⁷who made the great lights^†—

His love endures forever.

⁸the sun to govern^† the day,

His love endures forever.

⁹the moon and stars to govern the night;

His love endures forever.

¹⁰to him who struck down the firstborn^† of Egypt

His love endures forever.

¹¹and brought Israel out^† from among them

His love endures forever.

¹²with a mighty hand and outstretched arm;^†

His love endures forever.

¹³to him who divided the Red Sea^{[221] †} asunder

His love endures forever.

¹⁴and brought Israel through^† the midst of it,

His love endures forever.

¹⁵but swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea;^†

His love endures forever.

¹⁶to him who led his people through the desert,^†

His love endures forever.

¹⁷who struck down great kings,^†

His love endures forever.

¹⁸and killed mighty kings^†—

His love endures forever.

¹⁹Sihon king of the Amorites^†

His love endures forever.

²⁰and Og king of Bashan—

His love endures forever.

²¹and gave their land^† as an inheritance,

His love endures forever.

²²an inheritance to his servant Israel;

His love endures forever.

²³to the One who remembered us^† in our low estate

His love endures forever.

²⁴and freed us from our enemies,^†

His love endures forever.

²⁵and who gives food^† to every creature.

His love endures forever.

²⁶Give thanks to the God of heaven.

His love endures forever.

Psalm 137

¹By the rivers of Babylon^† we sat and wept^†

when we remembered Zion.

²There on the poplars

we hung our harps,

³for there our captors asked us for songs,

our tormentors demanded^† songs of joy;

they said, “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!”

⁴How can we sing the songs of the LORD

while in a foreign land?

⁵If I forget you, O Jerusalem,

may my right hand forget [its skill].

⁶May my tongue cling to the roof^† of my mouth

if I do not remember you,

if I do not consider Jerusalem

my highest joy.

⁷Remember, O LORD, what the Edomites^† did

on the day Jerusalem fell.^†

“Tear it down,” they cried,

“tear it down to its foundations!”

⁸O Daughter of Babylon, doomed to destruction,^†

happy is he who repays you

for what you have done to us—

⁹he who seizes your infants

and dashes them^† against the rocks.

Psalm 138

Of David.

¹I will praise you, O LORD, with all my heart;

before the “gods”^† I will sing your praise.

²I will bow down toward your holy temple^†

and will praise your name

for your love and your faithfulness,

for you have exalted above all things

your name and your word.^†

³When I called, you answered me;

you made me bold and stouthearted.^†

⁴May all the kings of the earth^† praise you, O LORD,

when they hear the words of your mouth.

⁵May they sing of the ways of the LORD,

for the glory of the LORD is great.

⁶Though the LORD is on high, he looks upon the lowly,^†

but the proud^† he knows from afar.

⁷Though I walk^† in the midst of trouble,

you preserve my life;

you stretch out your hand against the anger of my foes,^†

with your right hand^† you save me.^†

⁸The LORD will fulfill [his purpose]^† for me;

your love, O LORD, endures forever—

do not abandon the works of your hands.^†

Psalm 139

For the director of music. Of David. A psalm.

¹O LORD, you have searched me^†

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*

Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell

Psalm 139 The Psalmist declared to God, “If I make my bed in the depths, you are there” (Ps 139:8). The Hebrew word for “depths” is Sheol, and many translations simply leave the word untranslated. Sheol in the Old Testament view was essentially the place beneath the earth to which the dead were thought to go. Thus, Sheol can refer both to the literal grave and to the netherworld. As the netherworld, it is similar to the Greek Hades, the dark and sorrowful domain of the dead (as seen in Homer’s Odyssey, book 11); in fact, it is usually translated as “Hades” in the Septuagint. In a single verse, however, Sheol can refer both to the gated kingdom of the netherworld and to the dusty grave (Job 17:16). In Greek mythology Hades was also a god, unlike what we see in the Hebrew Bible. On the other hand, the Bible sometimes portrays Sheol as a beast with gaping jaws (Isa 5:14; 14:9; Hab 2:5; NIV in each case, “the grave”).

Visions of Sheol as a fearsome site sometimes appear in prophetic judgments and warnings. Ezekiel 31–32 includes elaborate depictions of the hordes now confined to Sheol, and this vision serves as a warning to Egypt. Similarly, in Luke 16:19–31 Jesus recounted the parable of the rich man in Hades (NIV, “hell”) as a warning to his audience to repent.

The range of meanings the word Sheol carries explains what seem to be inconsistencies in the text. On the one hand, no one praises God in Sheol (Ps 6:5); one who is in the grave cannot testify to God’s glory before the assembly of Israel at the temple (cf. Ps 51:14). On the other hand, God is present even in Sheol (139:8; NIV, “the depths”); even the dead in the netherworld are not beyond his power. It is significant to note that Sheol in the Old Testament refers simply to the habitation of the dead—not specifically to hell, the location for punishment of the wicked dead.

In the New Testament, especially when the reference is citing the Old Testament, Hades refers again either to the grave or to the netherworld of the dead (e.g., Ac 2:27, 31, which states that Jesus was not left in Hades; NIV, “the grave”). In Revelation 20:13 Hades is the netherworld, which yields up the dead to God’s judgment. Another New Testament term, abyss, can also refer simply to the place of the dead (Ro 10:7, citing the Old Testament; NIV, “the deep”). But the word usually describes a locale for the imprisoned demonic powers (Lk 8:31; Rev 9:1–2; 20:1). In classical Greek abyss connotes unfathomable depths, such as the sources of a spring.

Neo-Assyrian invocation plaque against the demon Lamashtu

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of Musée de Louvre

A New Testament term with Jewish roots is Gehenna, named for the Hinnom Valley south of Jerusalem. Because child sacrifice was carried out in this valley (2Ki 16:3),¹ it was desecrated by King Josiah (2Ki 23:10). Jeremiah 7:32 declared that God would judge Judah there, and thus, during the intertestamental period, the term came to be used for the domain where the wicked would receive eternal punishment. Jesus often spoke of Gehenna as a place of fiery punishment (Mt 5:22; 10:28; 18:9; NIV in each case, “hell”), also indicating that Gehenna’s original purpose was as the site of punishment for demons, although wicked humans would also be consigned there (Mt 25:41; NIV, “eternal fire”). A similar word, a verb that means “to cast into Tartarus,” appears in 2 Peter 2:4 (NIV, “sent … to hell”) to describe the place where wicked angels are punished. Tartarus in Greek literature is the deepest part of Hades and a locale of eternal punishment.

We are wise not to make too much of the origins of these words. Gehenna has little to do with the historical Valley of Hinnom. Similarly, the Greek words the New Testament incorporates did not, for the apostles, imply that the Greek myths were credible. The word Sheol, we do well to note, is pure Hebrew with no known origin or parallels in any other language.

1. See “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East.”

---

and you know^† me.

²You know when I sit and when I rise;^†

you perceive my thoughts^† from afar.

³You discern my going out and my lying down;

you are familiar with all my ways.^†

⁴Before a word is on my tongue

you know it completely,^† O LORD.

⁵You hem me in^†—behind and before;

you have laid your hand upon me.

⁶Such knowledge is too wonderful for me,

too lofty^† for me to attain.

⁷Where can I go from your Spirit?

Where can I flee^† from your presence?

⁸If I go up to the heavens,^† you are there;

if I make my bed^† in the depths,^[222] you are there.

⁹If I rise on the wings of the dawn,

if I settle on the far side of the sea,

¹⁰even there your hand will guide me,^†

your right hand will hold me fast.

¹¹If I say, “Surely the darkness will hide me

and the light become night around me,”

¹²even the darkness will not be dark^† to you;

the night will shine like the day,

for darkness is as light to you.

¹³For you created my inmost being;^†

you knit me together^† in my mother’s womb.

¹⁴I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made;

your works are wonderful,^†

I know that full well.

¹⁵My frame was not hidden from you

when I was made in the secret place.

When I was woven together^† in the depths of the earth,^†

¹⁶your eyes saw my unformed body.

All the days ordained for me

were written in your book

before one of them came to be.

¹⁷How precious to^[223] me are your thoughts, O God!^†

How vast is the sum of them!

¹⁸Were I to count them,

they would outnumber the grains of sand.

When I awake,

I am still with you.

¹⁹If only you would slay the wicked,^† O God!

Away from me,^† you bloodthirsty men!

²⁰They speak of you with evil intent;

your adversaries misuse your name.^†

²¹Do I not hate those^† who hate you, O LORD,

and abhor those who rise up against you?

²²I have nothing but hatred for them;

I count them my enemies.

²³Search me,^† O God, and know my heart;^†

test me and know my anxious thoughts.

²⁴See if there is any offensive way in me,

and lead me^† in the way everlasting.

Psalm 140

For the director of music. A psalm of David.

¹Rescue me,^† O LORD, from evil men;

protect me from men of violence,^†

²who devise evil plans^† in their hearts

and stir up war every day.

³They make their tongues as sharp as^† a serpent’s;

the poison of vipers^† is on their lips. Selah

⁴Keep me,^† O LORD, from the hands of the wicked;^†

protect me from men of violence

who plan to trip my feet.

⁵Proud men have hidden a snare for me;

they have spread out the cords of their net

and have set traps^† for me along my path. Selah

⁶O LORD, I say to you, “You are my God.”^†

Hear, O LORD, my cry for mercy.^†

⁷O Sovereign LORD,^† my strong deliverer,

who shields my head in the day of battle—

⁸do not grant the wicked^† their desires, O LORD;

do not let their plans succeed,

or they will become proud. Selah

⁹Let the heads of those who surround me

be covered with the trouble their lips have caused.^†

¹⁰Let burning coals fall upon them;

may they be thrown into the fire,^†

into miry pits, never to rise.

¹¹Let slanderers not be established in the land;

may disaster hunt down men of violence.^†

¹²I know that the LORD secures justice for the poor

and upholds the cause^† of the needy.^†

¹³Surely the righteous will praise your name^†

and the upright will live^† before you.

Psalm 141

A psalm of David.

¹O LORD, I call to you; come quickly^† to me.

Hear my voice^† when I call to you.

²May my prayer be set before you like incense;^†

may the lifting up of my hands^† be like the evening sacrifice.^†

³Set a guard over my mouth, O LORD;

keep watch over the door of my lips.

⁴Let not my heart be drawn to what is evil,

to take part in wicked deeds

with men who are evildoers;

let me not eat of their delicacies.^†

⁵Let a righteous man^[224] strike me—it is a kindness;

let him rebuke me^†—it is oil on my head.^†

My head will not refuse it.

Yet my prayer is ever against the deeds of evildoers;

⁶their rulers will be thrown down from the cliffs,

and the wicked will learn that my words were well spoken.

⁷[They will say,] “As one plows and breaks up the earth,

so our bones have been scattered at the mouth^† of the grave.^[225] ”

⁸But my eyes are fixed^† on you, O Sovereign LORD;

in you I take refuge^†—do not give me over to death.

⁹Keep me^† from the snares they have laid for me,

from the traps set^† by evildoers.

¹⁰Let the wicked fall^† into their own nets,

while I pass by in safety.

Psalm 142

A maskil^[226] of David. When he was in the cave. A prayer.

¹I cry aloud to the LORD;

I lift up my voice to the LORD for mercy.^†

²I pour out my complaint^† before him;

before him I tell my trouble.

³When my spirit grows faint^† within me,

it is you who know my way.

In the path where I walk

men have hidden a snare for me.

⁴Look to my right and see;

no one is concerned for me.

I have no refuge;

no one cares^† for my life.

⁵I cry to you, O LORD;

I say, “You are my refuge,^†

my portion^† in the land of the living.”^†

⁶Listen to my cry,^†

for I am in desperate need;^†

rescue me from those who pursue me,

for they are too strong for me.

⁷Set me free from my prison,^†

that I may praise your name.

Then the righteous will gather about me

because of your goodness to me.^†

Psalm 143

A psalm of David.

¹O LORD, hear my prayer,

listen to my cry for mercy;^†

in your faithfulness^† and righteousness^†

come to my relief.

²Do not bring your servant into judgment,

for no one living is righteous^† before you.

³The enemy pursues me,

he crushes me to the ground;

he makes me dwell in darkness

like those long dead.

⁴So my spirit grows faint within me;

my heart within me is dismayed.^†

⁵I remember^† the days of long ago;

I meditate on all your works

and consider what your hands have done.

⁶I spread out my hands^† to you;

my soul thirsts for you like a parched land. Selah

⁷Answer me quickly,^† O LORD;

my spirit fails.

Do not hide your face^† from me

or I will be like those who go down to the pit.

⁸Let the morning bring me word of your unfailing love,^†

for I have put my trust in you.

Show me the way^† I should go,

for to you I lift up my soul.^†

⁹Rescue me from my enemies,^† O LORD,

for I hide myself in you.

¹⁰Teach me to do your will,

for you are my God;

may your good Spirit

lead^† me on level ground.

¹¹For your name’s sake, O LORD, preserve my life;^†

in your righteousness,^† bring me out of trouble.

¹²In your unfailing love, silence my enemies;

destroy all my foes,^†

for I am your servant.^†

Psalm 144

Of David.

¹Praise be to the LORD my Rock,^†

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*

Warfare in the Ancient World

Psalm 144 Modern readers may be shocked at the opening verse of Psalm 144, but warfare is a prominent theme in the Psalms. The earliest wars were conducted with crude weapons of wood and stone. Horses were of limited value during heavy combat because the stirrup had not yet been invented and a rider could easily fall.

Chariots were not used extensively until the Late Bronze Age.¹ An Egyptian chariot conveyed two men, a driver and an archer (chariots from the Levant [Syria] also accommodated a shield-bearer). Massed chariots used shock value and speed to demoralize and scatter an enemy. Chariots were prominent in New Kingdom Egypt.²

A revolution in military technology occurred at the beginning of the Iron Age. Massed armies of heavy infantry with the discipline to hold their ranks appeared on the scene. They could withstand and rout a chariot charge, making the chariot obsolete except as a prestigious vehicle for commanders.

Battles were often short, lasting only as long as one side or the other had the stamina to maintain face-to-face combat. Frequently one side would break ranks and flee. Panic was common, exacerbated by the commanders’ poor control, having to rely as they did on shouted voice commands or signals.

In keeping with the hilly terrain they inhabited, the Israelites relied primarily on infantry. Light infantry soldiers wore little or no armor and typically used projectile weapons, like stones and arrows. They moved in loose formations, relying on speed (see Jdg 20:15–16; 2Ch 14:8).

Heavy infantrymen wore full armor and often carried heavy swords and long spears. They moved in large, close formations, with spears lowered to form a wall of pikes, in effect creating an ancient version of a tank. The Greek hoplite (heavily armored infantry soldier) marching in his phalanx was a classic example of heavy infantry in action. Normally a heavy infantry unit would rout a light infantry corps, but out in the open a single heavy infantryman could be at a disadvantage when pitted against a light infantryman, due to the latter’s mobility and ability to strike at a distance.

The greatest armies combined heavy and light infantry with cavalry. Alexander the Great and Hannibal were masters at using their heavy infantry as a solid center for their armies, employing cavalry to flank an opponent. The Roman legions rejected the long pike in favor of a short sword. These legions had the weight and impact of heavy infantry but were much more mobile.

In addition to fighting pitched battles in the open field, armies sometimes laid siege to walled cities that were often situated atop hills.³ How long a city could hold out depended on how much food it had in storage and upon whether it had direct access to underground springs. Plague could strike a besieged city, as happened to Athens during the Peloponnesian War in 430 B.C. Often the besieging army would seek to bring down a city by building a siege ramp and attacking the walls with siege towers.

Ancient armies were often made up of citizen soldiers called up in times of emergency. These citizens could fight with dedication but were poorly trained and armed and often needed to return home on short order to tend their crops. Citizen-soldier armies served Israel during the judges period.

Ancient societies tried to give their armies a core of professional soldiers with long-term enlistments. Kings would also hire mercenaries. The Spartans had a novel solution to the recruitment problem: Every man served in the army full-time and lived in the barracks through most of his adult life (farming was handled by slaves called helots).

Ancient city-states often fought each other in “wars” that lasted a single day. Casualties could be light, and frequently nothing more was at stake than settling a property claim. Other wars could be catastrophic. The Peloponnesian War lasted 27 years, destroyed the Athenian Empire and devastated the Greek world.⁴ Victorious armies might slaughter cities and take survivors as slaves, effectively destroying peoples and cultures with deliberate genocide.

Armed conflict was indeed a fact of life for the peoples of ancient times. Against this reality David had ample reason to thank God, who trained his hands for war.

1. See “Historical Periods” chart in the front of this Bible.

2. See “Horses and Chariots in Ancient Warfare.”

3. See “Siege Warfare.”

4. See “Athens” and “Greece: From Independent City-states Through Alexander the Great.”

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who trains my hands for war,

my fingers for battle.

²He is my loving God and my fortress,^†

my stronghold and my deliverer,

my shield,^† in whom I take refuge,

who subdues peoples^[227] under me.

³O LORD, what is man^† that you care for him,

the son of man that you think of him?

⁴Man is like a breath;

his days are like a fleeting shadow.^†

⁵Part your heavens,^† O LORD, and come down;

touch the mountains, so that they smoke.^†

⁶Send forth lightning and scatter [the enemies];

shoot your arrows^† and rout them.

⁷Reach down your hand from on high;

deliver me and rescue me

from the mighty waters,^†

from the hands of foreigners^†

⁸whose mouths are full of lies,^†

whose right hands are deceitful.

⁹I will sing a new song to you, O God;

on the ten-stringed lyre^† I will make music to you,

¹⁰to the One who gives victory to kings,

who delivers his servant David^† from the deadly sword.

¹¹Deliver me and rescue me

from the hands of foreigners

whose mouths are full of lies,

whose right hands are deceitful.^†

¹²Then our sons in their youth

will be like well-nurtured plants,^†

and our daughters will be like pillars

carved to adorn a palace.

¹³Our barns will be filled

with every kind of provision.

Our sheep will increase by thousands,

by tens of thousands in our fields;

¹⁴our oxen will draw heavy loads.^[228]

There will be no breaching of walls,

no going into captivity,

no cry of distress in our streets.

¹⁵Blessed are the people^† of whom this is true;

blessed are the people whose God is the LORD.

Psalm 145 ^[229]

A psalm of praise. Of David.

¹I will exalt you,^† my God the King;^†

I will praise your name for ever and ever.

²Every day I will praise^† you

and extol your name for ever and ever.

³Great is the LORD and most worthy of praise;

his greatness no one can fathom.^†

⁴One generation^† will commend your works to another;

they will tell of your mighty acts.

⁵They will speak of the glorious splendor of your majesty,

and I will meditate on your wonderful works.^{[230] †}

⁶They will tell of the power of your awesome works,^†

and I will proclaim^† your great deeds.

⁷They will celebrate your abundant goodness^†

and joyfully sing of your righteousness.^†

⁸The LORD is gracious and compassionate,^†

slow to anger and rich in love.^†

⁹The LORD is good^† to all;

he has compassion on all he has made.

¹⁰All you have made will praise you,^† O LORD;

your saints will extol you.^†

¹¹They will tell of the glory of your kingdom

and speak of your might,

¹²so that all men may know of your mighty acts^†

and the glorious splendor of your kingdom.

¹³ Your kingdom is an everlasting kingdom,^†

and your dominion endures through all generations.

The LORD is faithful to all his promises

and loving toward all he has made.^[231]

¹⁴The LORD upholds^† all those who fall

and lifts up all^† who are bowed down.

¹⁵The eyes of all look to you,

and you give them their food^† at the proper time.

¹⁶You open your hand

and satisfy the desires^† of every living thing.

¹⁷The LORD is righteous in all his ways

and loving toward all he has made.

¹⁸The LORD is near^† to all who call on him,^†

to all who call on him in truth.

¹⁹He fulfills the desires^† of those who fear him;

he hears their cry^† and saves them.

²⁰The LORD watches over all who love him,^†

but all the wicked he will destroy.^†

²¹My mouth will speak^† in praise of the LORD.

Let every creature^† praise his holy name

for ever and ever.

Psalm 146

¹Praise the LORD.^[232]

Praise the LORD,^† O my soul.

²I will praise the LORD all my life;^†

I will sing praise to my God as long as I live.

³Do not put your trust in princes,^†

in mortal men,^† who cannot save.

⁴When their spirit departs, they return to the ground;^†

on that very day their plans come to nothing.^†

⁵Blessed is he^† whose help^† is the God of Jacob,

whose hope is in the LORD his God,

⁶the Maker of heaven^† and earth,

the sea, and everything in them—

the LORD, who remains faithful^† forever.

⁷He upholds the cause of the oppressed^†

and gives food to the hungry.^†

The LORD sets prisoners free,^†

⁸the LORD gives sight to the blind,^†

the LORD lifts up those who are bowed down,

the LORD loves the righteous.

⁹The LORD watches over the alien

and sustains the fatherless and the widow,^†

but he frustrates the ways of the wicked.

¹⁰The LORD reigns^† forever,

your God, O Zion, for all generations.

Praise the LORD.

Psalm 147

¹Praise the LORD.^[233]

How good it is to sing praises to our God,

how pleasant^† and fitting to praise him!^†

²The LORD builds up Jerusalem;^†

he gathers the exiles^† of Israel.

³He heals the brokenhearted

and binds up their wounds.

⁴He determines the number of the stars^†

and calls them each by name.

⁵Great is our Lord^† and mighty in power;

his understanding has no limit.^†

⁶The LORD sustains the humble^†

but casts the wicked to the ground.

⁷Sing to the LORD^† with thanksgiving;

make music to our God on the harp.

⁸He covers the sky with clouds;

he supplies the earth with rain^†

and makes grass grow^† on the hills.

⁹He provides food^† for the cattle

and for the young ravens^† when they call.

¹⁰His pleasure is not in the strength^† of the horse,^†

nor his delight in the legs of a man;

¹¹the LORD delights in those who fear him,

who put their hope in his unfailing love.

¹²Extol the LORD, O Jerusalem;

praise your God, O Zion,

¹³for he strengthens the bars of your gates

and blesses your people within you.

¹⁴He grants peace^† to your borders

and satisfies you^† with the finest of wheat.

¹⁵He sends his command^† to the earth;

his word runs swiftly.

¹⁶He spreads the snow^† like wool

and scatters the frost^† like ashes.

¹⁷He hurls down his hail like pebbles.

Who can withstand his icy blast?

¹⁸He sends his word^† and melts them;

he stirs up his breezes, and the waters flow.

¹⁹He has revealed his word to Jacob,

his laws and decrees^† to Israel.

²⁰He has done this for no other nation;^†

they do not know his laws.

Praise the LORD.

Psalm 148

¹Praise the LORD.^[234]

Praise the LORD from the heavens,

praise him in the heights above.

²Praise him, all his angels,^†

praise him, all his heavenly hosts.

³Praise him, sun and moon,

praise him, all you shining stars.

⁴Praise him, you highest heavens

and you waters above the skies.^†

⁵ Let them praise the name of the LORD,

for he commanded^† and they were created.

⁶He set them in place for ever and ever;

he gave a decree^† that will never pass away.

⁷Praise the LORD from the earth,

you great sea creatures^† and all ocean depths,

⁸lightning and hail, snow and clouds,

stormy winds that do his bidding,^†

⁹you mountains and all hills,^†

fruit trees and all cedars,

¹⁰wild animals and all cattle,

small creatures and flying birds,

¹¹kings of the earth and all nations,

you princes and all rulers on earth,

¹²young men and maidens,

old men and children.

¹³Let them praise the name of the LORD,^†

for his name alone is exalted;

his splendor is above the earth and the heavens.^†

¹⁴He has raised up for his people a horn,^{[235] †}

the praise of all his saints,

of Israel, the people close to his heart.

Praise the LORD.

Psalm 149

¹Praise the LORD.^{[236] †}

Sing to the LORD a new song,

his praise in the assembly^† of the saints.

²Let Israel rejoice in their Maker;^†

let the people of Zion be glad in their King.^†

³Let them praise his name with dancing

and make music to him with tambourine and harp.^†

⁴For the LORD takes delight^† in his people;

he crowns the humble with salvation.^†

⁵Let the saints rejoice^† in this honor

and sing for joy on their beds.^†

⁶May the praise of God be in their mouths^†

and a double-edged^† sword in their hands,

⁷to inflict vengeance on the nations

and punishment on the peoples,

⁸to bind their kings with fetters,

their nobles with shackles of iron,

⁹to carry out the sentence written against them.^†

This is the glory of all his saints.^†

Praise the LORD.

Psalm 150

¹Praise the LORD.^[237]

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*

Non-canonical Psalms

The watchtower at Qumran

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin

Psalm 150 Among the ancient texts of the Bible, scholars sometimes encounter psalms not found in the Hebrew Bible. A Syriac medieval Psalter includes five Apocryphal psalms numbered 151 to 155. Psalm 151 also appears in numerous ancient versions (Greek, Latin, Ethiopic and others). Cave 11 of Qumran contained Hebrew versions of Psalms 151, 154 and 155, and several other noncanonical psalms were discovered in caves 4 and 11. This gives rise to the obvious question of whether these psalms were overlooked and should have been included in the Scriptures.

Psalm 151 is a pseudo-autobiographical account of the early life of David drawn from 1 Samuel,¹ although the Hebrew version also includes some material not found in the Greek. The Hebrew of Psalm 151 includes, “The mountains do not testify to him [the LORD], and the hills do not tell [of him]. The trees praise my words and the flocks [praise] my deeds.” Perhaps those lines were edited out of the Greek version on the grounds that they were unorthodox or simply made no sense. Some of the noncanonical psalms have borrowed from the Biblical psalms and maintain their poetic conventions. For example, Psalms 154 and 155 are pleas to God for help and are analogous to the Biblical Psalms 61, 62 and 63. Psalm 155 opens with the words: “LORD, I have called to you; hear me,” in the tradition of Psalm 61:1 and 63:1.

The reason these psalms were not included in the Bible is simply that they were written too late. Their presence at Qumran and elsewhere indicates that liturgists continued to create songs of praise in imitation of the psalms after the canon had closed.² In fact, we even see psalm-like songs of praise in the New Testament (e.g., Lk 1:46–55).

1. See “David.”

2. See “The Old Testament Canon.”

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Praise God in his sanctuary;^†

praise him in his mighty heavens.^†

²Praise him for his acts of power;^†

praise him for his surpassing greatness.^†

³Praise him with the sounding of the trumpet,

praise him with the harp and lyre,^†

⁴praise him with tambourine and dancing,^†

praise him with the strings^† and flute,

⁵praise him with the clash of cymbals,^†

praise him with resounding cymbals.

⁶Let everything^† that has breath praise the LORD.

Praise the LORD.

PROVERBS

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The book of Proverbs is a collection of collections, all on the subject of wisdom. There are several major compilations in the book, including “the proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel” (Pr 1–24), “more proverbs of Solomon, copied by the men of Hezekiah king of Judah” (chs. 25–29), “the sayings of Agur son of Jakeh” (ch. 30) and “the sayings of King Lemuel—an oracle his mother taught him” (ch. 31). In addition, there are several groupings that may be regarded as minor or sub-collections, including “Sayings of the Wise” (22:17–24:22) and “Further Sayings of the Wise” (24:23–34). The prologue (1:1–7) and epilogue (31:10–31) may well have been added at a later time.

Solomon’s proverbs were written between 970 and 930 B.C., while Hezekiah’s scribes compiled additional, “unpublished” Solomonic proverbs between 729 and 686 B.C. Nothing is known of Agur and King Lemuel, so the dates of composition of their contributions are unknown.

The fact that Proverbs is an anthology—almost a scrapbook—of collections implies that it was not compiled at any one given point. Even so, it is clear that according to the Biblical text Solomon was the primary source for Proverbs (whether he is thought of as a writer or a collector of these pithy nuggets of wisdom). First Kings 4:32 tells us that Solomon “spoke three thousand proverbs.”

Audience

These proverbs were written to the people of Israel to show them how wisdom can be practically applied to everyday life, but the implied reader of Proverbs is primarily the young man. Thus the book routinely addresses the reader as “my son,” and the major temptations described in the book—to join a gang and enter a life of crime or to run after the immoral woman—relate especially to the young man as he approaches adulthood.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Many modern scholars consider the notion that Solomon had anything to do with the writing of Proverbs to be implausible and treat the book as entirely a product of the postexilic era. In fact, however, there is no good reason to dismiss Solomon’s association with Proverbs. Similar compilations from the ancient Near East date from Solomon’s time (tenth century B.C.) or much earlier (see “Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom”). Solomon’s era was the most prosperous and sophisticated in Israelite history. If any period was likely to have produced works of wisdom literature, it was precisely this one.

Timeline

As You Read

It is helpful to recognize that the pat statements so plentiful in Proverbs are not promises from God but general principles—similar to the reference to long life as the result of honoring one’s parents found in the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:12). Try to dismiss from your mind the many exceptions that might otherwise cause you to read these assertions with a skeptical mindset. You might even want to identify cases in which an individual exemplifying a particular God-honoring trait has indeed enjoyed the blessings made more likely by his or her good judgment in a particular area of life.

Allow yourself to delight in the visual imagery and to chuckle at the humorous images that convey universal truths (e.g., “Better to live on a corner of the roof than share a house with a quarrelsome wife”; Pr 21:9). Enjoy the comparisons and contrasts, and don’t be surprised by the lack of continuity that is often evident from one saying to the next. By way of comparison, recall some of Benjamin Franklin’s proverbial maxims from the eighteenth century, such as “A penny saved is a penny earned.”

Jot down a listing of some character traits that are endorsed or warned against in this book. How well does this list fit with the conventional, godly wisdom that guides your life today?

Did You Know?

• The 30 sayings of Proverbs 22:17–24:22 are similar to the 30 units of the Egyptian “Wisdom of Amenemope,” written prior to Solomon’s time.
• Agur was likely a non-Israelite wise man like Job and his friends (30:1).
• Total abstinence from alcohol was rare in the ancient world, even while the problems of addiction to drink were recognized (31:4–7).
• In Jewish tradition Proverbs 31:10–31 is recited by a husband to his wife on Sabbath evenings.

Themes

The book of Proverbs includes the following themes:

1. 1. Wisdom. The predominant motif of the extended discourse in 1:1–9:18 is that of two women: Wisdom and Folly. Wisdom is a personification of God’s attribute of wisdom and ultimately stands for God himself, while Folly represents false gods vying for Israel’s devotion. The truth expressed is that there can be no real wisdom apart from God. To fear God is to begin on the path of “knowledge”—understanding or insight (1:7).
2. 2. Practical living. Proverbs presents principles for godly living and has much to say about wealth, work, giving and matters of the heart. The range and scope of its subject matter encompass nearly every aspect of life.

Outline

I. Prologue: Purpose and Theme (1:1–7)

II. Superiority of the Way of Wisdom (1:8–9:18)

III. Proverbs of Solomon (10:1–22:16)

IV. Sayings of the Wise (22:17–24:34)

V. More Proverbs of Solomon (25–29)

VI. The Words of Agur and Lemuel (30:1–31:9)

VII. Epilogue: The Excellent Wife (31:10–31)

Proverbs 1

Prologue: Purpose and Theme

¹The proverbs of Solomon^† son of David, king of Israel:^†

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Ancient Near Eastern Wisdom

Proverbs 1 The ancient Near East has yielded a great deal of what scholars call “wisdom literature”—texts that instruct the reader about life, virtue and social interaction or reflect upon profound issues.

• The instructive, or didactic, texts, like Proverbs, were typically written with a boy or young man (“my son”) as the implied reader. These straightforward texts, exhorting the reader to right behavior, concern issues like personal morality, work ethics, career choice or peer respect.

• The reflective texts, like Job, are addressed to a more mature reader—one who acknowledges that the world is not always as it should be. They lament societal ills and wrestle with complex issues.

• These categories are not mutually exclusive. Ecclesiastes wrestles with life’s unfairness and perversity but also instructs the reader. We could classify Proverbs as the workbook for a beginning or “undergraduate” course, with Ecclesiastes being an advanced or “graduate school” text.

• Wisdom texts may address the reader directly, as do Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, or have a narrative structure, like Job.

• Wisdom texts may be presented as prose (like most of Ecc) or poetry (like most of Job).

• Didactic texts often employ simple, two-line maxims and parallelism (as in Pr), while reflective texts are typically more complex in structure (as in Job’s more problematical poetic discourses).

Other nations also had wisdom literature. A few examples from the ancient Near East:

• Egypt

The Instruction of Vizier Ptah-hotep (Fifth Dynasty, c. 2500–2350 B.C.): An aged counselor instructs his son in how he should conduct his life.

The Instruction for Merikare (Tenth Dynasty, c. 2106–2010 B.C.): A pharaoh (apparently Khety III) initiates his son in the principles of proper and effective ruling. This text, reflecting the social turmoil of the First Intermediate period, asserts that Merikare must earn the respect of the nobles through just governance in order to maintain his hold on the throne.

The Protests of the Eloquent Peasant (oldest copy dates to the Twelfth Dynasty, c. 1963–1786 B.C.): A peasant who has been defrauded of his goods pleads for justice from high officials, eventually winning his case and gaining a high position for himself. The text reflects upon the nature of justice and the importance of eloquent speech.¹

The Instruction of Amenemope² (oldest copy dates to between the tenth and sixth centuries B.C.): This text, which is remarkably similar to Proverbs 22:17–24:22, includes an introduction and 30 sections of teaching on wise behavior.

Ivory Board Game From Megiddo

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The British Museum

• Mesopotamia

Akkadian³ Proverb Texts: These writings contain pithy adages and maxims of the sort found all over the world. For example, one proverb states that an enemy army never departs from a city whose weapons are weak (similar to the Roman proverb, “If you want peace, prepare for war”).

Counsels of Wisdom: This Akkadian book of practical advice also addresses the reader as “my son.” Examples of advice include a warning not to marry a prostitute and an admonition that the steward of a ruler’s property should not give in to covetousness.

The Babylonian Theodicy (c. 1100–1000 B.C.): A cynical sufferer enters into a dispute with a man who defends traditional notions of wisdom. The text originally included 27 stanzas, each with 11 lines, but not all remain intact. This writing is often compared to Job; there are in fact both clear similarities and sharp differences between the two.⁴

The Book of Ahiqar (found on a fifth-century B.C. Aramaic papyrus but set in Assyria and possibly composed originally in Akkadian): This text describes how Ahiqar overcame the adversity of a scheming and ungrateful nephew, avoided execution on false charges and proved himself to be the wisest man of his age. The story was translated into Armenian and Arabic, and the Apocryphal book of Tobit alludes to it. The motif of the wise man who triumphs over adversity appears repeatedly in the Bible as well.

We cannot deny that such similarities exist; the Israelites did not live in cultural isolation. At the same time, it would be a mistake to treat the Biblical texts as just another version of ancient wisdom. In grandeur of scope, internal complexity and theological profundity, the Biblical texts of Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes are in a class by themselves.

1. See “The Desire for Justice in the ‘Eloquent Peasant’ .”

2. See “The Teaching of Amenemope.”

3. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

4. See “The Babylonian Theodicy.”

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²for attaining wisdom and discipline;

for understanding words of insight;

³for acquiring a disciplined and prudent life,

doing what is right and just and fair;

⁴for giving prudence to the simple,^†

knowledge and discretion^† to the young —

⁵let the wise listen and add to their learning,^†

and let the discerning get guidance —

⁶for understanding proverbs and parables,^†

the sayings and riddles^† of the wise.

⁷The fear of the LORD^† is the beginning of knowledge,

but fools^[1] despise wisdom and discipline.

Exhortations to Embrace Wisdom

Warning Against Enticement

⁸Listen, my son,^† to your father’s instruction

and do not forsake your mother’s teaching.^†

⁹They will be a garland to grace your head

and a chain to adorn your neck.^†

¹⁰My son, if sinners entice^† you,

do not give in^† to them.^†

¹¹If they say, “Come along with us;

let’s lie in wait^† for someone’s blood,

let’s waylay some harmless soul;

¹²let’s swallow them alive, like the grave,^[2]

and whole, like those who go down to the pit;^†

¹³we will get all sorts of valuable things

and fill our houses with plunder;

¹⁴throw in your lot with us,

and we will share a common purse” —

¹⁵my son, do not go along with them,

do not set foot^† on their paths;^†

¹⁶for their feet rush into sin,

they are swift to shed blood.^†

¹⁷How useless to spread a net

in full view of all the birds!

¹⁸These men lie in wait for their own blood;

they waylay only themselves!

¹⁹Such is the end of all who go after ill-gotten gain;

it takes away the lives of those who get it.^†

Warning Against Rejecting Wisdom

²⁰Wisdom calls aloud^† in the street,

she raises her voice in the public squares;

²¹at the head of the noisy streets^[3] she cries out,

in the gateways of the city she makes her speech:

²²“How long will you simple ones^{[4] †} love your simple ways?

How long will mockers delight in mockery

and fools hate knowledge?

²³If you had responded to my rebuke,

I would have poured out my heart to you

and made my thoughts known to you.

²⁴But since you rejected me when I called^†

and no one gave heed when I stretched out my hand,

²⁵since you ignored all my advice

and would not accept my rebuke,

²⁶I in turn will laugh^† at your disaster;

I will mock when calamity overtakes you^† —

²⁷when calamity overtakes you like a storm,

when disaster sweeps over you like a whirlwind,

when distress and trouble overwhelm you.

²⁸“Then they will call to me but I will not answer;^†

they will look for me but will not find me.^†

²⁹Since they hated knowledge

and did not choose to fear the LORD,^†

³⁰since they would not accept my advice

and spurned my rebuke,^†

³¹they will eat the fruit of their ways

and be filled with the fruit of their schemes.^†

³²For the waywardness of the simple will kill them,

and the complacency of fools will destroy them;^†

³³but whoever listens to me will live in safety^†

and be at ease, without fear of harm.”^†

Proverbs 2

Moral Benefits of Wisdom

¹My son, if you accept my words

and store up my commands within you,

²turning your ear to wisdom

and applying your heart to understanding,^†

³and if you call out for insight

and cry aloud for understanding,

⁴and if you look for it as for silver

and search for it as for hidden treasure,^†

⁵then you will understand the fear of the LORD

and find the knowledge of God.^†

⁶For the LORD gives wisdom,^†

and from his mouth come knowledge and understanding.

⁷He holds victory in store for the upright,

he is a shield^† to those whose walk is blameless,^†

⁸for he guards the course of the just

and protects the way of his faithful ones.^†

⁹Then you will understand what is right and just

and fair—every good path.

¹⁰For wisdom will enter your heart,^†

and knowledge will be pleasant to your soul.

¹¹Discretion will protect you,

and understanding will guard you.^†

¹²Wisdom will save you from the ways of wicked men,

from men whose words are perverse,

¹³who leave the straight paths

to walk in dark ways,^†

¹⁴who delight in doing wrong

and rejoice in the perverseness of evil,^†

¹⁵whose paths are crooked^†

and who are devious in their ways.^†

¹⁶It will save you also from the adulteress,^†

from the wayward wife with her seductive words,

¹⁷who has left the partner of her youth

and ignored the covenant she made before God.^{[5] †}

¹⁸For her house leads down to death

and her paths to the spirits of the dead.^†

¹⁹None who go to her return

or attain the paths of life.^†

²⁰Thus you will walk in the ways of good men

and keep to the paths of the righteous.

²¹For the upright will live in the land,^†

and the blameless will remain in it;

²²but the wicked will be cut off from the land,^†

and the unfaithful will be torn from it.^†

Proverbs 3

Further Benefits of Wisdom

¹My son, do not forget my teaching,^†

but keep my commands in your heart,

²for they will prolong your life many years^†

and bring you prosperity.

³Let love and faithfulness never leave you;

bind them around your neck,

write them on the tablet of your heart.^†

⁴Then you will win favor and a good name

in the sight of God and man.^†

⁵Trust in the LORD^† with all your heart

and lean not on your own understanding;

⁶in all your ways acknowledge him,

and he will make your paths^† straight.^{[6] †}

⁷Do not be wise in your own eyes;^†

fear the LORD and shun evil.^†

⁸This will bring health to your body^†

and nourishment to your bones.^†

⁹Honor the LORD with your wealth,

with the firstfruits^† of all your crops;

¹⁰then your barns will be filled^† to overflowing,

and your vats will brim over with new wine.^†

¹¹My son, do not despise the LORD’s discipline^†

and do not resent his rebuke,

¹²because the LORD disciplines those he loves,^†

as a father^[7] the son he delights in.^†

¹³Blessed is the man who finds wisdom,

the man who gains understanding,

¹⁴for she is more profitable than silver

and yields better returns than gold.^†

¹⁵She is more precious than rubies;^†

nothing you desire can compare with her.^†

¹⁶Long life is in her right hand;

in her left hand are riches and honor.^†

¹⁷Her ways are pleasant ways,

and all her paths are peace.^†

¹⁸She is a tree of life^† to those who embrace her;

those who lay hold of her will be blessed.

¹⁹By wisdom the LORD laid the earth’s foundations,^†

by understanding he set the heavens^† in place;

²⁰by his knowledge the deeps were divided,

and the clouds let drop the dew.

²¹My son, preserve sound judgment and discernment,

do not let them out of your sight;^†

²²they will be life for you,

an ornament to grace your neck.^†

²³Then you will go on your way in safety,

and your foot will not stumble;^†

²⁴when you lie down,^† you will not be afraid;

when you lie down, your sleep^† will be sweet.

²⁵Have no fear of sudden disaster

or of the ruin that overtakes the wicked,

²⁶for the LORD will be your confidence

and will keep your foot^† from being snared.

²⁷Do not withhold good from those who deserve it,

when it is in your power to act.

²⁸Do not say to your neighbor,

“Come back later; I’ll give it tomorrow” —

when you now have it with you.^†

²⁹Do not plot harm against your neighbor,

who lives trustfully near you.

³⁰Do not accuse a man for no reason —

when he has done you no harm.

³¹Do not envy^† a violent man

or choose any of his ways,

³²for the LORD detests a perverse man^†

but takes the upright into his confidence.^†

³³The LORD’s curse^† is on the house of the wicked,^†

but he blesses the home of the righteous.^†

³⁴He mocks proud mockers

but gives grace to the humble.^†

³⁵The wise inherit honor,

but fools he holds up to shame.

Proverbs 4

Wisdom Is Supreme

¹Listen, my sons,^† to a father’s instruction;

pay attention and gain understanding.

²I give you sound learning,

so do not forsake my teaching.

³When I was a boy in my father’s house,

still tender, and an only child of my mother,

⁴he taught me and said,

“Lay hold of my words with all your heart;

keep my commands and you will live.^†

⁵Get wisdom,^† get understanding;

do not forget my words or swerve from them.

⁶Do not forsake wisdom, and she will protect you;^†

love her, and she will watch over you.

⁷Wisdom is supreme; therefore get wisdom.

Though it cost all^† you have,^[8] get understanding.^†

⁸Esteem her, and she will exalt you;

embrace her, and she will honor you.^†

⁹She will set a garland of grace on your head

and present you with a crown of splendor.^†”

¹⁰Listen, my son, accept what I say,

and the years of your life will be many.^†

¹¹I guide^† you in the way of wisdom

and lead you along straight paths.

¹²When you walk, your steps will not be hampered;

when you run, you will not stumble.^†

¹³Hold on to instruction, do not let it go;

guard it well, for it is your life.^†

¹⁴Do not set foot on the path of the wicked

or walk in the way of evil men.^†

¹⁵Avoid it, do not travel on it;

turn from it and go on your way.

¹⁶For they cannot sleep till they do evil;^†

they are robbed of slumber till they make someone fall.

¹⁷They eat the bread of wickedness

and drink the wine of violence.

¹⁸The path of the righteous^† is like the first gleam of dawn,

shining ever brighter till the full light of day.^†

¹⁹But the way of the wicked is like deep darkness;^†

they do not know what makes them stumble.

²⁰My son, pay attention to what I say;

listen closely to my words.^†

²¹Do not let them out of your sight,^†

keep them within your heart;

²²for they are life to those who find them

and health to a man’s whole body.^†

²³Above all else, guard your heart,

for it is the wellspring of life.^†

²⁴Put away perversity from your mouth;

keep corrupt talk far from your lips.

²⁵Let your eyes look straight ahead,

fix your gaze directly before you.

²⁶Make level^[9] paths for your feet^†

and take only ways that are firm.

²⁷Do not swerve to the right or the left;^†

keep your foot from evil.

Proverbs 5

Warning Against Adultery

¹My son, pay attention to my wisdom,

listen well to my words^† of insight,

²that you may maintain discretion

and your lips may preserve knowledge.

³For the lips of an adulteress drip honey,

and her speech is smoother than oil;^†

⁴but in the end she is bitter as gall,^†

sharp as a double-edged sword.

⁵Her feet go down to death;

her steps lead straight to the grave.^{[10] †}

⁶She gives no thought to the way of life;

her paths are crooked, but she knows it not.^†

⁷Now then, my sons, listen^† to me;

do not turn aside from what I say.

⁸Keep to a path far from her,^†

do not go near the door of her house,

⁹lest you give your best strength to others

and your years to one who is cruel,

¹⁰lest strangers feast on your wealth

and your toil enrich another man’s house.

¹¹At the end of your life you will groan,

when your flesh and body are spent.

¹²You will say, “How I hated discipline!

How my heart spurned correction!^†

¹³I would not obey my teachers

or listen to my instructors.

¹⁴I have come to the brink of utter ruin

in the midst of the whole assembly.”

¹⁵Drink water from your own cistern,

running water from your own well.

¹⁶Should your springs overflow in the streets,

your streams of water in the public squares?

¹⁷Let them be yours alone,

never to be shared with strangers.

¹⁸May your fountain^† be blessed,

and may you rejoice in the wife of your youth.^†

¹⁹A loving doe, a graceful deer^† —

may her breasts satisfy you always,

may you ever be captivated by her love.

²⁰Why be captivated, my son, by an adulteress?

Why embrace the bosom of another man’s wife?

²¹For a man’s ways are in full view^† of the LORD,

and he examines all his paths.^†

²²The evil deeds of a wicked man ensnare him;^†

the cords of his sin hold him fast.^†

²³He will die for lack of discipline,^†

led astray by his own great folly.

Proverbs 6

Warnings Against Folly

¹My son, if you have put up security for your neighbor,^†

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Heart, Breath, Throat and Intestines: Ancient Hebrew Anthropology

Proverbs 6 Biblical Hebrew, like English, uses parts of the body metaphorically to express personality, emotion or thought processes. Hebrew, however, does not always allude to the same organs as English to express these functions. A verbatim translation of these terms would often be unintelligible in English, and thus even the most “literal” of translations must resort to paraphrase in order to communicate the intended point. The English reader might have difficulty spotting where the Hebrew word for a body part occurs in the examples below:

• The word leb (usually translated “heart”) can be used literally of the physical heart (e.g., Ex 28:29) or metaphorically for several aspects of the personality. Often leb indicates the seat of particular emotions, such as fear, lament, regret, joy, comfort, love, anger, etc. (e.g., Ps 27:3; Pr 19:3). It can also refer to thought functions, as the equivalent of “mind” in English (4:10).

• Hebrew words for “breath” (ruah, neshamah) can refer to a person’s inner being (e.g., Job 32:8; Pr 20:27). Thus, they are often translated into English as “spirit” or “soul.” But an individual’s ruah may also experience emotional reactions (Ge 26:35) and consequently exhibit a particular behavior, such as stubbornness (Dt 2:30).

• There are several Hebrew words for neck or throat (e.g., garon or nephesh). The throat is the means by which a person breathes, eats and thus, so to speak, takes in life. Therefore, the word nephesh, although it concretely means “throat,” is generally translated “life,” “soul” or even “person.” These words are often used to express the inner character of an individual. As such, the neck or throat can be deceitful (Ps 5:9), display arrogance (Isa 3:16), express determination or stubbornness (Ps 75:5) and praise God (Ps 149:6). The nephesh can be bitter or hot-tempered (Jdg 18:25; the NIV’s “hot-tempered men” is actually “men of bitter nephesh”). Literally, necks displayed precious metals and jewels (SS 1:10) as well as the yoke of slavery (Isa 10:27). Figuratively, then, the neck or throat could be said to display what a person deemed valuable (Pr 6:21), as well as the consequences of an individual’s sins (La 1:14).

• The words for stomach or womb (e.g., beten) can indicate the seat of the emotions, such as titillation (Pr 18:8) and sexual desire (SS 5:4). Other organs that Biblical Hebrew uses in this way are the liver, intestines and kidneys.

Proverbs 6 illustrates the usage described above. Verse 16 states literally that there are seven things that are detestable to the Lord’s nephesh (his very being). Verse 30 notes that men do not despise a thief who steals to fill his nephesh (throat or hunger), while verse 32 claims that the adulterer destroys his own nephesh (life or soul). Verse 14 points out that the individual who plots evil has perversity in his leb (heart or mind), while verse 32 asserts that the adulterer lacks leb (good sense).

The teachings of the Hebrew sages are couched in terms that are sometimes alien to the modern English reader, but when understood on their own terms they create a compelling picture of a human being as a bundle of physical, emotional and spiritual capacities and needs. A man, woman, boy or girl is an integral combination of body and soul; the emotional or intellectual aspects of life simply cannot be separated from the nature of the whole person.

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if you have struck hands in pledge^† for another,

²if you have been trapped by what you said,

ensnared by the words of your mouth,

³then do this, my son, to free yourself,

since you have fallen into your neighbor’s hands:

Go and humble yourself;

press your plea with your neighbor!

⁴Allow no sleep to your eyes,

no slumber to your eyelids.^†

⁵Free yourself, like a gazelle from the hand of the hunter,

like a bird from the snare of the fowler.^†

⁶Go to the ant, you sluggard;^†

consider its ways and be wise!

⁷It has no commander,

no overseer or ruler,

⁸yet it stores its provisions in summer

and gathers its food at harvest.^†

⁹How long will you lie there, you sluggard?^†

When will you get up from your sleep?

¹⁰A little sleep, a little slumber,

a little folding of the hands to rest^† —

¹¹and poverty^† will come on you like a bandit

and scarcity like an armed man.^[11]

¹²A scoundrel and villain,

who goes about with a corrupt mouth,

¹³who winks with his eye,^†

signals with his feet

and motions with his fingers,

¹⁴who plots evil^† with deceit in his heart —

he always stirs up dissension.^†

¹⁵Therefore disaster will overtake him in an instant;

he will suddenly be destroyed—without remedy.^†

¹⁶There are six things the LORD hates,

seven that are detestable to him:

¹⁷haughty eyes,

a lying tongue,^†

hands that shed innocent blood,^†

¹⁸a heart that devises wicked schemes,

feet that are quick to rush into evil,^†

¹⁹a false witness^† who pours out lies

and a man who stirs up dissension among brothers.^†

Warning Against Adultery

²⁰My son, keep your father’s commands

and do not forsake your mother’s teaching.^†

²¹Bind them upon your heart forever;

fasten them around your neck.^†

²²When you walk, they will guide you;

when you sleep, they will watch over you;

when you awake, they will speak to you.

²³For these commands are a lamp,

this teaching is a light,^†

and the corrections of discipline

are the way to life,

²⁴keeping you from the immoral woman,

from the smooth tongue of the wayward wife.^†

²⁵Do not lust in your heart after her beauty

or let her captivate you with her eyes,

²⁶for the prostitute reduces you to a loaf of bread,

and the adulteress preys upon your very life.^†

²⁷Can a man scoop fire into his lap

without his clothes being burned?

²⁸Can a man walk on hot coals

without his feet being scorched?

²⁹So is he who sleeps^† with another man’s wife;^†

no one who touches her will go unpunished.

³⁰Men do not despise a thief if he steals

to satisfy his hunger when he is starving.

³¹Yet if he is caught, he must pay sevenfold,^†

though it costs him all the wealth of his house.

³²But a man who commits adultery^† lacks judgment;^†

whoever does so destroys himself.

³³Blows and disgrace are his lot,

and his shame will never^† be wiped away;

³⁴for jealousy^† arouses a husband’s fury,^†

and he will show no mercy when he takes revenge.

³⁵He will not accept any compensation;

he will refuse the bribe, however great it is.^†

Proverbs 7

Warning Against the Adulteress

¹My son,^† keep my words

and store up my commands within you.

²Keep my commands and you will live;^†

guard my teachings as the apple of your eye.

³Bind them on your fingers;

write them on the tablet of your heart.^†

⁴Say to wisdom, “You are my sister,”

and call understanding your kinsman;

⁵they will keep you from the adulteress,

from the wayward wife with her seductive words.^†

⁶At the window of my house

I looked out through the lattice.

⁷I saw among the simple,

I noticed among the young men,

a youth who lacked judgment.^†

⁸He was going down the street near her corner,

walking along in the direction of her house

⁹at twilight,^† as the day was fading,

as the dark of night set in.

¹⁰Then out came a woman to meet him,

dressed like a prostitute and with crafty intent.

¹¹(She is loud^† and defiant,

her feet never stay at home;

¹²now in the street, now in the squares,

at every corner she lurks.)^†

¹³She took hold of him^† and kissed him

and with a brazen face she said:^†

¹⁴“I have fellowship offerings^{[12] †} at home;

today I fulfilled my vows.

¹⁵So I came out to meet you;

I looked for you and have found you!

¹⁶I have covered my bed

with colored linens from Egypt.

¹⁷I have perfumed my bed^†

with myrrh,^† aloes and cinnamon.

¹⁸Come, let’s drink deep of love till morning;

let’s enjoy ourselves with love!^†

¹⁹My husband is not at home;

he has gone on a long journey.

²⁰He took his purse filled with money

and will not be home till full moon.”

²¹With persuasive words she led him astray;

she seduced him with her smooth talk.^†

²²All at once he followed her

like an ox going to the slaughter,

like a deer^[13] stepping into a noose^{[14] †}

²³till an arrow pierces^† his liver,

like a bird darting into a snare,

little knowing it will cost him his life.^†

²⁴Now then, my sons, listen^† to me;

pay attention to what I say.

²⁵Do not let your heart turn to her ways

or stray into her paths.^†

²⁶Many are the victims she has brought down;

her slain are a mighty throng.

²⁷Her house is a highway to the grave,^[15]

leading down to the chambers of death.^†

Proverbs 8

Wisdom’s Call

¹Does not wisdom call out?^†

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*

Maat and Lady Wisdom

Proverbs 8 In ancient Egypt¹ Maat was the abstract principle of truth, order, justice and harmony—as well as the name of the goddess who personified those virtues. Kings were enjoined to practice Maat in order to ensure a long reign (cf. Pr 8:15–16). When Maat held sway in the land, Egyptians believed, the Nile flooded properly to ensure good crops, there was justice for all and the classes of society coexisted in harmony. When Maat was ignored, the land fell into chaos, crime and ruin. Some funerary paintings depict a balance scale on one side of which is placed the heart of a recently deceased man and on the other side a feather, representing Maat. If the balance is in equilibrium, the soul of the deceased enters the paradise of the realm of Osiris. Should the individual’s heart fail the test, a monster called the Eater stands ready to devour his soul.

Scholars naturally wonder to what degree the Egyptian concept of Maat influenced Israelite thinking on justice and order in society. Specifically, the feminine personification of Wisdom in Proverbs 8 has been suggested to have been derived from the Egyptian goddess Maat. It is, of course, important to realize that Israel did not exist in isolation; to the contrary, the Bible speaks a great deal about the Egyptian influences on Israel. The sojourn in Egypt was obviously a time when Israel would have been exposed to Egyptian culture and religion, and Solomon’s era was also a period of close cultural exchange between these two societies.

Nevertheless, it is difficult to posit a direct line of influence from Egypt to Israel on the subjects of order, justice or Maat. Both Israel and Egypt understood that justice and harmony are necessary for life to function smoothly. But Wisdom, in Proverbs 8, is a personification—not a goddess. She exemplifies the order and justice God has built into creation. Lady Wisdom appears elsewhere in Proverbs; for example, in 1:20–33 she calls upon people to heed her teachings and so to find life. The embodiment of wisdom as a lady who invites people to follow her is a distinctively Israelite idea, with no analogy in Egyptian teaching.

1. See “A Breakdown of Ancient Egyptian History.”

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Does not understanding raise her voice?

²On the heights along the way,

where the paths meet, she takes her stand;

³beside the gates leading into the city,

at the entrances, she cries aloud:^†

⁴“To you, O men, I call out;

I raise my voice to all mankind.

⁵You who are simple,^† gain prudence;^†

you who are foolish, gain understanding.

⁶Listen, for I have worthy things to say;

I open my lips to speak what is right.

⁷My mouth speaks what is true,^†

for my lips detest wickedness.

⁸All the words of my mouth are just;

none of them is crooked or perverse.

⁹To the discerning all of them are right;

they are faultless to those who have knowledge.

¹⁰Choose my instruction instead of silver,

knowledge rather than choice gold,^†

¹¹for wisdom is more precious^† than rubies,

and nothing you desire can compare with her.^†

¹²“I, wisdom, dwell together with prudence;

I possess knowledge and discretion.^†

¹³To fear the LORD is to hate evil;^†

I hate^† pride and arrogance,

evil behavior and perverse speech.

¹⁴Counsel and sound judgment are mine;

I have understanding and power.^†

¹⁵By me kings reign

and rulers^† make laws that are just;

¹⁶by me princes govern,

and all nobles who rule on earth.^[16]

¹⁷I love those who love me,^†

and those who seek me find me.^†

¹⁸With me are riches and honor,^†

enduring wealth and prosperity.^†

¹⁹My fruit is better than fine gold;

what I yield surpasses choice silver.^†

²⁰I walk in the way of righteousness,

along the paths of justice,

²¹bestowing wealth on those who love me

and making their treasuries full.^†

²²“The LORD brought me forth as the first of his works,^[17],[18]

before his deeds of old;

²³I was appointed^[19] from eternity,

from the beginning, before the world began.

²⁴When there were no oceans, I was given birth,

when there were no springs abounding with water;^†

²⁵before the mountains were settled in place,

before the hills, I was given birth,^†

²⁶before he made the earth or its fields

or any of the dust of the world.^†

²⁷I was there when he set the heavens in place,^†

when he marked out the horizon on the face of the deep,

²⁸when he established the clouds above

and fixed securely the fountains of the deep,

²⁹when he gave the sea its boundary^†

so the waters would not overstep his command,^†

and when he marked out the foundations of the earth.^†

³⁰Then I was the craftsman at his side.^†

I was filled with delight day after day,

rejoicing always in his presence,

³¹rejoicing in his whole world

and delighting in mankind.^†

³²“Now then, my sons, listen to me;

blessed are^† those who keep my ways.^†

³³Listen to my instruction and be wise;

do not ignore it.

³⁴Blessed is the man who listens^† to me,

watching daily at my doors,

waiting at my doorway.

³⁵For whoever finds me^† finds life

and receives favor from the LORD.^†

³⁶But whoever fails to find me harms himself;^†

all who hate me love death.”

Proverbs 9

Invitations of Wisdom and of Folly

¹Wisdom has built^† her house;

she has hewn out its seven pillars.

²She has prepared her meat and mixed her wine;

she has also set her table.^†

³She has sent out her maids, and she calls^†

from the highest point of the city.^†

⁴“Let all who are simple come in here!”

she says to those who lack judgment.^†

⁵“Come, eat my food

and drink the wine I have mixed.^†

⁶Leave your simple ways and you will live;^†

walk in the way of understanding.

⁷“Whoever corrects a mocker invites insult;

whoever rebukes a wicked man incurs abuse.^†

⁸Do not rebuke a mocker^† or he will hate you;

rebuke a wise man and he will love you.^†

⁹Instruct a wise man and he will be wiser still;

teach a righteous man and he will add to his learning.^†

¹⁰“The fear of the LORD^† is the beginning of wisdom,

and knowledge of the Holy One is understanding.

¹¹For through me your days will be many,

and years will be added to your life.^†

¹²If you are wise, your wisdom will reward you;

if you are a mocker, you alone will suffer.”

¹³The woman Folly is loud;^†

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Parallels Between the Law and Wisdom

Law and wisdom both had secular functions outside of Israel, but are transformed into spiritual concepts in Israel by God’s revealed relationship to them.
Spiritual Foundation: God is source	Law “Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy” (Lev 19:2).	Wisdom “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom” (Pr 9:10).
Motivation: Only a God-centered perspective gives ultimate value.	Not just so that society runs smoothly, but so that we will do what is right.	Not pursued for personal fulfillment, but so that we become people of faith.
Focus of God’s Self-Revelation	God is characterized by absolute morality.	God is characterized by unfathomable wisdom.

Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament, p. 25

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she is undisciplined and without knowledge.^†

¹⁴She sits at the door of her house,

on a seat at the highest point of the city,^†

¹⁵calling out to those who pass by,

who go straight on their way.

¹⁶“Let all who are simple come in here!”

she says to those who lack judgment.

¹⁷“Stolen water is sweet;

food eaten in secret is delicious!^†”

¹⁸But little do they know that the dead are there,

that her guests are in the depths of the grave.^{[20] †}

Proverbs 10

Proverbs of Solomon

¹The proverbs of Solomon:^†

A wise son brings joy to his father,^†

but a foolish son grief to his mother.

²Ill-gotten treasures are of no value,^†

but righteousness delivers from death.^†

³The LORD does not let the righteous go hungry^†

but he thwarts the craving of the wicked.

⁴Lazy hands make a man poor,^†

but diligent hands bring wealth.^†

⁵He who gathers crops in summer is a wise son,

but he who sleeps during harvest is a disgraceful son.

⁶Blessings crown the head of the righteous,

but violence overwhelms the mouth of the wicked.^{[21] †}

⁷The memory of the righteous^† will be a blessing,

but the name of the wicked^† will rot.^†

⁸The wise in heart accept commands,

but a chattering fool comes to ruin.^†

⁹The man of integrity^† walks securely,^†

but he who takes crooked paths will be found out.^†

¹⁰He who winks maliciously^† causes grief,

and a chattering fool comes to ruin.

¹¹The mouth of the righteous is a fountain of life,^†

but violence overwhelms the mouth of the wicked.^†

¹²Hatred stirs up dissension,

but love covers over all wrongs.^†

¹³Wisdom is found on the lips of the discerning,^†

but a rod is for the back of him who lacks judgment.^†

¹⁴Wise men store up knowledge,

but the mouth of a fool invites ruin.^†

¹⁵The wealth of the rich is their fortified city,^†

but poverty is the ruin of the poor.^†

¹⁶The wages of the righteous bring them life,

but the income of the wicked brings them punishment.^†

¹⁷He who heeds discipline shows the way to life,^†

but whoever ignores correction leads others astray.

¹⁸He who conceals his hatred has lying lips,

and whoever spreads slander is a fool.

¹⁹When words are many, sin is not absent,

but he who holds his tongue is wise.^†

²⁰The tongue of the righteous is choice silver,

but the heart of the wicked is of little value.

²¹The lips of the righteous nourish many,

but fools die for lack of judgment.^†

²²The blessing of the LORD brings wealth,^†

and he adds no trouble to it.

²³A fool finds pleasure in evil conduct,^†

but a man of understanding delights in wisdom.

²⁴What the wicked dreads^† will overtake him;

what the righteous desire will be granted.^†

²⁵When the storm has swept by, the wicked are gone,

but the righteous stand firm^† forever.^†

²⁶As vinegar to the teeth and smoke to the eyes,

so is a sluggard to those who send him.^†

²⁷The fear of the LORD adds length to life,^†

but the years of the wicked are cut short.^†

²⁸The prospect of the righteous is joy,

but the hopes of the wicked come to nothing.^†

²⁹The way of the LORD is a refuge for the righteous,

but it is the ruin of those who do evil.^†

³⁰The righteous will never be uprooted,

but the wicked will not remain in the land.^†

³¹The mouth of the righteous brings forth wisdom,^†

but a perverse tongue will be cut out.

³²The lips of the righteous know what is fitting,^†

but the mouth of the wicked only what is perverse.

Proverbs 11

¹The LORD abhors dishonest scales,^†