

⁴Men of perverse heart^† shall be far from me;

I will have nothing to do with evil.

⁵Whoever slanders his neighbor^† in secret,

him will I put to silence;

whoever has haughty eyes^† and a proud heart,

him will I not endure.

⁶My eyes will be on the faithful in the land,

that they may dwell with me;

he whose walk is blameless^†

will minister to me.

⁷No one who practices deceit

will dwell in my house;

no one who speaks falsely

will stand in my presence.

⁸Every morning^† I will put to silence

all the wicked^† in the land;

I will cut off every evildoer^†

from the city of the LORD.^†

Psalm 102

A prayer of an afflicted man. When he is faint and pours out his lament before the LORD.

¹Hear my prayer, O LORD;

let my cry for help^† come to you.

²Do not hide your face^† from me

when I am in distress.

Turn your ear to me;

when I call, answer me quickly.

³For my days vanish like smoke;^†

my bones burn like glowing embers.

⁴My heart is blighted and withered like grass;^†

I forget to eat my food.

⁵Because of my loud groaning

I am reduced to skin and bones.

⁶I am like a desert owl,^†

like an owl among the ruins.

⁷I lie awake;^† I have become

like a bird alone^† on a roof.

⁸All day long my enemies taunt me;

those who rail against me use my name as a curse.

⁹For I eat ashes as my food

and mingle my drink with tears^†

¹⁰because of your great wrath,^†

for you have taken me up and thrown me aside.

¹¹My days are like the evening shadow;^†

I wither away like grass.

¹²But you, O LORD, sit enthroned forever;^†

your renown endures^† through all generations.

¹³You will arise and have compassion^† on Zion,

for it is time to show favor to her;

the appointed time has come.

¹⁴For her stones are dear to your servants;

her very dust moves them to pity.

¹⁵The nations will fear^† the name of the LORD,

all the kings^† of the earth will revere your glory.

¹⁶For the LORD will rebuild Zion

and appear in his glory.^†

¹⁷He will respond to the prayer^† of the destitute;

he will not despise their plea.

¹⁸Let this be written^† for a future generation,

that a people not yet created^† may praise the LORD:

¹⁹“The LORD looked down^† from his sanctuary on high,

from heaven he viewed the earth,

²⁰to hear the groans of the prisoners^†

and release those condemned to death.”

²¹So the name of the LORD will be declared^† in Zion

and his praise in Jerusalem

²²when the peoples and the kingdoms

assemble to worship the LORD.

²³In the course of my life^[178] he broke my strength;

he cut short my days.

²⁴So I said:

“Do not take me away, O my God, in the midst of my days;

your years go on^† through all generations.

²⁵In the beginning^† you laid the foundations of the earth,

and the heavens are the work of your hands.

²⁶They will perish,^† but you remain;

they will all wear out like a garment.

Like clothing you will change them

and they will be discarded.

²⁷But you remain the same,^†

and your years will never end.

²⁸The children of your servants^† will live in your presence;

their descendants^† will be established before you.”

Psalm 103

Of David.

¹Praise the LORD, O my soul;^†

all my inmost being, praise his holy name.

²Praise the LORD, O my soul,

and forget not all his benefits—

³who forgives all your sins^†

and heals^† all your diseases,

⁴who redeems your life from the pit

and crowns you with love and compassion,

⁵who satisfies your desires with good things

so that your youth is renewed like the eagle’s.^†

⁶The LORD works righteousness

and justice for all the oppressed.

⁷He made known^† his ways^† to Moses,

his deeds^† to the people of Israel:

⁸The LORD is compassionate and gracious,^†

slow to anger, abounding in love.

⁹He will not always accuse,

nor will he harbor his anger forever;^†

¹⁰ he does not treat us as our sins deserve^†

or repay us according to our iniquities.

¹¹For as high as the heavens are above the earth,

so great is his love^† for those who fear him;

¹²as far as the east is from the west,

so far has he removed our transgressions^† from us.

¹³As a father has compassion^† on his children,

so the LORD has compassion on those who fear him;

¹⁴for he knows how we are formed,^†

he remembers that we are dust.

¹⁵As for man, his days are like grass,^†

he flourishes like a flower^† of the field;

¹⁶the wind blows^† over it and it is gone,

and its place^† remembers it no more.

¹⁷But from everlasting to everlasting

the LORD’s love is with those who fear him,

and his righteousness with their children’s children—

¹⁸with those who keep his covenant

and remember to obey his precepts.^†

¹⁹The LORD has established his throne in heaven,

and his kingdom rules^† over all.

²⁰Praise the LORD, you his angels,^†

you mighty ones^† who do his bidding,

who obey his word.

²¹Praise the LORD, all his heavenly hosts,^†

you his servants who do his will.

²²Praise the LORD, all his works^†

everywhere in his dominion.

Praise the LORD, O my soul.

Psalm 104

¹Praise the LORD, O my soul.^†

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*

The Ugaritic Text of the Myth of Baal

Psalm 104 Discovered at the site of Ras Shamra (ancient Ugarit; see “Map 1”),¹ the Myth of Baal is one of the longest literary works of the western Semitic peoples in the second millennium B.C. It begins with a conflict over kingship between Baal, the storm god, and Yam, the sea god. Although Baal is victorious in this battle, he is later defeated and killed by Mot, the god of grain and death. After Baal’s sister, Anat, mourns and buries him, she kills Mot in revenge for her brother’s death. She then grinds up his body and sows it as seed. Subsequently, Baal and Mot come back to life and vie for power once again, with the result that Mot eventually capitulates to Baal. The incident with Yam is interpreted as Baal’s victory over the sea, while the struggle between Baal and Mot is equated to the fertility cycle, with Baal seasonally “disappearing” from the earth.²

Psalm 104, a creation psalm, uses some of the imagery known from the Myth of Baal. The Lord’s power over the sea in creation is described (v. 6ff.). While Baal is the “cloud-rider,” the Lord “makes the clouds his chariot” (v. 3). Unlike Baal, however, the Lord is neither killed nor needs help in making the earth produce food (v. 13ff.). The attribution of aspects of Baal to the Lord, along with a demonstration of his superiority to Baal, served to exalt and praise the Lord as the true King and God of creation in an environment in which the temptation to worship Baal was rampant.

Ugaritic tablet describing the conflict between Baal and Mot (Death)

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of Musée de Louvre

1. See “Ugarit/Ras Shamra.”

2. See “Baal and the Fertility Cults.”

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O LORD my God, you are very great;

you are clothed with splendor and majesty.

²He wraps^† himself in light as with a garment;

he stretches out the heavens^† like a tent

³and lays the beams^† of his upper chambers on their waters.

He makes the clouds^† his chariot

and rides on the wings of the wind.^†

⁴He makes winds his messengers,^{[179] †}

flames of fire^† his servants.

⁵He set the earth^† on its foundations;

it can never be moved.

⁶You covered it^† with the deep^† as with a garment;

the waters stood above the mountains.

⁷But at your rebuke^† the waters fled,

at the sound of your thunder they took to flight;

⁸they flowed over the mountains,

they went down into the valleys,

to the place you assigned^† for them.

⁹You set a boundary they cannot cross;

never again will they cover the earth.

¹⁰He makes springs^† pour water into the ravines;

it flows between the mountains.

¹¹They give water to all the beasts of the field;

the wild donkeys quench their thirst.

¹²The birds of the air^† nest by the waters;

they sing among the branches.

¹³He waters the mountains^† from his upper chambers;

the earth is satisfied by the fruit of his work.

¹⁴He makes grass grow^† for the cattle,

and plants for man to cultivate—

bringing forth food^† from the earth:

¹⁵wine^† that gladdens the heart of man,

oil^† to make his face shine,

and bread that sustains his heart.

¹⁶The trees of the LORD are well watered,

the cedars of Lebanon that he planted.

¹⁷There the birds^† make their nests;

the stork has its home in the pine trees.

¹⁸The high mountains belong to the wild goats;

the crags are a refuge for the coneys.^{[180] †}

¹⁹The moon marks off the seasons,^†

and the sun^† knows when to go down.

²⁰You bring darkness,^† it becomes night,^†

and all the beasts of the forest^† prowl.

²¹The lions roar for their prey

and seek their food from God.^†

²²The sun rises, and they steal away;

they return and lie down in their dens.^†

²³Then man goes out to his work,^†

to his labor until evening.

²⁴How many are your works,^† O LORD!

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Ancient Voices

The gods see them,

see Yammu’s messengers,

the embassy of Ruler [Naharu]^*.

The gods lower their heads

onto their knees,

onto their princely thrones.

Balu rebukes them:

Why, gods, have you lowered (your) heads

even to your knees,

even to your princely thrones?

As one must the gods answer,

the tablet of Yammu’s messengers,

the embassy of Ruler Naharu!

Lift, O gods, your heads

off your knees,

off your princely thrones.

And let me answer Yammu’s messengers,

the embassy of Ruler Naharu.

The gods then raise their heads

off their knees,

off their princely thrones.

* Words in brackets and parentheses added by translator for clarity or where text has gaps

—The Balu Myth

See “The Ugaritic Text of the Myth of Baal” article.

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In wisdom you made^† them all;

the earth is full of your creatures.

²⁵There is the sea,^† vast and spacious,

teeming with creatures beyond number—

living things both large and small.

²⁶There the ships^† go to and fro,

and the leviathan,^† which you formed to frolic there.

²⁷These all look to you

to give them their food^† at the proper time.

²⁸When you give it to them,

they gather it up;

when you open your hand,

they are satisfied^† with good things.

²⁹When you hide your face,^†

they are terrified;

when you take away their breath,

they die and return to the dust.^†

³⁰When you send your Spirit,

they are created,

and you renew the face of the earth.

³¹May the glory of the LORD endure forever;

may the LORD rejoice in his works^†—

³²he who looks at the earth, and it trembles,^†

who touches the mountains,^† and they smoke.^†

³³I will sing^† to the LORD all my life;

I will sing praise to my God as long as I live.

³⁴May my meditation be pleasing to him,

as I rejoice^† in the LORD.

³⁵But may sinners vanish^† from the earth

and the wicked be no more.

Praise the LORD, O my soul.

Praise the LORD.^{[181] †}

Psalm 105

¹Give thanks to the LORD,^† call on his name;^†

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*

“The River Is Blood” in The Admonitions of Ipuwer

Psalm 105 The text called The Admonitions of Ipuwer is a lament over the breakdown of society in Egypt, and some compare it to the laments over upheavals found in the Biblical prophets.¹ Ipuwer is most famous in Biblical studies because it contains a line stating that the Nile is blood—and yet people drink from it anyway. This has an obvious historical parallel in the turning of the Nile to blood during the period of the plagues prior to the exodus (Ex 7:14–25). Psalm 105:29 expresses it this way: “He turned their waters into blood, causing their fish to die.”

Although the date of the composition of Ipuwer is unknown, this lament was probably written long before the exodus and thus is not describing the Biblical event. The expression that the Nile “turned to blood” in Ipuwer may help us to understand what the term would have meant to ancient readers. The implication does not appear to have been that the river was literally full of blood but more likely that the water was so polluted as to have been barely usable.

1. See “Ancient Near Eastern Laments” and “Calamity and Distress in Ipuwer.”

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make known among the nations what he has done.

²Sing to him,^† sing praise to him;

tell of all his wonderful acts.

³Glory in his holy name;

let the hearts of those who seek the LORD rejoice.

⁴Look to the LORD and his strength;

seek his face^† always.

⁵Remember the wonders^† he has done,

his miracles, and the judgments he pronounced,^†

⁶O descendants of Abraham his servant,^†

O sons of Jacob, his chosen^† ones.

⁷He is the LORD our God;

his judgments are in all the earth.

⁸He remembers his covenant^† forever,

the word he commanded, for a thousand generations,

⁹the covenant he made with Abraham,^†

the oath he swore to Isaac.

¹⁰He confirmed it^† to Jacob as a decree,

to Israel as an everlasting covenant:

¹¹“To you I will give the land of Canaan^†

as the portion you will inherit.”

¹²When they were but few in number,^†

few indeed, and strangers in it,^†

¹³they wandered from nation to nation,

from one kingdom to another.

¹⁴He allowed no one to oppress^† them;

for their sake he rebuked kings:^†

¹⁵“Do not touch^† my anointed ones;

do my prophets no harm.”

¹⁶He called down famine^† on the land

and destroyed all their supplies of food;

¹⁷and he sent a man before them—

Joseph, sold as a slave.^†

¹⁸They bruised his feet with shackles,^†

his neck was put in irons,

¹⁹till what he foretold^† came to pass,

till the word of the LORD proved him true.

²⁰The king sent and released him,

the ruler of peoples set him free.^†

²¹He made him master of his household,

ruler over all he possessed,

²²to instruct his princes^† as he pleased

and teach his elders wisdom.

²³Then Israel entered Egypt;^†

Jacob lived as an alien in the land of Ham.

²⁴The LORD made his people very fruitful;

he made them too numerous^† for their foes,

²⁵whose hearts he turned^† to hate his people,

to conspire^† against his servants.

²⁶ He sent Moses^† his servant,

and Aaron, whom he had chosen.^†

²⁷They performed^† his miraculous signs among them,

his wonders in the land of Ham.

²⁸He sent darkness^† and made the land dark—

for had they not rebelled against his words?

²⁹He turned their waters into blood,^†

causing their fish to die.^†

³⁰Their land teemed with frogs,^†

which went up into the bedrooms of their rulers.

³¹He spoke, and there came swarms of flies,^†

and gnats^† throughout their country.

³²He turned their rain into hail,^†

with lightning throughout their land;

³³he struck down their vines^† and fig trees

and shattered the trees of their country.

³⁴He spoke, and the locusts came,^†

grasshoppers without number;

³⁵they ate up every green thing in their land,

ate up the produce of their soil.

³⁶Then he struck down all the firstborn^† in their land,

the firstfruits of all their manhood.

³⁷He brought out Israel, laden with silver and gold,^†

and from among their tribes no one faltered.

³⁸Egypt was glad when they left,

because dread of Israel^† had fallen on them.

³⁹He spread out a cloud^† as a covering,

and a fire to give light at night.^†

⁴⁰They asked,^† and he brought them quail^†

and satisfied them with the bread of heaven.^†

⁴¹He opened the rock,^† and water gushed out;

like a river it flowed in the desert.

⁴²For he remembered his holy promise^†

given to his servant Abraham.

⁴³He brought out his people with rejoicing,^†