1:1 The “twentieth year” refers to the twentieth year of the reign of the Persian king Artaxerxes I (see “Artaxerxes I, King of Persia” and “The Chronology of Ezra and Nehemiah”).
1:2 Hanani is probably a shortened form of Hananiah. The Elephantine papyri mention a Hananiah who was the head of Jewish affairs in Jerusalem. Many believe that he was Nehemiah’s brother and that he may have governed between Nehemiah’s first and second terms (see the NIV text note on 7:2).
1:3 Despite abortive attempts to rebuild them (Ezr 4:7–23), Jerusalem’s walls, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 B.C., remained in ruins. Without protective walls Jerusalem was vulnerable to her numerous enemies. Excavations have revealed that the lack of a wall on the eastern slopes also led to the disintegration of the terraces there.
1:11 One of the cupbearer’s duties was to choose and taste the king’s wine to make certain that it was not poisoned (see 2:1). Thus Nehemiah was undoubtedly a man who enjoyed the king’s unreserved confidence. The need for trustworthy court attendants is underscored by the intrigues that characterized the Persian court. Xerxes, the father of Artaxerxes I, was killed in his own bedchamber by a courtier. See “Counselors and Concubines: Life in an Ancient Royal Palace.”
2:1–3 The king’s servants were expected to keep their feelings to themselves and to display a cheerful disposition at all times before him. Yet anxiety gripped Nehemiah, likely not so much because of the king’s question but in anticipation of the request he was to make. Nehemiah knew full well that Artaxerxes himself had earlier stopped the Jews from rebuilding the wall (Ezr 4:17–23).
2:6 Nehemiah probably asked for a brief leave of absence, which was subsequently extended. His first term as governor in Jerusalem lasted 12 years (5:14), after which he returned to report to the king; he then went back to Judah for a second term (13:6–7).
2:7 Nehemiah’s request for “letters” would provide him with safe passage and provisions during the course of his journey. A contemporary document from Arsames, the satrap of Egypt who was at the Persian court, to one of his officers who was returning to Egypt ordered Persian officials to provide him with food and drink on the various stages of his journey.
2:8 The name Asaph is Jewish, naturally implying that this “keeper of the king’s forest” was a Jew. The location of the forest is uncertain. Some argue that it is the cedars of Lebanon; from ancient times kings and pharaohs were anxious to maintain access to the trees of Lebanon (see “Cedars of Lebanon”). On the other hand, the fact that the official in question had a Jewish name suggests a more local forest. Some posit that the forest in question was the garden of Etham, a few miles south of Jerusalem, or that it was located somewhere else in the region of Jerusalem.
2:13 Nehemiah did not make a complete circuit of the walls, but only of the southern area. Jerusalem had always been attacked from the north, where it was most vulnerable, so Nehemiah likely assumed that the northern walls had been completely destroyed. Jerusalem’s walls and gates had lain in ruins since their destruction by Nebuchadnezzar some 140 years earlier, despite aborted attempts to rebuild them.
Uzziah had fortified towers in the western wall (2Ch 26:9), overlooking the central valley between the Hinnom and Kidron Valleys. Excavations in 1927–1928 uncovered the remains of a gate from the Persian period that has been identified as the Valley Gate. Many scholars suggest that the Jackal Well was En Rogel (Jos 15:7–8; 18:16; 2Sa 17:17; 1Ki 1:9), a well situated at the junction of the Hinnom and Kidron Valleys, 250 yards (229 m) south of the southeastern ridge of Jerusalem. Others suggest that it was the Pool of Siloam. The Dung Gate, situated about 500 yards (457 m) south of the Valley Gate (3:13), may have been the gate leading to the rubbish dump in the Hinnom Valley (cf. vv. 13–14; 12:31; 2Ki 23:10).
2:14 The Fountain Gate was possibly in the southeastern wall facing toward En Rogel (see 3:15; 12:37). The King’s Pool was probably the Pool of Siloam (3:15; see “The Pool of Siloam”) or the adjacent Birket el-Hamra. It may have been created by diverting the overflow from Hezekiah’s Siloam tunnel (cf. 2Ki 20:20; 2Ch 32:30; see “Hezekiah’s Tunnel”) to irrigate the royal gardens (2Ki 25:4) located outside the city walls at the junction of the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys.
2:19 Arabs became dominant in Transjordan from the Assyrian to the Persian periods. Sargon II of Assyria resettled some Arabs in Samaria in 715 B.C. Classical sources reveal that the Arabs enjoyed a favored status under the Persians.
3:1–32 This chapter describes the reconstruction of about 45 sections of wall, from a starting point on the northern side and moving counterclockwise. The account suggests that most of the rebuilding was concerned with the gates, as enemy assaults would have focused on those structures.
3:1 It was appropriate that the high priest should be part of the rebuilding process and set an example for the people. Ancient Sumerian kings would themselves carry bricks for the building of a temple.
The Sheep Gate was known in New Testament times (Jn 5:2) as having been located near the Bethesda Pool (in the northeastern corner of Jerusalem; see “The Pool of Bethseda in Jerusalem”). Even today this area is periodically used as a sheep market. The Sheep Gate may have replaced the earlier Benjamin Gate (Jer 37:13; 38:7; Zec 14:10).
Regarding the Tower of the Hundred, “Hundred” may have referred to (1) its height (100 cubits), (2) the number of its steps or (3) a military unit (cf. Dt 1:15). The Tower of the Hundred and the Tower of Hananel were associated with the “citadel by the temple” (Ne 2:8) in protecting the vulnerable northern approaches to the city.
3:8 Archaeological excavations in Jerusalem have uncovered a wall west of the temple area dated to the early seventh century B.C. and probably built under the direction of Hezekiah (2Ch 32:5). The expansion to and beyond the Broad Wall may have become necessary because of the influx of refugees fleeing from the fall of Samaria in 722–721 B.C.
3:16 Beth Zur was a district capital 13 miles (21 km) south of Jerusalem. Excavations in 1931 and 1957 revealed that occupation was sparse during the early Persian period but was resumed in the fifth century B.C.
David had been buried in the city area of Jerusalem (1Ki 2:10; 2Ch 21:20; 32:33; Ac 2:29). The so-called Tomb of David on Mount Zion, venerated today by Jewish pilgrims, is located in the Coenaculum building, erected in the fourteenth century A.D. Such a site for David’s tomb is mentioned no earlier than the ninth century A.D.
The House of the Heroes may have been the housing unit for David’s “mighty men” (see 2Sa 23:8–39), which perhaps served later as the barracks or armory.
3:26 The Water Gate led to the Gihon spring, the main source of Jerusalem’s water. It must have opened onto a large area, for the reading of the law took place there (8:1, 3, 16; 12:37).
The “projecting tower” may have been the large tower whose ruins were discovered by archaeologists on the crest of the Ophel hill in 1923–1925. Excavations at the base of the tower in 1978 revealed a level dating to the Persian era.
4:2 Fire had damaged the stones, which were probably limestone, and had caused many of them to crack and crumble.
4:7–8 The reasons that Sanballat and Tobiah opposed Nehemiah were not basically religious but political. The authority of the Samaritan governor in particular was threatened by the arrival of Nehemiah, the new governor of Judah (cf. 5:14). The Arabs (4:7), led by Geshem (2:19), were probably afraid that Judah’s strengthening under Nehemiah would cut into their lucrative trade enterprise.
4:23 Constant preparedness was the rule. According to Josephus (Antiquities, 11.5.8), Nehemiah “himself made the rounds of the city by night, never tiring either through work or lack of food and sleep, neither of which he took for pleasure but as a necessity.”
5:3 See the note on famine at Ruth 1:1. Also see “Famine in the Ancient Near East.”
5:4 It is estimated that the Persian king collected the equivalent of 20 million darics (100 million dollars) each year in taxes. Little was ever returned to benefit the provinces, because most of it was melted down and stored as bullion. For information on the daric, see the note on 1 Chronicles 29:7.
5:7 Josephus (Antiquities, 4.8.25) explained the prohibition of usury: “Let it not be permitted to lend upon usury to any Hebrew either meat or drink; for it is not just to draw a revenue from the misfortunes of a fellow countryman. Rather, in consoling him in his distress, you should reckon as gain the gratitude of such persons and the recompense that God has in store for an act of generosity.”
5:15 The Hebrew for “governor” is used of Sheshbazzar (Ezr 5:14) and Zerubbabel (Hag 1:1, 14;), as well as of various Persian officials (Ezr 5:3, 6; 6:6–7, 13; 8:36; Ne 2:7, 9; 3:7). While some believe that Judah did not have governors before Nehemiah and that the reference here is to governors of Samaria, recent archaeological evidence, in the form of seals and seal impressions, confirms the reference to the previous governors of Judah.
Since it was customary Persian practice to exempt temple personnel from taxation (see the note on Ezr 7:24), the tax burden fell even more heavily upon lay people. Governors who employed extortion often cultivated assistants who were even more oppressive (cf. Mt 18:21–35; 20:25–28).
6:2 Ono was located about 7 miles (11 km) southeast of Joppa near Lod (Lydda), in the westernmost area settled by the returning Jews.
6:5 During this period a letter was ordinarily written on a papyrus or leather sheet, which was rolled up, tied with a string and sealed with a clay bulla (seal impression) to guarantee its authenticity (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World”). Sanballat apparently wanted the content of his letter to be made known to the public at large.
6:6 The Behistun Inscription of Darius I (see “Darius I”) makes it clear that Persian kings did not tolerate rebellion or illegitimate claims to kingship. Later, in New Testament times, the Roman emperor was similarly suspicious of any unauthorized claims to royalty (Jn 19:12; cf. Mt 2:1–13).
6:9 The phrase “hands will get too weak” expresses the idea of discouragement. The Hebrew for this phrase is also used in Ezra 4:4 and Jeremiah 38:4, as well as on an ostracon from Lachish dated about 588 B.C. (see “The Lachish Ostraca”).
6:10–13 Since Shemaiah had access to the temple, he was probably a priest. He could have legitimately proposed that Nehemiah take refuge in the temple area at the altar of asylum (cf. Ex 21:13–14; 1Ki 1:50–53), but not in “the house of God” (Ne 6:10), the temple building itself, since as a layman Nehemiah was not permitted to enter the sanctuary (Nu 18:7).
6:14 See the note on prophetesses at Exodus 15:20–21.
6:15 The walls that lay in ruins for nearly a century and a half were rebuilt in less than two months once the people had been galvanized into action by Nehemiah’s leadership. Archaeological investigations have shown that the circumference of the wall in Nehemiah’s day was much reduced. Josephus stated (Antiquities, 11.5.8) that the rebuilding of the wall required two years and four months, but he was doubtless including such additional tasks as further strengthening its various sections, embellishing and beautifying.
7:3 Ordinarily a city’s gates would have been opened each day at dawn, but Nehemiah delayed unlocking the gates to prevent an enemy attack before Jerusalem’s residents were fully awake and alert. (see “The City Gate.”)
7:44 See the note on Psalms 73:1–83:18 for commentary on Asaph.
7:65 See “The Urim and Thummim.”
8:2–3 Women did not participate in ordinary meetings but were included, together with children, on such sacred occasions (cf. Dt 31:12–13; Jos 8:35; Ne 10:28; 12:43). The people evidently stood for five or six hours attentively listening to the reading and explanation of the Scriptures.
8:8 The phrase “making it clear” may mean that the Levites translated the words from Hebrew into Aramaic (see the NIV text note).
8:15 Olives are widespread in Mediterranean countries and were growing in Canaan already before the conquest (Dt 8:8). Because it takes an olive tree 30 years to mature, its cultivation requires peaceful conditions (see “Food and Agriculture”).
9:1 For information on sackcloth, see the note on 2 Kings 6:30.
9:8 See “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament” and “The Jebusites.”
9:25 Almost every house had its own well or cistern in which to preserve water from the rainy season (2Ki 18:31; Pr 5:15). Once the technique of waterproofing cisterns was developed (c. 1200 B.C.), the central hills of Judah became more heavily populated.
Still, Canaan was a land of plenty. The Egyptian story of Sinuhe (c. 2000 B.C.) describes it as follows: “Figs were in it, and grapes. It had more wine than water. Plentiful was its honey, abundant its olives. Every (kind of) fruit was on its trees.”
10:31 The Romans attributed the Jewish observance of the Sabbath and the Sabbath year to laziness. According to Tacitus, the Jews “were led by the charms of indolence to give over the seventh year as well to inactivity.”
10:32 Elsewhere the Old Testament speaks of a “half shekel” as the amount required as “an offering to the LORD” (Ex 30:13–14), to be given by each man who was twenty years old or older as a symbolic ransom. This amount later became that of the annual temple tax (2Ch 24:9), also called “the two-drachma tax” (Mt 17:24). (Two drachmas were equal to half a shekel.) The pledge of a third of a shekel in Nehemiah’s time may have been due to the poor economic circumstances. (see “Banking and Money in the Ancient World.”)
10:34 The perpetual burning of fire on the sanctuary altar (Lev 6:12–13) would have required a continual supply of wood. Although the Bible does not make specific reference to a wood offering, Josephus mentioned “the festival of wood offering” on the fourteenth day of the fifth month (Ab). The Jewish Mishnah (rabbinic interpretations and applications of Pentateuchal laws) lists nine instances in which certain families brought wood and stipulates that all kinds of wood were suitable except for that from the vine and the olive. The Temple Scroll from Qumran describes the celebration of a wood offering festival for six days following a new oil festival.
10:37 The practice of giving a tenth was ancient (see Ge 14:20; 28:22). While the Law of Moses decreed that a tenth portion of plant crops was holy to the Lord (Lev 27:30), there is no reference to a tithe of cattle (cf. Lev 27:32–33). Tithes were intended for the support of the Levites (Ne 10:37; cf. Nu 18:21–24; Ne 13:10–12), who in turn were to offer the Lord “a tenth of the tithes” (Ne 10:38; cf. Nu 18:25–32).
Chambers in the outer temple courts were used as “storerooms” for silver, gold and other objects (Ne 10:38–39; 12:44; 13:4–5, 9). See “Banking and Money in the Ancient World.”
11:1–2 The practice of redistributing populations was also used to establish Greek and Hellenistic cities. Known as synoikismos, this policy involved forcible transfer from rural settlements to urban centers. Some of the affected inhabitants were chosen by lot (v. 1), while others volunteered to live in Jerusalem (v. 2). But evidently most opted to stay in their hometowns. The first-century A.D. Jewish historian Josephus asserted: “Nehemiah, seeing that the city had a small population, urged the priests and Levites to leave the countryside and move to the city and remain there, for he had prepared houses for them at his own expense” (Antiquities, 11.5.8).
11:9 Like the “market district” (Zep 1:11)—probably the Tyropoeon Valley area just south of Mount Moriah—the Second District was a new suburb west of the temple area. Archaeological excavations indicate that the city had spread outside the walls in this direction by the late eighth century B.C., before the so-called Broad Wall had been built (c. 700 B.C.) by Hezekiah.
11:27 Excavations reveal that the city of Beersheba was likely destroyed by Sennacherib in 701 B.C. and only resettled during the Persian period (see “Beersheba”).
12:7 See the note on Ezra 6:18.
12:9 The singing was antiphonal, with two sections of the choir standing opposite each other.
12:11 Since verse 22 mentions a Johanan after Joiada and before Jaddua, and verse 23 identifies Johanan as “son” of Eliashib, some believe that “Jonathan” is an error for “Johanan” (see “Textual Criticism”). Further complicating the identification are attempts to identify this high priest with a “Johanan” mentioned both in the Elephantine papyri and in Josephus (Antiquities, 11.7.1).
12:27 The word “dedication” translates the Aramaic word hanukkah. The Jewish holiday in December that celebrates the recapture of the temple from the Seleucids and its rededication (164 B.C.) is formally known as Hanukkah.
Cymbals were used in religious ceremonies (1Ch 16:42; 25:1; 2Ch 5:12; 29:25), as were harps (1Sa 10:5; 2Sa 6:5; Ps 150:3). Ancient examples of cymbals have been found at Beth Shemesh and Tell Abu Hawam, and ancient harps have been reconstructed from information derived from the remains of harps at Ur, pictures of harps and cuneiform texts describing in detail their tuning. Lyres had strings of the same length but of different diameters and tensions (see 1Ch 15:16; Da 3:5). (See “Ancient Musical Instruments.”)
13:2 See “Balaam, the Son of Beor.”
13:7 Nehemiah’s second term must have ended before 407 B.C., when, according to the Elephantine papyri, Bagohi (Bigvai) was governor of Judah. Some have suggested that after Nehemiah’s first term he was succeeded by his brother Hanani (see the note on 1:2).
13:12 Temples in Mesopotamia also levied tithes for the support of their personnel.
13:15 For a discussion of sheaves and threshing, see the note on Ruth 2:7. See also “The Threshing Floor” and “Food and Agriculture.”
13:19 Like the Babylonians, the Israelites counted their days from sunset to sunset, while the Egyptians used a dawn-to-dawn system. The blowing of a trumpet by a priest heralded the precise moment when the Sabbath began. Josephus (Jewish Wars, 4.9.12) spoke of the location on the parapet of the temple where the priests “gave a signal beforehand, with a trumpet, at the beginning of every seventh day, in the evening twilight, and also at the onset of evening when that day was finished, announcing to the people the respective hours for ceasing work and for resuming their labors.” Archaeological excavations at the temple mount have uncovered a stone from the southwestern corner of the parapet that had fallen to the ground during Titus’s siege; it includes the inscription “for the place of the blowing (of the trumpet).”
13:28 The high priest was not allowed to marry a foreigner (Lev 21:14). The expulsion of Joiada’s son followed either this special ban or the general prohibition against intermarriage. Josephus (Antiquities, 11.7.2) recorded that an almost identical episode, involving a marriage between the daughter of a Sanballat of Samaria and the brother of the Jewish high priest, took place a little over a century later during the time of Alexander the Great.
1:1 Xerxes ruled the Persian Empire from 486 to 465 B.C. (see “Ancient Persian History From Xerxes Forward” and “Xerxes, Vashti and Esther”). He is best known for his failed invasion of Greece.
1:2 Susa (see “Susa”), located in Elam (southwestern Iran), was the Persian winter capital. The three other capitals were Ecbatana (Ezr 6:2), Babylon and Persepolis. One of Daniel’s visions was set in Susa (Da 8:2), and Nehemiah also served there (Ne 1:1).
1:10–12 The beautiful Vashti was a trophy of Xerxes’ power and glory. He evidently desired her dramatic entrance before the men being asked to go to war for the empire. Perhaps the sight of the queen was intended to inspire patriotism, but Xerxes’ drunken state may have been a factor as well. The Greek historian Herodotus explained that the Persians drank as they deliberated matters of state (cf. 3:15), believing that intoxication put them in closer touch with the spiritual world.
1:13–14 Ezra 7:14 and the Greek historian Herodotus both indicate that seven men functioned as the immediate advisers to the king. (see “Counselors and Concubines: Life in an Ancient Royal Palace.”)
2:1 The Greek wars intervened before a new queen was sought.
2:5 The presence of a large Jewish population in Medo-Persia has been confirmed by the discovery of an archive of texts in Nippur (southern Mesopotamia) from the period of Artaxerxes I (465–424 B.C.) and Darius II (424–405). This archive contains the names of about 100 Jews who lived in that city, some of whom had attained positions of importance and wealth. Similar Jewish populations were probable in other Medo-Persian cities.
2:12 For commentary on perfume, see the note on 7:17. See also “Perfumes and Anointing Oils.”
2:21–23 Herodotus referred to an official listing of the king’s “benefactors,” recorded in the Persian archives. Acts of loyalty were ordinarily rewarded immediately and generously by Persian kings, but Mordecai’s reward was initially overlooked, even though his action had been noted.
2:23 Pictures and statues from the ancient Near East and the comments of the historian Herodotus (3.125,129; 4.43) confirm that the Persian practice of “hanging” was actually impalement. According to Herodotus (3.159), Darius I impaled 3,000 Babylonians when he took Babylon, an act that Darius himself recorded in his Behistun Inscription (see “Darius I”). In Israelite and Canaanite practice, hanging was an exhibition of the corpse and not the means of execution itself (Dt 21:22–23; Jos 8:29; 10:26; 1Sa 31:8–10; 2Sa 4:12; 21:9–10). The sons of Haman were killed by the sword, after which their corpses were displayed in this way (Est 9:5–14).
3:7 The word pur is found in Akkadian texts with the meaning “lot” (as here). It introduces the element of destiny into the story (cf. Pr 16:33; Ac 1:26). Haman cast the lot (in essence, rolled the dice) to determine the date of death for the Jews. But God determined how the dice fell (see “Casting Lots”). The outcome was a date 11 months off. The edict was sent out on the thirteenth day of the first month—ironically, on the eve of Passover.
3:9 Haman was offering a huge sum, almost two-thirds of the annual income of the empire. Presumably the money would have come from the plundered wealth of the victims of the decree. The “men who carry out this business” could refer either to the revenue officers who would bring the money to the treasury or to those who would carry out the decree.
3:10 See “Signet Rings.”
5:11 Haman had ten sons (9:7–10). Herodotus (1.136) reported that among the Persians the only thing prized more highly than a large number of sons was valor in battle.
5:14 Zeresh’s advice reminds us of Jezebel’s when her husband, King Ahab, was sulking like a spoiled child (1Ki 21:1–16). Jezebel’s solution was to arrange a “legal” murder (the death penalty for a trumped-up charge of blasphemy) so that Ahab could have what he wanted. Here Zeresh counseled Haman simply to kill Mordecai outright. In the pagan world of ancient Persia the satisfaction of human pride in its demand for honor and respect outweighed the value of human life.
6:8 In ancient times great significance was attached to a king’s garments. Wearing the king’s garment was a sign of unique favor (1Sa 18:4) that represented a sharing of his power, stature, honor or sanctity (2Ki 2:13–14; Isa 61:3, 10; Zec 3; Mk 5:27).
6:14 Guests were usually escorted to feasts (see Ge 43:15–26; cf. Mt 22:1–14).
7:7–8 Protocol dictated that no one but the king could be left alone with a woman of the royal harem (see “Counselors and Concubines: Life in an Ancient Royal Palace”). Once the king had exited, Haman should have left Esther’s presence. That he moved onto her couch was unthinkable!
8:1 Herodotus (3.128–129) and Josephus (Antiquities, 11.17) confirmed that the property of a traitor reverted to the crown. Xerxes presented Haman’s wealth (5:11) to Esther.
9:10 The author repeated three times that the Jews “did not lay their hands on the plunder” (vv. 10, 15, 16), even though Mordecai’s decree would have allowed it (8:11). Mordecai included this permission because he was reversing the exact terms of Haman’s decree (3:13), but a rule of ancient Jewish holy war was that plunder was not to be taken (see “Herem, Holy War”). Abram (Ge 14) had refused to accept any material reward from the king of Sodom, not wanting that wicked city to be the source of his prosperity. This had set the precedent for God’s people.
9:13 The reference here to hanging was for the purpose of displaying the corpses—not the means of the execution (see vv. 7–10 and the note on 2:23).
9:18–19 This explains the tradition of observing Purim on two different days: The celebration was observed on the fourteenth day of the month in most towns, but the Jews of Susa commemorated it on the fifteenth. Today it is observed on the fourteenth—except in Jerusalem, where it is celebrated on the fifteenth.
9:20 While some take this verse as an indication that Mordecai wrote the book of Esther, the more natural understanding is that he recorded the events in the letters he sent.
9:29–32 Purim joined the existing five Jewish feasts that had been commanded by Moses in the Torah. Rather than having been prescribed by God’s command, this celebration began as a spontaneous response to his covenant faithfulness.
Purim is still celebrated today. The entire book of Esther is read in the synagogue on the holiday, during which noisemakers are used. People cheer at the sound of Mordecai’s name and boo and hiss at the mention of Haman. (see “The Canonicity of Esther.”) Other important holy days from the postexilic period are Hanukkah, celebrating the Jewish victory over Antiochus IV of Syria (see “Antiochus IV Epiphanes”), and the Ninth of Ab, mourning the destruction of Jerusalem.
1:1–2:13 A figure like Job, standing outside the Abrahamic and Mosaic covenants, was an ideal vehicle for Biblical Wisdom Literature, concerned as it was with the common ways and demands of God rather than with his peculiarly theocratic government of Israel. There are only a few direct references to the Mosaic Law in Biblical Wisdom Literature.
Job in some ways appears to have been like one of the patriarchs of old, as is evident from his longevity and God’s revelation to him by theophany (God visibly manifesting himself). On the other hand, there are very few social or economic customs in Job that tie the book to the patriarchal period or, for that matter, to any other period. The Chaldeans were actually a late people, not appearing in the historical record until about 1000 B.C. Still, Job’s patriarch-like status allows him to stand as an archetype for the suffering human being.
The particular purpose of the book of Job as Wisdom Literature is to articulate and point the direction for a true apologetic for the faith. The doctrine of God as incomprehensible Creator and sovereign Lord is offered in this book as the fundamental reality with which humans must reckon as religious beings serving God amid the historical tensions of life. It is also the presupposition with which a philosophical inquirer must begin. This enterprise is illustrated by the continuing debate to come between Job and his friends over the problem of theodicy (God’s goodness versus evil). The folly of depending for answers on human observation and speculation is portrayed by the eventual silencing of the trio who represented it. The book of Job identifies the way of the covenant with the way of wisdom (cf. 28:28) and so brings philosophy under the authority of divine revelation.
1:1 Uz was a large territory east of the Jordan River (see v. 3). It included Edom in the south (see Ge 36:28; La 4:21) and the Aramean lands in the north (see Ge 10:23; 22:21). The story of Job is set in the second millennium B.C., although the book itself was written much later.
In the Bible God alone, who lacks nothing in terms of goodness or excellence, is presented as truly perfect. Everything he is, thinks and does has the character of perfection (Dt 32:4; 2Sa 22:31; Job 37:16; Ps 18:30; 19:7; Mt 5:48). When human beings are called perfect in the Old Testament, the implication is that they were “upright” or “blameless” (this latter word was chosen by the NIV translators to describe Job in this verse; cf. Ge 6:9; Ps 37:37).
1:3 The Hebrew for the word “donkeys” is feminine in form. Donkeys that produced offspring were highly valued.
1:5 On special occasions feasts might last for a week (see Ge 29:27; Jdg 14:12).
Job, like the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, functioned as a priest for his family. He took his sacrificial obligation seriously, making atonement even for sins of the heart. The matter of cursing or declining to curse God is key in the development of this ancient drama.
1:15 The Sabeans were nomads from Sheba living in southwestern Arabia (see the note on 1Ki 10:1). Their descendants became wealthy traders in spices, gold and precious stones (see 1Ki 10:1–13; Ps 72:10, 15; Isa 60:6; Jer 6:20; Eze 27:22; Joel 3:8). Job 6:19 refers to the Sabeans as “traveling merchants” and associates them with Tema (about 350 miles [565 km] southeast of Jerusalem).
2:4 “Skin for skin!” was most likely a proverb that originally expressed a willingness to barter one animal skin for another of equal value.
2:7 Job’s illness included painful, festering sores and scabs covering his whole body (7:5); nightmares (7:14); skin that peeled and became black (30:28, 30); disfigurement and a hideous appearance (2:12; 19:19); bad breath (19:17); emaciation (17:7; 19:20); fever (30:30); and unremitting pain (30:17). The Hebrew for “sores” (2:7) is translated “boil(s)” in Exodus 9:9, Leviticus 13:18 and 2 Kings 20:7.
2:8 The familiar Biblical expression “dust and ashes” (e.g., Ge 18:27) is a play on words (aphar and epher), signifying the origin of the human body from the ordinary chemical elements. It contrasts the lowliness of humankind with the dignity of God. Ashes were sprinkled over a person, or an individual sat among ashes, as a sign of mourning (2Sa 13:19; Job 2:8). The word is often united with “sackcloth” to express mourning (Jer 6:26; see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”). For information on broken pottery, see “The Potsherd: Pottery in the Bible.”
2:11–13 Stylistic comparison of other ancient wisdom writings with Job reveals similarities (see “The Poor and the Afflicted in Ancient Wisdom Literature”), but also highlights Job’s uniqueness. The dialogue form of the book is paralleled to an extent in Egyptian and Babylonian wisdom poetry, and the various individual literary forms employed in Job (psalms of lament and thanksgiving, proverbs, covenant oaths, etc.) are not novelties. Nevertheless, as a masterful blend of a remarkably rich variety of forms within a narrative framework, with exquisite lyric and dramatic qualities, all devoted to didactic purpose, the book of Job creates its own literary species. Of particular significance is the bracketing of the poetic dialogue (to begin at ch. 3) with the prose (or better, semipoetic) prologue and epilogue. This A-B-A structure is found elsewhere in the ancient Near East, e.g., in the Code of Hammurabi (see “Hammurabi”) and in the Eloquent Peasant (see “The Desire for Justice in the Eloquent Peasant”) and thus supports the book’s integrity.
2:11 Eliphaz, the chief of Job’s three friends, came from Teman, traditionally famous for its wise men (Jer 49:7). His speeches showed clearer reasoning than those of the other two friends. In his first speech (Job 4–5) Eliphaz traced back all affliction to sin, through the natural operation of cause and effect, and admonished Job to make peace with God. In his second address (ch. 15) Eliphaz expressed irritation at Job’s sarcasm, reiterated his earlier arguments and depicted strongly the fate of the wicked. In his third monologue (ch. 22) Eliphaz definitely charged Job with sin and pointed out to him the path of restoration. In 42:7–9 God addressed Eliphaz as the chief of Job’s friends, commanding him to make a sacrifice in expiation for having wrongly accused Job.
Bildad was evidently a descendant of Shuah (Ge 25:2), a son of Abraham by Keturah, and one who had become the patriarch of an Arab tribe. Bildad made three speeches (Job 8; 18; 25), and his distinctive character as a “traditionalist” can best be seen in 8:8–10.
Zophar, the Naamathite, had probably come from Naamah in northern Arabia (2:11; 11:1; 20:1; 42:9).
2:12–13 Job’s friends adopted a drastic form of mourning, usually reserved for death or total disaster. They tore their robes of nobility, wailed and threw dust into the air—then sat in silence before Job for seven days and nights (cf. Ge 50:10; Jos 7:6; 2Sa 13:19; Eze 3:15). To speak before the sufferer did would have been considered bad taste.
4:1–5:27 See the note on Eliphaz at 2:11.
4:1 Teman, an Edomite town south of the Dead Sea, was renowned for its wisdom (see Jer 49:7).
4:12–21 Eliphaz claimed to have received a divine revelation through a dream. His advice to Job was based upon this hair-raising mystical experience (see v. 15; see also “Dream Oracles in the Ancient World.”)
5:4 The city gate was the traditional place for trials; there the elders sat to hold court (see “The City Gate”).
5:7 The word “sparks” is literally “sons of Resheph.” In Canaanite mythology Resheph was a god of plague and destruction. “(Sons of) Resheph” is the idea behind several poetic images in the Old Testament for fire (SS 8:6), bolts of lightning (Ps 78:48) and pestilence (Dt 32:24; Hab 3:5).
7:9 Mesopotamian descriptions of the netherworld refer to it similarly as the “land of no return.” (See the note on 10:21.)
9:8 Canaanite texts describe the goddess Asherah as walking on the sea in order to subdue it. Similarly, God “treads on the waves” to control the boisterous deep.
9:9 These three constellations are mentioned again in 38:31–32. The ancient Israelites, despite their limited knowledge of astronomy, were awed by the fact that God had created the constellations.
9:13 Rahab refers to the mythical sea monster of the deep (see 26:12; see also “The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation”), elsewhere cited in the Bible as symbolic of Egypt (see Isa 30:7). In this passage, as well as in others (e.g., Ps 89:10), the motif of the slaying of the dragon appears. In Isaiah 51:9 the Lord’s victory is declared to be complete because he has cut Rahab, the monster, to ribbons. This poetic symbolism has much in common with the Ras Shamra literature (see “Ugarit/Ras Shamra”) and has been the prototype of legends like “Saint George and the Dragon.” The Rahab Yashab (“Rahab the Do-Nothing”) of Isaiah 30:7 portrays the impotency of the monster of Egypt (symbolized by the crocodile) in the day of invasion.
9:30 “Soda” refers to a vegetable alkali used as a cleansing agent. The Hebrew underlying this word is translated “soap” in Jeremiah 2:22 and Malachi 3:2.
9:33 In eastern lands it was customary for a judge to place his hands upon the heads of the two parties in a dispute as a demonstration of his authority and desire to render an unbiased verdict. Job’s statement implies that no human being is worthy of acting as the judge of God.
10:10 Three different Hebrew words, each appearing only once in the Old Testament, are translated “cheese.” In this verse gevînâh, “curd” or “cheese,” is from a root meaning “coagulate.” In 2 Samuel 17:29 the word shaphah is more properly translated “cream,” because it is skimmed off. In 1 Samuel 17:18 hãrîtsî hehâlâv denotes “cuts of milk”—that is, cheese. Milk of cows, goats and sheep was stored in skins, but in a warm climate without refrigeration it soon curdled. The process used to make cheese can only be guessed from the practices current in the Near East today.
10:21 Ancient Mesopotamian documents refer to the netherworld as the “house of darkness” (see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”).
13:25 See “The Threshing Floor.”
13:27 The practice of marking slaves is attested in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (eighteenth century B.C.).
14:19 See the note on stones and gravel at Isaiah 27:9.
15:1–35 See the note on Eliphaz at 2:11.
15:10 Age, with its tested experience, was equated in ancient times with wisdom.
16:15 The English word sackcloth is derived from the Hebrew sak, referring to a coarse cloth, dark in color, usually made of goat’s hair. It was worn by mourners (2Sa 3:31; 2Ki 19:1–2), often by prophets (Isa 20:2; Rev 11:3) and by captives (1Ki 20:31). Its exact shape as a garment is unknown. Some surmise that it was originally a loincloth that was the only article of clothing worn by Israel’s ancestors and that it was later donned only as a religious duty. Others think it resembled a corn sack, with openings for the neck and arms. Sackcloth was usually worn with another garment but sometimes next to the skin (1Ki 21:27; 2Ki 6:30; Job 16:15; Isa 32:11; Jnh 3:6). See also the note on 1 Kings 20:31–32 and “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”
17:6 See “Bywords and Insults in the Ancient World.”
17:13–16 The Old Testament makes three main points about Sheol: (1) All the dead alike go there (e.g., Ge 37:35; Isa 14:9ff). (2) Sheol is in some unspecified sense the lot of the wicked. References such as Psalms 6:5; 30:3, 9; and 88:3–6 (cf. Job 17:13–16; Isa 38:18) are often quoted as allegedly showing that the Old Testament knew of no hope after death, that the dead were thought to have been cut off from the Lord and he from them. In all of these references, however, the speakers believed themselves to be facing death under the wrath of God, estranged from him, with no indication of his favor. The Old Testament takes the matter no further; there is some undefined sense in which Sheol was assumed to have involved those who died under wrath in separation from God—the God their wickedness had offended. (3) On the other hand, there were those who could confidently look forward to glory (Ps 73:23–24)—which they perceived as redemption from Sheol (Ps 49:14–15). See “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
18:13–14 This “king of terrors”—a personification of death—is reminiscent of the Canaanite deity Mot (“Death”), whose devouring throat supposedly reached from earth to sky. The prophet Isaiah reversed the figure, picturing God swallowing up death forever (Isa 25:8; cf. 1Co 15:54).
19:24 Iron did not come into common use in the ancient Near East until the twelfth century B.C.
22:1–30 See the note on Eliphaz at 2:11.
22:12 The Bible refers in a most striking manner to the height of the stars—that is, to their distance from the earth (cf. Isa 14:13). Note that our galaxy alone is approximately 100,000 light years across!
22:24 For information on Ophir, see the note on 1 Kings 9:28.
23:13 Although Job was not an Israelite, he worshiped the one true God.
24:2 For information on boundary stones, see the note on Deuteronomy 19:14.
24:10 For a discussion of sheaves and threshing, see the note on Ruth 2:7. See also “The Threshing Floor” and “Food and Agriculture.”
26:5 The Hebrew rendered here as “the dead” is translated “spirits of the dead” in Proverbs 2:18, “spirits of the departed” in Isaiah 14:9 and “departed spirits” in Isaiah 26:14. The term is used figuratively of the deceased who supposedly inhabited the netherworld (see Job 3:13–15, 17–19). The “waters” were considered part of the world inhabited by living beings and therefore above the netherworld.
28:1–11 These verses provide a fascinating, lyrical description of ancient mining techniques.
28:10 An eighth-century B.C. inscription found at Jerusalem’s Pool of Siloam testifies to the sophistication of ancient tunneling technology. (see “Hezekiah’s Tunnel” and “The Pool of Siloam.”)
28:16 For information on Ophir, see the note on 1 Kings 9:28.
28:17 Both the Hebrew and Greek terms for “crystal” can also be translated “ice.” Most likely the reference here is to rock crystal or to crystallized quartz. The reason for the possible rendering “ice” is the ancient belief that crystal was formed by intense cold (see also Rev 4:6; 21:11; 22:1).
28:19 Cush was located in the Upper Nile region, south of Egypt.
29:6 Cream and olive oil were symbols of wealth and luxury (see 20:17; Eze 16:19).
29:7 The most important business was conducted, and the most significant legal cases tried, at the city gate (see “The City Gate”). Job was a city elder, a member of the ruling council.
29:12–13 See “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
30:4 The term “salt herbs” probably refers to saltwort, which grows in otherwise infertile areas, including the regions east of Sinai where Job and his friends lived. The broom tree was a large bush found in the deserts of Canaan and Arabia (see 1Ki 19:4; Ps 120:4).
30:9 See “Bywords and Insults in the Ancient World.”
30:12 See “Siege Warfare.”
30:19 Dust and ashes were symbolic of humiliation and insignificance. Job would later use this combination to symbolize repentance (42:6).
31:26 The sun and moon are not to be objects of worship (see Dt 4:19; 17:3; Eze 8:16–17), although worship of these heavenly bodies was widespread in the ancient Near East.
31:27 A kiss was an ancient gesture of worship (see 1Ki 19:18; Hos 13:2; see also “The Jewish Custom of Kissing”).
31:36 Inscriptions were sometimes worn on the shoulder as a perpetual reminder of their importance (see Ex 28:12).
32:2 A Buzite was an Aramean, an inhabitant of Buz, a desert region in the east (see Jer 25:23).
32:19 Old wineskins, unlike new ones, might be expected to crack or break (see Mt 9:17). Elihu was obviously eager to speak.
33:18 The rendering of this verse in the NIV text note refers to the figurative waterway that was said to be the means of passage from the land of the living to the realm of the dead.
33:25 Similar phrases are used in 2 Kings 5:14 with reference to healing from leprosy.
37:1–13 This passage reveals a sophisticated observation of atmospheric conditions and their effects: the evaporation and distillation of water for rain (see 36:27 and the NIV text note), the clouds as holders of moisture (see 36:28; 37:11) and the cyclonic behavior of clouds (see v. 12).
37:18 In Deuteronomy 28:23 a bronze sky symbolizes unremitting heat and drought.
38:14 The phrase “like clay under a seal” refers to either a cylinder seal or a stamp seal. Small cylinder seals were used to sign clay documents by rolling them over the clay. The owner wore the seal around his neck on a cord. (see “Scrolls, Seals and Codices.”)
39:9–11 In the Old Testament the wild ox (the now virtually extinct aurochs) often symbolized strength (see, e.g., Nu 23:22; 24:8; Dt 33:17; Ps 29:6). Next to the elephant and rhinoceros, the wild ox was the largest and most powerful land animal of the Old Testament world.
39:12 See “The Threshing Floor.”
39:26 “Hawk” refers to the sparrow hawk, which is not resident to the Levant (today’s Syria/Palestine) but stops there in its migration south for the winter.
40:15 The Hebrew word behemoth means “beast par excellence.” It refers to a large land animal, possibly the hippopotamus or the elephant. It was an actual creature (“which [God] made”), not a mythical being.
40:21–23 The area described here is probably the Huleh region, north of the Sea of Galilee.
41:30 “Jagged potsherds” refers to broken pottery fragments (see “The Potsherd: Pottery in the Bible”).
42:11 For information on earrings or nose rings, see the note on Ezekiel 16:12.
1:1–6 The Hebrew designation of Psalms is Tehillîm, meaning “praises,” a term that reflects much of the book’s content (cf. Ps 145, title). Its name in Latin and English Bibles, however, comes from the Greek Psalmoi, which literally means “twangings [of harp strings],” and then, as a result, songs sung to the accompaniment of harps. This latter name originated in the Septuagint (cf. its New Testament authentication in Lk 20:42) and reflects the form of the book’s poetry. The same is true of its alternate title, Psalterion, meaning “psaltery,” a collection of harp songs, from which comes the English term “Psalter.”
1:4 The chaff blowing away is a simile of the wicked (see the note on Isa 5:24). One of the steps in the process of harvesting grain (see the note on Ru 1:22) involved throwing it into the air so that the wind would blow away the straw and chaff (the useless matter), leaving only the grain (see “The Threshing Floor”).
2:1–12 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
2:1–3 This psalm, likely written for the coronation of a Davidic king, offers insight into how the kings understood themselves—their authority, roles and hopes. In the ancient Near East the coronation of a new king was often the occasion for the revolt of peoples and other kings who had been subject to the crown.
2:7 The relationship between a great Near Eastern king and one of his subject kings, who ruled by his authority and owed him allegiance, was expressed not only by the words “lord” and “servant” but also by “father” and “son.” The Davidic king was at once the Lord’s “servant” and his “son” (2Sa 7:5, 14).
2:9 See “The Potsherd: Pottery in the Bible.”
2:12 In the ancient Near East a kiss was a sign of submission (see 1Sa 10:1; 1Ki 19:18; Hos 13:2; see also “The Jewish Custom of Kissing”). Submission to an Assyrian king was expressed by kissing his feet.
3:3 That the king was the shield (protector) of his people was a common concept in ancient Israel.
4:1 Psalm 4 is an individual lament, perhaps following a crop failure due to some natural calamity, like a drought. Such distress, not uncommon in Israel, raised questions about God’s ability to provide agriculturally for his people and drove many to worship foreign fertility gods (see “Baal and the Fertility Cults”).
4:7 In Biblical language the heart is the center of the human spirit, from which spring emotions, thoughts, motivations, courage and actions. (see “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”)
5:10 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
6:3 The “soul” is not a spiritual aspect distinct from the physical but an individual’s very self as a living, conscious, personal being. When the Hebrew writer used “soul” with “bones” (v. 2; cf. 35:9–10), he was not referencing two distinct entities but was referring to himself as a whole, as is the case also in the combination “soul” and “body” (31:9; 63:1). Compare the combination of “heart” and “bones” in 102:4 (see also its note).
6:5 The “grave” (Hebrew Sheol) refers in a general way to the realm of the dead, the netherworld, where, it was thought, departed spirits live. The Israelites viewed death as the opposite of life, and resurrection was not yet a part of their communal experience with God. The grave in their view brought no escape from God (see 139:8), but just how the ancient Israelites viewed the condition of the godly dead is unclear. Nonbiblical documents from the ancient Near East indicate a general conception that immortality was reserved for the gods but that the dead continued to experience some kind of shadowy existence in the dismal netherworld. (see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.” See also the note on Job 17:13–16).
7:9 The Israelites used the words “minds” and “hearts” (lit., “hearts” and “kidneys”) as virtual synonyms (but “heart” most often) to refer to a person’s innermost center of conscious life (see the note on 4:7; see also “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology”). To “search mind and heart” was a conventional expression for God’s examination of an individual’s hidden character and motives (see Jer 11:20; 17:10; 20:12).
10:7 Curses, lies and threats were the three most common weapons of the tongue employed by ancient Near Eastern peoples. They thought they could manipulate supernatural powers with ritual words and actions in order to achieve the destruction of their enemies and they maintained a large conventional stock of such magic curses (see “Curses and Imprecations”). “Lies” refers to slander and false testimony for malicious purposes (see, e.g., 1Ki 21:8–15).
11:2 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
11:7 The Hebrew for “see [the king’s] face” was an expression denoting access to the king. Sometimes it referred to those who served before him (see 2Ki 25:19, where it is translated “royal advisers”; see also Est 1:14, where it is translated “[those] who had special access to the king”). Here David was speaking of special freedom of access before the heavenly King.
12:3 To “cut off” means to put an end to. Physical mutilation was not in view.
15:1–5 For commentary on Old Testament Israel’s evangelistic attitude toward the Gentiles, see the note on Zephaniah 3:10.
This brief psalm instructed those desiring to enter God’s presence in his sanctuary. It may represent a type of priestly teaching presented to those approaching the temple mount in Jerusalem, encouraging them to prepare physically and spiritually for their access to the holy place for worship. Moral righteousness—not sacrifices or ritual purity as seen among the other religions of the ancient Near East—opens the way for access to the Lord.
16:4 “Libations of blood” refers to the blood of sacrifices poured onto altars.
16:7 For “heart” (lit., “kidneys”), see the note on 7:9.
16:9 For “heart,” see also the note on 4:7.
17:8 The “apple” refers to the pupil, a delicate part of the eye that is precious and in need of protection (cf. Dt 32:10; Pr 7:2). The term “shadow” is a conventional Hebrew metaphor for defense against oppression—as shade protects from the oppressive heat of the searing desert sun. The term “wings” is a metaphor for the protective outreach of God’s power.
17:15 To “seek” or “see” God’s face was viewed in the Old Testament as an appropriate goal of the righteous (2Ch 7:14; Ps 105:4), but numerous other passages point to fearful consequences (e.g., Ge 32:30; Ex 33:20–23; Isa 6:5). The solution may perhaps be found in Numbers 12:8, where God said of Moses, “With him I speak face to face … he sees the form of the LORD.” Moses was in God’s presence but physically saw the “form” of God rather than his very person. Similarly, David would have been satisfied being in God’s presence and seeing his “likeness” (Ps 17:15; cf. the note on 11:7).
18:5 For “the grave,” see the note on 6:5.
19:4–6 The heavens are the “tent” for the sun—widely worshiped in the ancient Near East (cf. Dt 4:19; 17:3; 2Ki 23:5, 11; Jer 8:2; Eze 8:16) but here, as in Psalm 136:7–8 and Genesis 1:16, merely a part of God’s creation. Of the created realm, the sun is the supreme metaphor of the glory of God (see Ps 84:11; Isa 60:19–20), as it makes its daily, triumphant sweep across the whole extent of the heavens and pours out its heat (felt presence) upon every creature.
See the note on the nuptial tent at Song of Songs 1:16–17.
20:1–9 This psalm was concerned with the king’s military activities and most likely functioned as a pledge of loyalty by the army to its ruler before a military campaign.
20:4 The Hebrew does not contain a word equivalent to “desire”; a literal translation might be, “May he give to you according to your heart.” God’s gifts to us depend in part upon the condition of our hearts. For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
21:3 The “crown of pure gold” was the ceremonial emblem of royalty—possibly the captured crown of the defeated king (see 2Sa 12:30).
22:12–13 Bulls, lions and dogs (see v. 16) are all used in the Bible as metaphors for enemies (see “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel”).
Bashan lay east of the Sea of Galilee. It was known for its rich pastureland, sleek cattle and magnificent oak trees (see Dt 32:14; Eze 39:18; cf. Am 4:1).
22:14 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7. For the use of “bones” with “heart,” see the note on 102:4.
22:21 “Wild oxen” refers either to aurochs, wild ancestors of domestic cattle or possibly to oryx, large, straight-horned antelope.
23:1 “Shepherd” was a widely used metaphor for kings both in Israel and elsewhere in the ancient Near East. The Lord is often called the shepherd of Israel (see Ge 48:15; Ps 28:9; 79:13; 80:1; 95:7; 100:3; Isa 40:11; Jer 17:16; 31:10; 50:19; Eze 34:11–16). Here David the king acknowledged God as his Shepherd-King.
23:4 The rod was an instrument of authority that was also used by shepherds for counting, guiding, rescuing and protecting sheep. The staff was an instrument of support.
23:5 In the ancient Near East covenants were often concluded with a meal expressive of the bond of friendship. In the case of vassal treaties or covenants, the vassal was present as the guest of the overlord. It was customary at a banquet for an honored guest to have his head anointed with oil.
29:1–11 This hymn to Yahweh (“the LORD”) served as a testimony and protest against the worship of the Canaanite god Baal, who was thought to have been the divine power present in the thunderstorm. See “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany.”
29:5 The cedars of Lebanon (see “Cedars of Lebanon”) were the largest, most spectacular stands of trees in the region, supplying building materials for structures throughout the Mediterranean and considered sacred by locals (see also “Trees of Ancient Israel”). Solomon imported these trees for use in constructing his palace and the temple (1Ki 5:6–10; 7:1–12), yet God’s power was displayed in his ability to break these symbols of strength and majesty.
29:6 “Sirion” is another name for Mount Hermon (see the note on Eze 27:5).
30:3–9 For a discussion of Sheol, see the note on Job 17:13–16. See also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
30:11 Sackcloth was a symbol of mourning (see Ge 37:34; Ps 35:13; see also “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
31:7 For commentary on Old Testament expressions of joy, see the note on 96:11.
31:12 See “The Potsherd: Pottery in the Bible.”
31:21 The psalmist used the picture of a besieged city to describe the threat he had experienced (see “Siege Warfare”).
32:6 This powerful imagery of “mighty waters” was borrowed from ancient Near Eastern creation myths, in many of which a primal mass of chaotic waters (often depicted as a many-headed monster of the deep; see 74:13–15 and its note; see also “Ancient Creation Narratives” and “The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation”) had to be subdued by the creator-god before he could fashion the world and/or rule over the earth. Even after the chaotic waters had been subdued when the present world was created, they remained a constant threat to the security and well-being of the world. Hence they were linked to anything in human experience that endangered or disrupted the precarious order of life. Since in Canaanite mythology Sea and Death were the two great enemies of Baal (“lord” of earth), imagery drawn from both realms was used by Old Testament poets, sometimes side by side, to depict threats and distress (see, e.g., Job 7:12; 26:12; Ps 18:4–5, 16; 74:12–14; 89:9–10; 124:4–5; Isa 8:7–8; 17:12–14; 51:9–10; Jer 51:55; Hab 3:8–10).
35:16 In the Old Testament the expression “to gnash with the teeth” most often represents rage, anger or hatred (see also Job 16:9; Ps 37:12; 112:10). In the New Testament this idiom usually expresses disappointment and agony of spirit rather than anger (Mt 8:12; 13:42, 50; 22:13; 24:51; 25:30; Lk 13:28, but see also Acts 7:54).
36:1 “Oracle” is a technical term meaning “prophetic utterance,” referring to divine revelation or insight. Rather than the usual oracle of judgment or deliverance, as seen in the prophetic books, Psalm 36 might better be called “insight” into the fate of the arrogant, self-motivated and self-focused wicked, who exhibit no “fear of God” but who often seem to prosper nonetheless.
37:1–40 For commentary on vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
37:12 For the meaning of gnashing with one’s teeth, see the note on 35:16.
39:12 The terms “alien” and “stranger” indicate a class of non-Israelites who were permitted to reside among God’s people within the promised land but who had no inheritance there. These resident aliens could experience a degree of social interaction with the native inhabitants but enjoyed few rights. David drew upon their experience as an analogy to the kind of painful barriers sin had erected between himself and God.
40:7 The “scroll” probably refers to the personal copy of the law the king was to take as his covenant charter at the time of his ascension to the throne (see Dt 17:18–20; 2Ki 11:12; cf. 1Ki 2:3).
40:12 Hair varies in length, color and structure among the different races and seems to be intended by God for protection, for beauty and for identification. The peoples of the Bible lands were generally black-haired, although red-headed individuals were fairly common among the people of Israel. Hebrews and Arabs (cf. Rev 9:8) wore their beards long as a mark of dignity, but the Egyptians were clean-shaven (Ge 41:14). The men of Israel were not to clip off the edges of their beards (Lev 19:27); this prohibition explains the “prayer-locks” in front of the ears of Orthodox Jewish men today.
The word “hair” is used in the Bible in several figurative senses: for example, to signify keen marksmanship—some Benjamites could “sling a stone at a hair and not miss” (Jdg 20:16); to connote complete safety—“Not a hair of his head will fall to the ground” (1Sa 14:45); to indicate multiplicity—“My sins … are more than the hairs of my head” (Ps 40:12); or to demonstrate age or dignity—“The hair of his head was white like wool” (Da 7:9).
Hair was a mark of beauty and sometimes of pride. Absalom’s hair (2Sa 14:26; 18:9), of which he was inordinately proud, caused his death. Samson’s uncut hair was a symbol of his Naziritic dedication, so that when he lost it his strength went with it (Jdg 13:7; 16:17–20). In New Testament times the length of the hair was one mark of distinction between the sexes, and Paul declared that, within his cultural context, this distinction should continue (1Co 11:14–16). See also “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”
42:3–4 Hebrew Scripture reflects the need to preserve (“remember,” v. 4) the works of God and so to proclaim his faithfulness to future generations. Forgetting God in the Hebrew mind was a willful act of “unlearning,” whereby rebellious humans rejected what they had known and sought to create a world in which God did not act or exist. Such people might cry, “Where is your God?” (vv. 3, 10).
42:6 Some think that the author here located himself at Mount Mizar (a small peak or village, not otherwise known) on the flanks of Mount Hermon, somewhere near the headwaters of the Jordan River.
43:1 The “ungodly nation” referred to here may have been the Arameans of Damascus. Perhaps the author had been taken captive by the Arameans during one of their incursions into Judah (see 2Ki 12:17–18).
44:18 For “hearts,” see the note on 4:7.
45:1 This song was composed and presumably sung in praise of the king on his wedding day. He undoubtedly belonged to David’s dynasty, and the song was probably used at more than one royal wedding. Since the bride was a foreign princess (see vv. 10, 12), the wedding reflected the king’s standing as a figure of international significance.
45:6 The king’s throne may have been called God’s throne because the king was God’s appointed representative. Alternatively, it is possible that the king himself was called “god” as a title of honor. The pharaohs of Egypt were sometimes addressed as “my god” by their vassal kings in the region much later known as Palestine, as evidenced by the Amarna letters (see “The Amarna Tablets and the Habiru”).
For “scepter,” see the note on Zechariah 10:11.
45:8 Excavators of Samaria have unearthed ivory inlays in a building associated with the Israelite king Ahab (see “The Samaria Ivories”).
45:9 Gold of Ophir was a rare commodity (Isa 13:12) imported into Israel by ships that sailed from Ezion Geber in Edom (1Ki 9:26–28; 22:48) to a destination conjectured to be India, Africa, the Arabian peninsula or even South America (see “Ezion Geber”, and see the note on 1Ki 9:28). It came to be the standard for gold of purity and quality.
45:12 The term “Daughter of Tyre” was a personification of Tyre and its inhabitants. Tyre was an important Phoenician seaport on the Mediterranean coast north of Israel. The king of Tyre was the first foreign ruler to recognize the Davidic dynasty (see 2Sa 5:11), and Solomon maintained close relations with Tyre (see 1Ki 5; 9:10–14, 26–28). As a great trading center on the Mediterranean coast, Tyre was world-renowned for its wealth (see Isa 23; Eze 26:1–28:19).
46:4 Jerusalem has no river. Here “river” serves as a metaphor for the continual outpouring of the sustaining and refreshing blessings of God, which make the City of God like the Garden of Eden.
46:5 The “break of day” was the time when attacks against cities were most likely to be launched. God’s help brought on the dawn of deliverance, dispelling the night of danger.
47:2 The title “great King” was often used by the imperial rulers of Assyria.
48:7 The “ships of Tarshish” were the great merchant ships of the Mediterranean (see 1Ki 10:22; see also “Seafaring in the Ancient World” and “Where Was Tarshish?”). For a discussion of the east wind in Palestine, see the note on Hosea 13:15.
49:14–15 For a discussion of Sheol, see the note on Job 17:13–16. See also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
The psalmist portrayed death (or the grave) as an insatiable monster feeding upon its victims. This imagery was probably borrowed from Canaanite mythology, which so depicts the god Mot (see the note on Job 18:13–14). As one Canaanite document reads, “Do not approach divine Mot, lest he put you like a lamb into his mouth.”
49:15 For information on the psalmists’ concept of the afterlife, see the note on 6:5.
50:1–23 See the note on 73:1–83:18 for commentary on Asaph.
50:5 Psalm 50 is a “covenant lawsuit” brought by God against his “consecrated ones, who made a covenant with [him] by sacrifice.” This sort of legal proceeding was common in the Old Testament as a means by which God aired Israel’s shortcomings and justified his judgment upon the nation.
51:1 The image is that of a papyrus scroll on which God had recorded David’s deeds (see “Scrolls, Seals, and Codices”). The “blotting out” of sins pictures forgiveness (Jer 18:23; see also Isa 43:25).
51:7 For a discussion of cleanness and uncleanness as perceived in the Old Testament, see the note on Leviticus 14:1–57.
Hyssop was an aromatic plant (Origanum maru) of the mint family with a straight stalk (see Jn 19:29) and white flowers. The hairy surface of its leaves and branches held liquids well and made it suitable as a sprinkling device for use in purification rituals (see Lev 14:4–6, 49–52; Nu 19:6, 18; Heb 9:19).
52:8 Although there is evidence that ancient Israel was far more forested than it is today, the presence of flourishing trees was still a sign of divine blessing for former nomads living on the fringes of a settled, agricultural society. The Old Testament presents a thriving tree as symbolic of the blessing of the righteous (see 1:3; Isa 61:3; Jer 17:8). This blessing is frequently contrasted with the sad state of the wicked, depicted in terms of nonproductive dryness. Olive trees, which live for hundreds of years, were not actually planted in the temple courts.
54:5 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations” and “Trees of Ancient Israel.”
55:21 Still today, after milk has been churned and butter produced, the butter is boiled and the curds separated from the almost pure oil. This is then poured into a goatskin and kept until slightly rancid (to Western taste). It is used with food but more generally for frying eggs or vegetables.
56:8 “Scroll” interpretively translates a Hebrew word ordinarily meaning “wineskin.” The literal meaning of the Hebrew clause is “put my tears in your wineskin” (see the NIV text note). This image seems to reflect the practice in the arid climate of Israel of preserving precious liquids in a leak-proof, leather bag. The image of saving tears is powerful; David’s tears of lament were precious to God.
57:7 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
57:8 The harp and lyre (here personified) were instruments used to praise the Lord at his temple in celebration of deliverance (see “Ancient Musical Instruments”). Dawn, too, is here personified—the Canaanites even deified it.
58:1 Concern for the just use of judicial power is pervasive throughout the Old Testament. This was the primary agency in the administrative structures of the ancient Near East for the protection of the innocent, usually the poor and powerless, against the assaults of the unscrupulous, usually the rich and powerful. Israelite society was troubled with the corruption of this judicial power from the days of Samuel until the end of the monarchy. Even in David’s time all was not well.
58:6–8 The author used imagery drawn from conventional curses of the ancient Near East (see the note on 10:7; see also “Curses and Imprecations”).
58:9 Twigs from wild thornbushes were used as fuel for quick heat (see 118:12; Ecc 7:6).
58:10 The picture of splashing joyfully about in an enemy’s blood (v. 10) is a traditional Biblical image—borrowed from ancient Near Eastern literature—for victory over an enemy (see 68:21–23; Isa 63:2–3; Eze 28:23; Rev 14:19–20).
60:6 Shechem and Succoth are representative of the territory west and east of the Jordan taken over by the Lord and Israel. (see “Succoth/Tell Deir Alla” and “Shechem.”)
60:7 Half of Manasseh was established in Gilead, east of the Jordan, and half of it west of the Jordan, just north of Ephraim (see Jos 13:29–31; 17:5–11). This once again evidenced that the Lord’s kingdom included territory on both sides of the river. Ephraim and Judah were the two leading tribes of Israel, the one representative of the Rachel tribes (Ephraim) in the north and the other of the Leah tribes (Judah) in the south. Together they represented all Israel (Isa 11:13; Zec 9:13).
60:8 Moab, Edom and Philistia were perpetual enemies situated on Israel’s eastern, southern and western borders, respectively. The metaphor “Moab is my washbasin” reduced Moab to a household vessel in which the Lord washed his feet (Ge 18:4). This imagery may have been suggested by the fact that Moab lay along the eastern shore of the Dead Sea.
Tossing one’s sandal perhaps refers to the conventional, symbolic act by which an individual claimed possession of land (see Ru 4:7 and its note).
61:2 The phrase “ends of the earth” as used here may refer to the brink of the netherworld—the grave. For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
61:6–7 This prayer for the king’s long life may have been made by the king himself—such transitions to the third person are known from the literature of the ancient Near East—or it may have been the prayer of the people, perhaps voiced by a priest or Levite.
62:10 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
63:9 Here “earth” refers to the netherworld (i.e., the grave).
63:10 A proper burial was considered important, and to have one’s body simply discarded was a terrible fate that brought scorn and disgrace.
65:7 God’s stilling the turmoil of the nations is compared to his taming the turbulence of the primeval waters of chaos (see the note on 32:6).
66:11–12 “Prison,” “burdens” and “ride over” all describe Israel’s suffering: captives thrown into prison, prisoners of war turned into slaves and defeated troops overrun by a chariot force.
68:4 Canaanite literature describes Baal (the Canaanite weather god) as riding on the clouds. Here the point is made that the Lord (Yahweh, not Baal) is the exalted One who truly makes the storm clouds his chariot (see v. 33; 18:9; 104:3; Isa 19:1; Mt 26:64; see also “The Ugaritic Text of the Myth of Baal”).
68:5–6 In ancient times adult males represented their families and provided access to the resources society provided. Unattached widows and orphans were at an extreme disadvantage, having no one to secure their rights or basic needs. They were dependent either upon their own abilities to scratch out a meager existence or on acts of charity by compassionate individuals. See “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
68:14 Zalmon was a mountain near Shechem (see Jdg 9:46–48), but some identify it here as Jebel Druze, a dark, volcanic peak east of Bashan.
68:16 The mountains surrounding Bashan (v. 15), including the towering Mount Hermon, are portrayed as being jealous because God has chosen Mount Zion as the seat of his rule, rendering it, symbolically if not literally, the “highest” of mountains (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God”).
68:17 God’s heavenly host is here likened to a vast chariot force. During the time of the Roman Empire Jesus referred to God’s host in terms of “legions” (Mt 26:53).
68:22 For “Bashan,” see the note on 22:12. The “depths of the sea” refers to the Mediterranean Sea.
68:29 In ancient times defeated kings brought tribute to their conquerors (see 2Sa 8:2, 6, 10; 2Ki 3:4).
68:30 The phrase “herd of bulls among the calves” refers to powerful princes who supported the pharaoh, as well as to the lesser princes of other nations. Egypt was representative of the hostile nations because of Israel’s past experiences with that world power and because at the time the psalm was composed it was the one great empire on Israel’s immediate horizon.
69:20 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
69:22–28 A number of Old Testament psalms, particularly 2, 37, 69, 79, 109, 139 and 143, contain expressions of an apparent vengeful attitude toward enemies. For some people these expressions constitute one of the “moral difficulties” of the Old Testament. It is helpful to note, however, that: (1) Imprecations are not confined to the Old Testament; therefore, insofar as they constitute a moral problem, that problem pervades the Bible as a whole (cf. Lk 11:37–52; Gal 1:8ff.; Rev 6:10; 18:20; 19:1–6). What we find here is not a reprehensibly low morality but an aspect of the Biblical view of the conflict between good and evil. (2) Many if not all of the imprecatory psalms contain (as well as the imprecation) theological and moral sentiments that we also desire to attain (e.g., 139). We can hardly, then, dismiss these psalms under some blanket condemnation as “Old Testament morality.” (3) Old Testament ethics stoutly opposed a hostile and vindictive response to opponents (e.g., Lev 19:14–18). (4) All of the imprecatory psalms except Psalm 137 are prayers. They are addressed to God about opponents, and there is no suggestion in any of them that the psalmist either said any of these things to his adversary or ever intended to take vengeance into his own hands. (5) The imprecatory psalms are full of longing for the vindication of the Lord’s good name. Over and over the psalmist’s desire was not personal relief but that the Lord should be seen in his goodness and holiness (e.g., 58:11; 83:16–18). (6) Many of the actual imprecations do no more than ask God to do what he has already stated he would do in such situations (e.g., 5:10; 54:5; 79:6–7). (7) There is such a thing as righteous indignation, an attitude which at the least is morally preferable to indifference about evil and human suffering. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
71:22 For “harp” and “lyre,” see the note on 57:8.
72:10 Tarshish was a distant Mediterranean seaport, possibly Tartessus in Spain (see “Where Was Tarshish?”). For Sheba, see the note on 1 Kings 10:1. Seba is elsewhere associated with Cush (Ge 10:7; Isa 43:3) and may refer to a region in modern Sudan, south of Egypt.
73:1–83:18 Asaph, a Levite of the Gershonite family, was appointed over the service of praise during the time of David and Solomon (1Ch 16:5; 2Ch 5:12). He led the singing, sounded cymbals before the ark and apparently set up a school of music (Ne 7:44). Twelve psalms are credited to Asaph (Ps 50; 73–83), but this accreditation does not necessarily imply authorship and may mean no more than that these psalms constituted an Asaphic collection, begun by the great man and then prolonged over the years by the Asaph singers. The psalms themselves cover a long span of time, psalms like 74 being best understood in an exilic context. These psalms have a deep and contemplative nature.
73:21 For “heart,” see the notes on 4:7 and 7:9.
73:23–24 For a discussion of Sheol, see the note on Job 17:13–16. See also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
74:3–8 These verses describe the Babylonians’ destruction of the Lord’s temple.
74:4 The term “standards” probably refers to troop standards (see Nu 1:52; Isa 31:9; Jer 4:21) used to signal victory.
74:8 The reference for “every place where God was worshiped” is uncertain. At the time of the Babylonian attacks there may have been a number of (illegitimate) locations in Judah where people went to worship God (see the note on 1Ki 3:2; and “The High Places”).
13–15 The imagery here is borrowed from ancient Near Eastern creation myths, in which the primeval chaotic waters were depicted as a many-headed monster that the creator-god overcame, after which he established the world order. (see “Ancient Creation Narratives.”)
74:16 For commentary on Biblical use of the word “day,” see the note on Obadiah 12.
75:4 The phrase “lift up your horns” is a picture of defiant opposition, based upon the action of attacking bulls. “Horn” (see also v. 10) is a common Biblical metaphor for vigor or strength (see the NIV text note on 18:2).
75:5 An “outstretched neck” was a sign of defiance. (see “Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology.”)
76:1–12 This psalm is in the form of a victory hymn. According to an ancient tradition it was written after God had destroyed Sennacherib’s army when the Assyrians threatened Jerusalem (see 2Ki 19:35–36).
77:6 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
77:15 Old Testament authors sometimes referred to the northern kingdom as “Joseph” (or “Ephraim,” Joseph’s son), in distinction from the southern kingdom of Judah. Here, however, Joseph represents the whole of his generation and thus also all of the descendants of Jacob.
78:9 The phrase “men of Ephraim” refers to the northern kingdom, dominated by the tribe of Ephraim. Neither the tribe of Ephraim nor the northern kingdom had a reputation for cowardice or ineffectiveness in battle. This verse is best understood as a metaphor for Israel’s betrayal of God’s covenant (see v. 10).
78:12 Zoan was a city (possibly Tanis) in the northeastern part of the Nile delta.
78:26–27 Since the quail were migrating from Egypt at this time, the south wind may have carried them north and the east wind may then have diverted them to the desert area occupied by the Israelites (see the note on Nu 11:31–32).
78:37 For “hearts,” see the note on 4:7.
78:47 Sycamore-fig trees are large trees that yield fig-like fruit, as well as useful timber.
78:53 The “sea” here is the Red Sea.
78:58 See “The High Places.”
78:60 Shiloh had been the center of worship since the time of Joshua (see Jos 18:1, 8; 21:1–2; Jdg 18:31; 1Sa 1:3; Jer 7:12). It was located in Ephraim between Bethel and Shechem (see “Bethel” and “Shechem”). Apparently it was destroyed by the Philistines when they captured the ark or shortly afterward. See “The Tabernacle at Shiloh” and “The Destruction of Shiloh.”
78:62–64 In ancient warfare fire and the sword were the two primary instruments of destruction. The catastrophe here was so great that both the wedding songs of the brides and the wailing of the widows (see v. 64) were silenced.
78:67 The phrase “tents of Joseph” is a figure for the tribe of Ephraim
78:71 For “shepherd,” see the note on 23:1.
79:6–12 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
79:7 “Jacob” is a synonym for Israel (see Ge 32:28).
79:11 “Prisoners” describes the exiles in Babylon. They were not actually interred in prisons but were under threat of death should they seek to return to their homeland.
79:12 The number seven symbolized completeness.
80:1 For “shepherd,” see the note on 23:1. For “Joseph,” see the note on 77:15.
80:2 “Ephraim, Benjamin and Manasseh” here likely represent the northern kingdom. Although Benjamin literally belonged to the northern kingdom, part of the tribe must have remained with the southern kingdom since its territory bordered Jerusalem itself, and the southern kingdom continued to control the region around Jerusalem (see 1Ki 12:21). This suggests that the disaster suffered was the Assyrian campaign that destroyed the northern kingdom (see 2Ki 17:1–6). Archaeological surveys of the region show that Jerusalem and the surrounding area experienced a dramatic population increase at this time, probably the result of a massive influx of displaced persons from the north fleeing the Assyrians. This would explain the presence of “Ephraim, Benjamin and Manasseh” at the Jerusalem sanctuary and the national prayer for restoration with special focus on these tribes.
80:8–16 This use of the vine-vineyard metaphor is found also in the Prophets (see, e.g., Isa 3:14; 5:1–7; Jer 2:21; Eze 17:6–8; Hos 10:1).
81:3 For information on the ram’s horn, see “The Shofar.” “Our Feast” was probably the Feast of Tabernacles, often called simply “the feast/festival” (see “The Festivals of Israel”).
81:5 For “Joseph,” see the note on 77:15. The phrase “when he went out against Egypt” likely refers to the exodus period, highlighting especially God’s triumph over Egypt, by which he had set his people free (see vv. 6–7).
82:1 Early Rabbinic tradition saw the “gods” (vv. 1, 6) as unjust rulers and judges in Israel (see the note on 45:6). Today many identify them as kings of surrounding nations, who ruled with lofty disregard for justice. Others view them as the supposedly divine beings in whose names these kings claimed to rule.
83:6 Hagrites were either Ishmaelites (descendants of Hagar) or a group mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions as an Aramean confederacy (see 1Ch 5:10,18–22; 27:31).
83:7 Gebal, also called Byblos (see the NIV text note), was an important Phoenician city (see “Byblos”).
83:9 This refers to Gideon’s defeat of Midian (Jdg 7) and Barak’s victory over Sisera and Jabin (Jdg 4).
83:10 Apparently much of the retreating army was overtaken and killed at Endor, northeast of where the main battle was fought.
83:11 Oreb and Zeeb, Zebah and Zalmunna were leaders of the Midianite host destroyed by Gideon (see Jdg 7–8).
83:16–18 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
84:5 The phrase “who have set their hearts on pilgrimage” may be literally translated “in whose hearts are (the) highways,” that is, the highways used by the Israelites as they traveled to Jerusalem to observe the religious festivals. For “hearts,” see the note on 4:7.
84:6 The “autumn rains” were the gentle, early showers that preceded the later spring rains.
85:1–3 These verses may refer to the returning exiles and the hardships they experienced. Verse 12 suggests that a drought had ravaged the land, a possible reflection on the drought with which the Lord chastened his people during the time of Haggai (see Hag 1:5–11).
85:1 “Jacob” is a synonym for Israel (see Ge 32:28).
87:4 “Rahab” here is a reference to Egypt; elsewhere it applies to the mythical monster of the deep (see Job 9:13; Ps 89:9–10 and their notes; see also the note on 32:6 and “The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation”).
88:3–6 For a discussion of Sheol, see the note on Job 17:13–16. See also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
89:1–52 This psalm is a prayer mourning the downfall of the Davidic dynasty and pleading for its restoration. The historical context may have been the attack on Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the exile of King Jehoiachin in 597 B.C. (2Ki 24:8–17).
89:9–10 The imagery in these verses was borrowed from ancient Near Eastern myths of creation. Rahab was the mythical monster of the deep (see the notes on Job 9:13; Ps 32:6; 87:4; see also “Ancient Creation Narratives” and “The Enuma Elish and the Biblical Concept of Creation”), probably another name for Leviathan (see 74:14; 104:26).
89:12 Mount Tabor, a mountain about 1,300 feet (396 m) high, is located at the northeastern edge of the Jezreel Valley. Mount Hermon, snowcapped throughout the year and rising to a height of over 9,200 feet (2,804 m), is one of the most prominent and beautiful mountains in Lebanon.
91:3 “Fowler’s snare” is a metaphor for danger from an enemy.
91:6 “Pestilence” and “plague” are references to mortal diseases that often reached epidemic proportions in the ancient Near East.
93:1–5 The assertion of God as universal Creator stands in stark contrast to pagan teachings of chaos, primordial forces and random happenings. God’s reign is evident in his creation and acts of redemption. The rule of God is visible, as his glorious mantle spreads out over his kingdom.
93:3 “Seas” is a reference to the primeval, chaotic waters, tamed and assigned a place by the Lord’s creative word (see the notes on 32:6; 89:9–10).
94:7 “Jacob” is a synonym for Israel (see Ge 32:28).
95:3–5 The ancient Near Eastern world had different gods for different peoples, different geographical areas, different cosmic regions (heaven, Earth, the netherworld) and different aspects of life (e.g., war, fertility, crafts). But Israel was to praise the Lord because he is above all other gods; there is no corner of the universe that is beyond the scope of his control.
95:7 A king was commonly called the “shepherd” of his people (see the note on 23:1), and his realm could be referred to as his “pasture” (see Jer 25:36; 49:20; 50:45).
95:10 For “hearts,” see the note on 4:7.
96:10 The Old Testament writers viewed the world order as one, embracing both its physical and moral aspects because both were established by God as components of his one kingdom, and both are upheld by his one rule. Therefore God’s rule over creation and over the affairs of humankind is often spoken of in one breath.
96:11 In the Old Testament joy is commonly a group expression, often associated with dancing or the blessings of prosperity (Isa 60:15). God’s praise is shouted or sung even in more formal public worship (Ezr 3:10–11; Ps 100:1–2). Linked with this concept also are musical instruments, clapping, leaping or foot-stamping. Feasting or offering sacrifices (Dt 12:12; Isa 56:7), celebration of harvest or victory (1Sa 18:6; Joel 1:16) and enjoying prosperity or personal triumph (Ps 31:7; Isa 61:3ff.) are all occasions for joy.
98:6 These “trumpets” were the special long, straight trumpets used in the temple (see the note on Nu 10:1–10). The “ram’s horn” was the more common trumpet.
100:1–5 Scripture commonly compares God’s people to sheep (see the note on 23:1). They are totally dependent upon him, as sheep upon their shepherd. To put the metaphor in perspective, sheep, despite their helplessness and weakness, represented the wealth of Israel, and shepherds dedicated a lifetime to their care.
100:1–2 For commentary on Old Testament expressions of joy, see the note on 96:11.
101:1–8 This psalm was written by one of Israel’s kings, either David or one of his descendants (see heading). It is similar in form to ancient treaties. The king solemnly vowed to administer justice and to live up to the theocratic (God-governed) ideal in Israel. God had instructed the king to prepare a personal copy of the law so that he would learn to live rightly and to manage well the affairs of state as Israel’s chief executive (Dt 17:14–20). The king was God’s servant, appointed to carry out the wishes of his master, or overlord.
101:8 “Every morning” implies diligence and persistence (see Jer 21:12; Zep 3:5). It may have been traditional for kings to hear cases in the morning.
102:3 In ancient times homes were heated very differently from today. In the houses of the poorer people, the hearth consisted of a depression in the floor of a room in which a fire was kindled for cooking or for warmth. Chimneys were unknown; smoke escaped from the house as it could, or through a latticed opening for the purpose. The better houses were heated by means of a brazier of burning coals. The brazier was a wide, shallow pan that could also be used for cooking. (See Ge 18:6; Isa 30:14; Jer 36:22–23; Hos 13:3; Zec 12:6.)
102:4 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7. Here “heart” is used in combination with “bones” (v. 3) to refer to the whole person (body and spirit). Compare the combination of “soul” and “bones” in 6:2–3 (see also the note on 6:3).
102:6 The owl was associated with desert areas and with ruins (see Isa 34:11, 15; Jer 50:39; Zep 2:14).
103:1–2 The phrase “O my soul” was a conventional Hebrew way of addressing oneself (see v. 22; 104:1, 35; 116:7). For “soul,” see the note on 6:3.
103:12 Yâm, “sea,” is the Hebrew word usually used for “west,” because the Mediterranean Sea lies to the west of the area known today as Palestine. The word was sometimes used figuratively with “east” to denote great distance.
104:16–18 Lebanon was a well-watered region. Its great trees, hordes of birds and plentiful alpine animals provided a picture of God’s earthly parkland (see “Cedars of Lebanon”).
The word “coneys” probably refers to the Syrian rock hyrax, a shy animal about the size of a rabbit, living among the rocks.
104:26 “Leviathan” refers to the fearsome mythological monster of the deep (see the notes on Job 41:30; Ps 89:9–10). Here this frightening creature is portrayed merely as God’s harmless pet cavorting in the ocean.
105:18 Iron did not come into common use in the ancient Near East until the twelfth century B.C. Earlier shackles were made of bronze (see Jdg 16:21).
105:22 “Elders” refers to the pharaoh’s counselors—typically older men of wide experience and learning.
106:22 “The land of Ham” is Egypt.
106:37–38 The Hebrew word translated “demons” (v. 37) is related to a Babylonian term referring to (pagan) protective spirits. It occurs elsewhere in the Old Testament only in Deuteronomy 32:17, where it refers to false gods. See “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East.”
106:39 They committed prostitution by joining themselves with false gods (see Eze 23:3, 5–8; Hos 5:3; 6:10).
107:16 City gates (see “The City Gate”) were normally made of wood, although here they were of bronze, the strongest gates then imaginable (see Jer 1:18). Bars that secured city gates (see Dt 3:5; Jer 51:30) were usually constructed of wood (see Na 3:13) but sometimes formed of bronze as well (see 1Ki 4:13). “Can a man break iron … or bronze?” was a proverb of the time (see Jer 15:12).
107:18 The realm of the dead (see “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”) was sometimes depicted as a netherworld city with a series of concentric walls and gates (seven, each inside the next largest, according to ancient Near Eastern mythology) to keep those descending there from returning to the land of the living.
107:23–24 The peoples of the eastern Mediterranean coastlands associated the “mighty waters” (v. 23) of the sea with the primeval, chaotic waters (see the note on 32:6). The Lord’s total control of the terrifying storms that often swept through the Mediterranean gave the Israelites a sense of wonder and security.
109:1–29 For commentary on expressions of vengeful attitudes toward enemies, see the note on 69:22–28. See also “Curses and Imprecations.”
109:12 Ancient Near Eastern society was made up of three- or four-generation households. There was a close bond between a man and his children and between children and their parents. That deep intimacy accounts for the ancient legal principle of “punishing the children for the sin of the fathers to the third and fourth generation” (see Ex 20:5; see also Ge 18:19; Ps 103:17).
109:17 For “curse,” see the note on 10:7.
110:1 Ancient kings often had themselves portrayed as placing their feet upon their vanquished enemies (see Jos 10:24).
110:2 To “extend your mighty scepter” meant for a king to expand his reign in ever widening circles until no foe remained to oppose his rule.
110:4 For information on Melchizedek, see the note on Genesis 14:19. Hebrews 7 applies this concept to Christ’s priesthood.
112:10 For the meaning of gnashing with one’s teeth, see the note on 35:16.
113:1–118:29 Psalms 113–118, which were read on Passover Day, were called the “Egyptian Hallel”; Psalm 136 is an antiphonal psalm of praise that is sometimes called simply “The Hallel,” and Psalms 120–136 are often referred to as “The Great Hallel.”
113:7 The “ash heap” was symbolic of a humble status (Ge 18:27; 1Ki 16:2), but here it probably also refers to extreme distress and need (see Job 30:19; 42:6; Isa 47:1; Jer 25:34).
113:9 In that ancient society childlessness was for a woman the greatest disgrace and deepest tragedy.
115:17 For the ancient Near Eastern view of death, see the notes on Job 10:21 and Psalm 6:5.
116:7 For “O my soul,” see the note on 103:1–2.
116:13 The “cup of salvation” probably refers to the cup of wine drunk at the festal meal that climaxed a thank offering—called the “cup of salvation” because the thank offering and its meal celebrated deliverance by the Lord.
118:19 Although some think the phrase “gates of righteousness” refers to the name of a particular gateway, the term is more likely only descriptive here of the gate “through which the righteous may enter” (v. 20). It is possible that the procession began outside the city and that “the gates of righteousness” is a reference to the gates of Jerusalem.
118:22 A “capstone” (lit., “head of the corner”) was either a large stone used as a lintel over a door or a rock used to anchor and align the corner of a wall or the keystone of an arch (see Zec 4:7; 10:4).
119:81 For “soul,” see the note on 6:3.
119:83 A wineskin that hung in the smoke and heat above a fire would become soiled and shriveled.
119:111–112 For “heart,” see the note on 4:7.
119:119 “Dross” is the scum that is removed from molten ore or metal.
120:1–136:26 See the note on Psalm 113:1–118:29 regarding the “Hallel” psalms.
120:1–7 Some have thought that the Hebrew for the word “ascents” (see superscript) refers to stairs leading to the temple, hence “a song of the stairs,” to be used in the temple liturgy (probably at the Feast of Tabernacles). Most believe that it refers to the annual religious pilgrimages to Jerusalem, which brought the worshipers singing to Mount Zion.
120:4 Often found in the English Bible, the word “coal” never refers to true mineral coal, which has not been found in Palestine proper, where the geological formation as a whole is recent. Coal of a poor quality has been discovered in Sidon, and for a time some was mined in Lebanon. The half dozen Hebrew and Greek words rendered “coal” refer either to charcoal or to live embers of any kind. Charcoal was used by the Hebrews to provide warmth in winter (Isa 47:14; Jn 18:18), for cooking (Isa 44:19; Jn 21:9) and for blacksmith work (Isa 44:12; 54:15). It was made by covering a carefully stacked pile of wood with leaves and earth and then setting fire to it. After several days of burning and smoldering, the wood was converted into charcoal and the pile was opened.
The broom tree, a large bush that grows in the deserts of Palestine and Arabia (see 1Ki 19:4; Job 30:4), is sometimes large enough to provide shade.
120:5 Meshech was located in central Asia Minor and Kedar in Arabia.
121:3 Pagans “permitted” their gods to sleep (see 1Ki 18:27), but the God of Israel is not like any other god—he has no need to recreate, rest or eat.
122:1 This psalm expresses the joy of Zion from the perspective of a pilgrim who had traveled there to worship. Pilgrimages were held three times annually, during the Feasts of Passover, Firstfruits and Tabernacles. As the psalmist looked at Jerusalem and stood within her gates (v. 2), he rejoiced.
125:2 Although Jerusalem is not surrounded by a ring of peaks, the city is located in what Old Testament writers would have considered a mountainous region.
126:4 The wadis, or gullies, in the southern desert (Negev) are bone-dry in the summer, but when the winter rains come the water rushes down them with great force, a sudden and powerful unleashing of blessing.
126:6 For a discussion of sheaves and threshing, see the note on Ruth 2:7. See also “The Threshing Floor” and “Food and Agriculture.”
127:5 Legal proceedings and business transactions were conducted at the city gate (see “The City Gate”).
128:3 Although an olive tree might not bear fruit for 40 years, it is a symbol of long life and productivity—as are children in a household of faith. They are not like grass—here today, gone tomorrow.
The occurrence of no fewer than 250 botanical terms in the Old Testament demonstrates the Israelite fondness for flowers, fruits and pleasant grounds. These are still a delight to people living in this hot, dry country. Virtually every house court or yard had its shade tree, and the vine that grew around the trellis or outside staircase was the emblem of the loving and fruitful wife and the happy home within.
129:6 Grass that sprouted on the flat, sunbaked housetops would wither, since no plow could prepare a nurturing soil to sustain the young shoots—and so there would be no harvest. This verse expresses the hope that the same would happen to those who “plowed” the backs of Israel (v. 3). See “The Flowers of Ancient Israel” and “Trees of Ancient Israel.”
129:7–8 For a discussion of sheaves and threshing, see the note on Ruth 2:7. See also “The Threshing Floor” and “Food and Agriculture.”