Gethsemane

³²They went to a place called Gethsemane, and Jesus said to his disciples, “Sit here while I pray.” ³³He took Peter, James and John^† along with him, and he began to be deeply distressed and troubled. ³⁴“My soul is overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of death,”^† he said to them. “Stay here and keep watch.”

³⁵Going a little farther, he fell to the ground and prayed that if possible the hour^† might pass from him. ³⁶“Abba,^[69] Father,”^† he said, “everything is possible for you. Take this cup^† from me. Yet not what I will, but what you will.”^†

³⁷Then he returned to his disciples and found them sleeping. “Simon,” he said to Peter, “are you asleep? Could you not keep watch for one hour? ³⁸Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation.^† The spirit is willing, but the body is weak.”^†

³⁹Once more he went away and prayed the same thing. ⁴⁰When he came back, he again found them sleeping, because their eyes were heavy. They did not know what to say to him.

⁴¹Returning the third time, he said to them, “Are you still sleeping and resting? Enough! The hour^† has come. Look, the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners. ⁴²Rise! Let us go! Here comes my betrayer!”

Jesus Arrested

⁴³Just as he was speaking, Judas,^† one of the Twelve, appeared. With him was a crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests, the teachers of the law, and the elders.

⁴⁴Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: “The one I kiss is the man; arrest him and lead him away under guard.” ⁴⁵Going at once to Jesus, Judas said, “Rabbi!”^† and kissed him. ⁴⁶The men seized Jesus and arrested him. ⁴⁷Then one of those standing near drew his sword and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear.

⁴⁸“Am I leading a rebellion,” said Jesus, “that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me? ⁴⁹Every day I was with you, teaching in the temple courts,^† and you did not arrest me. But the Scriptures must be fulfilled.”^{† 50}Then everyone deserted him and fled.^†

⁵¹A young man, wearing nothing but a linen garment, was following Jesus. When they seized him, ⁵²he fled naked, leaving his garment behind.

Before the Sanhedrin

⁵³They took Jesus to the high priest, and all the chief priests, elders and teachers of the law came together. ⁵⁴Peter followed him at a distance, right into the courtyard of the high priest.^† There he sat with the guards and warmed himself at the fire.^†

⁵⁵The chief priests and the whole Sanhedrin^† were looking for evidence against Jesus so that they could put him to death, but they did not find any. ⁵⁶Many testified falsely against him, but their statements did not agree.

⁵⁷Then some stood up and gave this false testimony against him: ⁵⁸“We heard him say, ‘I will destroy this man-made temple and in three days will build another,^† not made by man.’ ” ⁵⁹Yet even then their testimony did not agree.

⁶⁰Then the high priest stood up before them and asked Jesus, “Are you not going to answer? What is this testimony that these men are bringing against you?” ⁶¹But Jesus remained silent and gave no answer.^†

Again the high priest asked him, “Are you the Christ,^[70] the Son of the Blessed One?”^†

⁶²“I am,” said Jesus. “And you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven.”^†

⁶³The high priest tore his clothes.^† “Why do we need any more witnesses?” he asked. ⁶⁴“You have heard the blasphemy. What do you think?”

They all condemned him as worthy of death.^{† 65}Then some began to spit at him; they blindfolded him, struck him with their fists, and said, “Prophesy!” And the guards took him and beat him.^†

Peter Disowns Jesus

⁶⁶While Peter was below in the courtyard,^† one of the servant girls of the high priest came by. ⁶⁷When she saw Peter warming himself,^† she looked closely at him.

“You also were with that Nazarene, Jesus,”^† she said.

⁶⁸But he denied it. “I don’t know or understand what you’re talking about,”^† he said, and went out into the entryway.^[71]

⁶⁹When the servant girl saw him there, she said again to those standing around, “This fellow is one of them.” ⁷⁰Again he denied it.^†

After a little while, those standing near said to Peter, “Surely you are one of them, for you are a Galilean.”^†

⁷¹He began to call down curses on himself, and he swore to them, “I don’t know this man you’re talking about.”^†

⁷²Immediately the rooster crowed the second time.^[72] Then Peter remembered the word Jesus had spoken to him: “Before the rooster crows twice^[73] you will disown me three times.”^† And he broke down and wept.

Mark 15

Jesus Before Pilate

¹Very early in the morning, the chief priests, with the elders, the teachers of the law^† and the whole Sanhedrin,^† reached a decision. They bound Jesus, led him away and handed him over to Pilate.^†

---

*

The Shroud of Turin Controversy

Mark 15 No other artifact in the history of scholarship has been the subject of as much debate and study as the Shroud of Turin. This piece of linen cloth is said to bear the front and rear images of a man apparently crucified in Roman fashion.¹ His injuries correspond to those suffered by Jesus. Proponents argue that this is the actual burial cloth of Christ, while opponents see it as a clever hoax.

The History of the Shroud

The basic historical details, as we know them, are as follows:

• The shroud’s first known appearance was in France in the 1350s. The original owner died in 1356 without having revealed where or how he had acquired the cloth.

• A fire in 1532 damaged the cloth, and repair patches were added.

• It has been housed in Turin since 1578.

• Some theorize that the shroud is the same as the Mandylion, a sacred relic of Constantinople that was said to have borne the divine and miraculous imprint of Jesus’ face.

The Mandylion is said to have been discovered in 525 in Edessa in eastern Turkey. It found its way to the Byzantine capital in A.D. 944.

The shroud disappeared from Constantinople in 1204, when a crusader army looted the city. The leaders of the expedition were French, which could explain the shroud’s westward journey.

Basic Facts About the Shroud

The shroud is a swath of linen cloth measuring 14 feet 3 inches (4.3 m) by 3 feet 7 inches (1.1 m). The figure on the cloth is naked, with hands folded across the pelvic area. He is bearded and between 5 feet 10 inches (1.8 m) and 6 feet 1 inch (1.9 m) in height. The cloth bears a number of extraordinary features:

• It’s purple stains may be from blood.

• Potsherds or coins may have covered the eyes. Some argue that the outline of a coin from the time of Pontius Pilate is present,² but the fabric is so coarse and the image so unclear that substantiation is difficult.

• The image is barely visible up close, and only a rough outline can be discerned by standing farther away. However, when photographed and viewed in negative, the shroud reveals a clear image, formed in such a way that a three-dimensional reconstruction of the man’s appearance is possible.

• The image, on the very surface of the cloth only, is said to be no more than two fibrils (filaments or fibers) deep.

• It was not painted on. Rather, some of the threads were themselves changed to produce the image. Adherents suggest that at the moment of the resurrection Jesus’ body radiated energy and fixed his image upon the shroud.

• The traces of flogging on the body are said to accurately depict Roman scourging. The 100-plus lash marks evident on the image have a dumbbell shape, conceivably reflecting the use of a Roman flagrum.

• The shoulders are said to exhibit abrasions that could have been the result of the victim’s having carried the crossbar of a cross.

• Studies on the soil and pollen preserved in the fibers suggest that the cloth originated in or near Jerusalem.

Recent Developments

Supporters of the shroud’s authenticity argue that no individual in the Middle Ages could have had the expertise to deliberately create such a piece. In 1988, however, British scientists released the results of carbon 14 testing that dated the cloth to between 1260 and 1390. The shroud was judged to have been proven a fraud, yet subsequent researchers have argued that the sample for the carbon 14 test was taken from a part of the shroud that had been repaired and not from the original fabric.

In 2002 the shroud underwent substantial restoration, including the removal of the repair patches from 1532. Some researchers fear that this process will limit or invalidate any further testing. The enigma of the shroud continues. It remains either the most significant archaeological artifact ever found or one of the most ingenious forgeries in history.

1. See “Crucifixion.”

2. See “Pontius Pilate.”

---

²“Are you the king of the Jews?”^† asked Pilate.

“Yes, it is as you say,” Jesus replied.

³The chief priests accused him of many things. ⁴So again Pilate asked him, “Aren’t you going to answer? See how many things they are accusing you of.”

⁵But Jesus still made no reply,^† and Pilate was amazed.

⁶Now it was the custom at the Feast to release a prisoner whom the people requested. ⁷A man called Barabbas was in prison with the insurrectionists who had committed murder in the uprising. ⁸The crowd came up and asked Pilate to do for them what he usually did.

⁹“Do you want me to release to you the king of the Jews?”^† asked Pilate, ¹⁰knowing it was out of envy that the chief priests had handed Jesus over to him. ¹¹But the chief priests stirred up the crowd to have Pilate release Barabbas^† instead.

¹²“What shall I do, then, with the one you call the king of the Jews?” Pilate asked them.

¹³“Crucify him!” they shouted.

¹⁴“Why? What crime has he committed?” asked Pilate.

But they shouted all the louder, “Crucify him!”

¹⁵Wanting to satisfy the crowd, Pilate released Barabbas to them. He had Jesus flogged,^† and handed him over to be crucified.

The Soldiers Mock Jesus

¹⁶The soldiers led Jesus away into the palace^† (that is, the Praetorium) and called together the whole company of soldiers. ¹⁷They put a purple robe on him, then twisted together a crown of thorns and set it on him. ¹⁸And they began to call out to him, “Hail, king of the Jews!”^{† 19}Again and again they struck him on the head with a staff and spit on him. Falling on their knees, they paid homage to him. ²⁰And when they had mocked him, they took off the purple robe and put his own clothes on him. Then they led him out^† to crucify him.

The Crucifixion

²¹A certain man from Cyrene,^† Simon, the father of Alexander and Rufus,^† was passing by on his way in from the country, and they forced him to carry the cross.^{† 22}They brought Jesus to the place called Golgotha (which means The Place of the Skull). ²³Then they offered him wine mixed with myrrh,^† but he did not take it. ²⁴And they crucified him. Dividing up his clothes, they cast lots^† to see what each would get.

²⁵It was the third hour when they crucified him. ²⁶The written notice of the charge against him read: THE KING OF THE JEWS.^{† 27}They crucified two robbers with him, one on his right and one on his left.^{[74] 29}Those who passed by hurled insults at him, shaking their heads^† and saying, “So! You who are going to destroy the temple and build it in three days,^{† 30}come down from the cross and save yourself!”

³¹In the same way the chief priests and the teachers of the law mocked him^† among themselves. “He saved others,” they said, “but he can’t save himself! ³²Let this Christ,^{[75] †} this King of Israel,^† come down now from the cross, that we may see and believe.” Those crucified with him also heaped insults on him.

The Death of Jesus

³³At the sixth hour darkness came over the whole land until the ninth hour.^{† 34}And at the ninth hour Jesus cried out in a loud voice, “Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?”—which means, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”^{[76] †}

³⁵When some of those standing near heard this, they said, “Listen, he’s calling Elijah.”

³⁶One man ran, filled a sponge with wine vinegar,^† put it on a stick, and offered it to Jesus to drink. “Now leave him alone. Let’s see if Elijah comes to take him down,” he said.

³⁷With a loud cry, Jesus breathed his last.^†

³⁸The curtain of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom.^{† 39}And when the centurion,^† who stood there in front of Jesus, heard his cry and^[77] saw how he died, he said, “Surely this man was the Son^[78] of God!”^†

⁴⁰Some women were watching from a distance.^† Among them were Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses, and Salome.^{† 41}In Galilee these women had followed him and cared for his needs. Many other women who had come up with him to Jerusalem were also there.^†

The Burial of Jesus

⁴²It was Preparation Day (that is, the day before the Sabbath).^† So as evening approached, ⁴³Joseph of Arimathea, a prominent member of the Council,^† who was himself waiting for the kingdom of God,^† went boldly to Pilate and asked for Jesus’ body. ⁴⁴Pilate was surprised to hear that he was already dead. Summoning the centurion, he asked him if Jesus had already died. ⁴⁵When he learned from the centurion^† that it was so, he gave the body to Joseph. ⁴⁶So Joseph bought some linen cloth, took down the body, wrapped it in the linen, and placed it in a tomb cut out of rock. Then he rolled a stone against the entrance of the tomb.^{† 47}Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joses^† saw where he was laid.

Mark 16

The Resurrection

¹When the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bought spices^† so that they might go to anoint Jesus’ body. ²Very early on the first day of the week, just after sunrise, they were on their way to the tomb ³and they asked each other, “Who will roll the stone away from the entrance of the tomb?”^†

---

*

The Ending of Mark

Mark 16 There are several different endings to the Gospel of Mark found in the various Greek manuscripts. Most Greek texts and several ancient translations conclude with the ending familiar to us as Mark 16:9–20. The earliest Greek manuscript with that ending is from the fifth century, but evidence from the church fathers suggests that it was already in existence during the second century. Many scholars feel, however, that the vocabulary and themes of the traditional ending are inconsistent with the rest of the Gospel.

Codex Bezae facsimile page of Mark 16:6–15 (Codes Bezae includes Mark 16:9–20, whereas Codex Vaticanus does not)

© Dr. James C. Martin, Sola Scriptura; The Van Kampen Collection on display at the Hoy Land Experience in Orlando, Florida

In the two oldest Greek manuscripts and in a number of ancient versions, Mark’s Gospel ends at 16:8. Clement of Alexandria and Origen show no knowledge of any ending of this Gospel account beyond verse 8, and Eusebius and Jerome affirm that nearly all Greek manuscripts known to them were concluded with this verse. Most scholars believe that this is indeed the point at which the original Gospel probably ended and suggest that the other endings very likely developed during the second century, after the Gospel of Mark was read alongside the other Gospels and appeared, by comparison, to lack a satisfactory conclusion. Despite its abruptness, Mark 16:8 is arguably an appropriate ending for the Gospel, since one of its motifs is the fear caused by God’s powerful work in and through Jesus (see, e.g., 5:15, 33; 9:6). The women’s fear suggests that God had performed one more climactic, powerful work, confirming the testimony of the empty tomb and the angelic announcement that Jesus had indeed arisen from the dead, just as he had promised (8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34).¹

1. See also “The New Testament Texts.”

---

⁴But when they looked up, they saw that the stone, which was very large, had been rolled away. ⁵As they entered the tomb, they saw a young man dressed in a white robe^† sitting on the right side, and they were alarmed.

⁶“Don’t be alarmed,” he said. “You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene,^† who was crucified. He has risen! He is not here. See the place where they laid him. ⁷But go, tell his disciples and Peter, ‘He is going ahead of you into Galilee. There you will see him,^† just as he told you.’ ”^†

⁸Trembling and bewildered, the women went out and fled from the tomb. They said nothing to anyone, because they were afraid.

[The earliest manuscripts and some other ancient witnesses do not have Mark 16:9–20.]

⁹When Jesus rose early on the first day of the week, he appeared first to Mary Magdalene,^† out of whom he had driven seven demons. ¹⁰She went and told those who had been with him and who were mourning and weeping. ¹¹When they heard that Jesus was alive and that she had seen him, they did not believe it.^†

¹²Afterward Jesus appeared in a different form to two of them while they were walking in the country.^{† 13}These returned and reported it to the rest; but they did not believe them either.

¹⁴Later Jesus appeared to the Eleven as they were eating; he rebuked them for their lack of faith and their stubborn refusal to believe those who had seen him after he had risen.^†

¹⁵He said to them, “Go into all the world and preach the good news to all creation.^{† 16}Whoever believes and is baptized will be saved, but whoever does not believe will be condemned.^{† 17}And these signs will accompany those who believe: In my name they will drive out demons;^† they will speak in new tongues;^{† 18}they will pick up snakes^† with their hands; and when they drink deadly poison, it will not hurt them at all; they will place their hands on^† sick people, and they will get well.”

¹⁹After the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, he was taken up into heaven^† and he sat at the right hand of God.^{† 20}Then the disciples went out and preached everywhere, and the Lord worked with them and confirmed his word by the signs that accompanied it.

LUKE

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The openings of Luke (1:1–4) and Acts (1:1–2) make clear that the two books are to be regarded as a single work in two volumes. Neither names its author, but the “we” sections of Acts (e.g., Ac 16:10–17; 27:1–28:16), in comparison with what can be known from Paul’s letters about who was with him at various points in his career, point to Luke as the author of this work. Justin Martyr (c. 160), the Muratorian Canon (c. 170–180) and Irenaeus (c. 175–195) all supported the ascription of Luke–Acts to Luke.

Luke was one of Paul’s most loyal followers (Col 4:14; 2Ti 4:11; Phm 24). Well educated in Greek culture and a physician by profession (Col 4:14), Luke may have been a Gentile convert; if so, his knowledge of the Old Testament was extraordinary. Syrian Antioch and Philippi are among the sites posited as his hometown.

It has been suggested that Luke wrote his Gospel from Caesarea or (more probably) Rome. A logical conclusion is that Luke began writing Luke at some point during Paul’s Roman imprisonment and continued writing until his story caught up to his present situation, at the end of two years awaiting the conclusion of Paul’s case in Rome. In this scenario, we may confidently date the Gospel to A.D. 61–62.

Audience

Luke directly addressed someone named Theophilus (1:3), possibly a non-Christian Roman official but definitely a person of high position and wealth. Yet underlying Luke’s overt greeting, his Gospel, the most comprehensive of the four, was written to strengthen the faith of all believers and to answer the attacks of cultured non-Christians.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

In his prologue to his Gospel, Luke articulated his desire to give his readers a clear and coherent presentation of the words and deeds of Christ (1:1–4). By A.D. 62 there were undoubtedly many oral and some written accounts of Jesus’ miracles and teachings, so there is no reason to question Luke’s stated purpose.

Timeline

As You Read

Notice that Luke’s account gives prominence to Jesus’ concern for the poor and oppressed. Pay particular attention to Jesus’ interest in diverse ethnic, religious, economic and social groups.

Did You Know?

• Each priest was responsible for a week’s service at the temple once every six months (1:23).
• Thirty was the age at which a Levite undertook his service (Nu 4:47) and at which a man was considered mature (3:23).
• In ancient times it was often assumed that a calamity would befall only those who were extremely sinful (13:2).
• Synagogues were used not only for worship and school but also for community administration and for confinement of accused persons while awaiting trial (21:12).

Themes

Luke includes the following themes:

1. The universality of the gospel. Luke’s account of Jesus’ birth, ministry, death and resurrection emphasizes that the Good News of the gospel is intended for all peoples (2:14, 32).
2. Concern for social outcasts. Luke’s Gospel underscores Jesus’ particular concern for social outcasts, women and the poor. Jesus’ first public sermon recorded in Luke (4:16–21) cited Isaiah 61:1–2 in proclaiming good news, freedom, healing and release (4:18–19).
3. Repentance. The vocabulary of repentance is prominent in Luke, as manifested in the parable of the lost son (15:11–32), the parable of the tax collector and the Pharisee (18:9–14) and the story of Zacchaeus (19:1–10). Repentance requires a fundamental reorientation toward God, which then leads to reconciliation of human relationships.
4. Wealth. Luke stressed the ethical aspects of the Christian life, making it clear that repentance involves a change in attitude that reveals itself in the manner in which a person handles money (3:10–14).

Outline

I. The Births of John and Jesus (1–2)

II. The Beginnings of Jesus’ Ministry (3:1–4:13)

A. John the Baptist (3:1–20)

B. Jesus Is Baptized (3:21–22)

C. Jesus’ Genealogy (3:23–38)

D. Jesus Is Tempted (4:1–13)

III. Jesus’ Ministry in Galilee (4:14–9:9)

A. His Early Ministry in Galilee (4:14–5:39)

B. His Later Ministry (6:1–9:9)

IV. Ministry in Other Areas (9:10–13:21)

V. Jesus’ Ministry in and Around Perea (13:22–19:27)

VI. The Passion of Jesus (19:28–24:53)

A. His Triumphal Entry (19:28–44)

B. The Cleansing of the Temple (19:45–48)

C. Last Questions From the Jewish Leaders (20)

D. The Olivet Discourse (21)

E. The Last Supper (22:1–38)

F. The Prayer in Gethsemane (22:39–46)

G. Jesus’ Arrest, Trial and Crucifixion (22:47–23:56)

H. Jesus’ Resurrection (24:1–49)

I. The Ascension (24:50–53)

Luke 1

Introduction

¹Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled^[1] among us, ²just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first^† were eyewitnesses^† and servants of the word.^{† 3}Therefore, since I myself have carefully investigated everything from the beginning, it seemed good also to me to write an orderly account^† for you, most excellent^† Theophilus,^{† 4}so that you may know the certainty of the things you have been taught.^†

---

*

Caesar Augustus, Emperor of Rome; the Census; and Quirinius, Governor of Syria

Luke 1

The Reign of Augustus

Caesar Augustus was ruler of the Roman Empire when Jesus was born (Lk 2:1). ¹He ruled for 45 years, from 31 B.C. to A.D. 14. Born Gaius Octavius, he was adopted by his maternal uncle, Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.), and, as was common, assumed the name of his adoptive father. Thus, he was known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian. The name Augustus, “revered one,” was bestowed upon him by the Roman Senate in 27 B.C.

Augustus put an end to the civil wars that had raged since the dictatorship of Julius Caesar and established the Pax Romana (“Roman peace”) throughout the empire. For this, he received lavish honors in Rome and around the Roman world. Herod the Great built the city of Caesarea Maritima² and rebuilt Samaria³ (the former capital of the northern kingdom)⁴ in Augustus’s honor. The Greek name of Samaria, Sebastos, means “Augustus.”

The peace that characterized Augustus’s reign was marred only by the disaster of the loss of three Roman legions in a battle with German tribes at the Teutoburg Forest in A.D. 9. Otherwise, Augustus used the stability of the times to carry out extensive building projects in Rome. Some of his structures have been excavated and can be seen today, such as the Forum of Augustus, the beautiful Altar of Peace and the Mausoleum of Augustus, where his ashes were placed.

Head of Caesar Augustus

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Istanbul Archaeological Museum

Quirinius and the Census

At the time of Jesus’ birth, Joseph and Mary were in Bethlehem to be counted for a census. Luke recorded that the census taken when Jesus was born “was the first census that took place while Quirinius was governor of Syria” (v. 2). Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was a well-known Roman military and political figure who was appointed to serve as governor of Syria in A.D. 6. At this time he carried out a census in Syria and Judea. This census is documented in the writings of the first-century Jewish historian Josephus (Antiquities, 18) and is mentioned in Acts 5:37. An obvious problem is that this census is too late to be related to the birth of Jesus, since Jesus was born prior to the death of Herod the Great in 4 B.C. How might one resolve this difficulty?

• It may be that Luke was aware of Quirinius’s A.D. 6 census and that Luke 2:2 means that there had been an earlier census during the reign of Herod, which was also supervised by Quirinius. Some scholars believe that a fragmentary inscription called the Lapis Tiburtinus implies that Quirinius was twice governor of Syria, so that the A.D. 6 census was in fact his second census. This interpretation of the Lapis Tiburtinus is open to question, however; we do not know with certainty that this inscription actually dealt with Quirinius at all.

• It may be that this verse should be translated as, “This census was before the one made when Quirinius was governor.” This would be a somewhat peculiar translation of the Greek, but a number of New Testament scholars nonetheless support it.

• The church father Tertullian believed that the census of Luke 2:2 took place during the governorship of Sentius Saturninus (8–6 B.C.) rather than that of Quirinius. It may be that the text of 2:2 has suffered some kind of corruption, although, except for Tertullian, there is no evidence for this.

1. See “The Roman Empire.”

2. See “Caesarea Maritima.”

3. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

4. See “Omri and Samaria.”

---

The Birth of John the Baptist Foretold

⁵In the time of Herod king of Judea^† there was a priest named Zechariah, who belonged to the priestly division of Abijah;^† his wife Elizabeth was also a descendant of Aaron. ⁶Both of them were upright in the sight of God, observing all the Lord’s commandments and regulations blamelessly.^{† 7}But they had no children, because Elizabeth was barren; and they were both well along in years.

⁸Once when Zechariah’s division was on duty and he was serving as priest before God,^{† 9}he was chosen by lot, according to the custom of the priesthood, to go into the temple of the Lord and burn incense.^{† 10}And when the time for the burning of incense came, all the assembled worshipers were praying outside.^†

¹¹Then an angel^† of the Lord appeared to him, standing at the right side of the altar of incense.^{† 12}When Zechariah saw him, he was startled and was gripped with fear.^{† 13}But the angel said to him: “Do not be afraid,^† Zechariah; your prayer has been heard. Your wife Elizabeth will bear you a son, and you are to give him the name John.^{† 14}He will be a joy and delight to you, and many will rejoice because of his birth,^{† 15}for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He is never to take wine or other fermented drink,^† and he will be filled with the Holy Spirit even from birth.^{[2] † 16}Many of the people of Israel will he bring back to the Lord their God. ¹⁷And he will go on before the Lord,^† in the spirit and power of Elijah,^† to turn the hearts of the fathers to their children^† and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous—to make ready a people prepared for the Lord.”

¹⁸Zechariah asked the angel, “How can I be sure of this? I am an old man and my wife is well along in years.”^†

¹⁹The angel answered, “I am Gabriel.^† I stand in the presence of God, and I have been sent to speak to you and to tell you this good news. ²⁰And now you will be silent and not able to speak^† until the day this happens, because you did not believe my words, which will come true at their proper time.”

²¹Meanwhile, the people were waiting for Zechariah and wondering why he stayed so long in the temple. ²²When he came out, he could not speak to them. They realized he had seen a vision in the temple, for he kept making signs^† to them but remained unable to speak.

²³When his time of service was completed, he returned home. ²⁴After this his wife Elizabeth became pregnant and for five months remained in seclusion. ²⁵“The Lord has done this for me,” she said. “In these days he has shown his favor and taken away my disgrace^† among the people.”

The Birth of Jesus Foretold

²⁶In the sixth month, God sent the angel Gabriel^† to Nazareth,^† a town in Galilee, ²⁷to a virgin pledged to be married to a man named Joseph,^† a descendant of David. The virgin’s name was Mary. ²⁸The angel went to her and said, “Greetings, you who are highly favored! The Lord is with you.”

²⁹Mary was greatly troubled at his words and wondered what kind of greeting this might be. ³⁰But the angel said to her, “Do not be afraid,^† Mary, you have found favor with God. ³¹You will be with child and give birth to a son, and you are to give him the name Jesus.^{† 32}He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High.^† The Lord God will give him the throne of his father David, ³³and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever; his kingdom^† will never end.”^†

³⁴“How will this be,” Mary asked the angel, “since I am a virgin?”

³⁵The angel answered, “The Holy Spirit will come upon you,^† and the power of the Most High^† will overshadow you. So the holy one^† to be born will be called^[3] the Son of God.^{† 36}Even Elizabeth your relative is going to have a child in her old age, and she who was said to be barren is in her sixth month. ³⁷For nothing is impossible with God.”^†

³⁸“I am the Lord’s servant,” Mary answered. “May it be to me as you have said.” Then the angel left her.

Mary Visits Elizabeth

³⁹At that time Mary got ready and hurried to a town in the hill country of Judea,^{† 40}where she entered Zechariah’s home and greeted Elizabeth. ⁴¹When Elizabeth heard Mary’s greeting, the baby leaped in her womb, and Elizabeth was filled with the Holy Spirit. ⁴²In a loud voice she exclaimed: “Blessed are you among women,^† and blessed is the child you will bear! ⁴³But why am I so favored, that the mother of my Lord should come to me? ⁴⁴As soon as the sound of your greeting reached my ears, the baby in my womb leaped for joy. ⁴⁵Blessed is she who has believed that what the Lord has said to her will be accomplished!”

Mary’s Song

⁴⁶And Mary said:

“My soul glorifies the Lord^†

⁴⁷and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior,^†

⁴⁸for he has been mindful

of the humble state of his servant.^†

From now on all generations will call me blessed,^†

⁴⁹for the Mighty One has done great things^† for me—

holy is his name.^†

⁵⁰His mercy extends to those who fear him,

from generation to generation.^†

⁵¹He has performed mighty deeds with his arm;^†

he has scattered those who are proud in their inmost thoughts.

⁵²He has brought down rulers from their thrones

but has lifted up the humble.

⁵³He has filled the hungry with good things^†

but has sent the rich away empty.

⁵⁴He has helped his servant Israel,

remembering to be merciful^†

⁵⁵to Abraham and his descendants^† forever,

even as he said to our fathers.”

⁵⁶Mary stayed with Elizabeth for about three months and then returned home.

The Birth of John the Baptist

⁵⁷When it was time for Elizabeth to have her baby, she gave birth to a son. ⁵⁸Her neighbors and relatives heard that the Lord had shown her great mercy, and they shared her joy.

⁵⁹On the eighth day they came to circumcise^† the child, and they were going to name him after his father Zechariah, ⁶⁰but his mother spoke up and said, “No! He is to be called John.”^†

⁶¹They said to her, “There is no one among your relatives who has that name.”

⁶²Then they made signs^† to his father, to find out what he would like to name the child. ⁶³He asked for a writing tablet, and to everyone’s astonishment he wrote, “His name is John.”^{† 64}Immediately his mouth was opened and his tongue was loosed, and he began to speak,^† praising God. ⁶⁵The neighbors were all filled with awe, and throughout the hill country of Judea^† people were talking about all these things. ⁶⁶Everyone who heard this wondered about it, asking, “What then is this child going to be?” For the Lord’s hand was with him.^†

Zechariah’s Song

⁶⁷His father Zechariah was filled with the Holy Spirit and prophesied:^†

⁶⁸“Praise be to the Lord, the God of Israel,^†

because he has come and has redeemed his people.^†

⁶⁹He has raised up a horn^{[4] †} of salvation for us

in the house of his servant David^†

⁷⁰(as he said through his holy prophets of long ago),^†

⁷¹salvation from our enemies

and from the hand of all who hate us—

⁷²to show mercy to our fathers^†

and to remember his holy covenant,^†

⁷³the oath he swore to our father Abraham:^†

⁷⁴to rescue us from the hand of our enemies,

and to enable us to serve him^† without fear

⁷⁵in holiness and righteousness^† before him all our days.

⁷⁶And you, my child, will be called a prophet^† of the Most High;^†

for you will go on before the Lord to prepare the way for him,^†

⁷⁷to give his people the knowledge of salvation

through the forgiveness of their sins,^†

⁷⁸because of the tender mercy of our God,

by which the rising sun^† will come to us from heaven

⁷⁹to shine on those living in darkness

and in the shadow of death,^†

to guide our feet into the path of peace.”

⁸⁰And the child grew and became strong in spirit;^† and he lived in the desert until he appeared publicly to Israel.

Luke 2

The Birth of Jesus

¹In those days Caesar Augustus^† issued a decree that a census should be taken of the entire Roman world.^{† 2}(This was the first census that took place while Quirinius was governor of Syria.)^{† 3}And everyone went to his own town to register.

---

*

The Birthplace of Jesus

Luke 2 Bethlehem ¹ of Judah (“Map 9”), located at modern Bethlehem, was already an ancient habitation during Old Testament times. Genesis 35:19 and 48:7 mention that the site was also called Ephrathah (or Ephrath), a name preserved in the prophecy of Micah 5:2. This town is the principal setting for the book of Ruth, the great-grandmother of King David, as well as the home of David (1Sa 16). During David’s lifetime the city was sometimes under Philistine control (2Sa 23:14), although Rehoboam fortified it after the secession of the northern tribes (2Ch 11:5–6).

The archaeology of Bethlehem has focused almost entirely upon historical tradition surrounding the Church of the Nativity. Justin Martyr in the second century identified a cave near the village as the place of Jesus’ birth, and the church was built over this grotto. Emperor Constantine constructed the first basilica there in approximately A.D. 326.² While this building was badly damaged in a Samaritan revolt (529), the church was rebuilt by Justinian (r. 527–565). The Christian population of Bethlehem severely declined after the Muslim conquest, although the church building was restored to some of its former glory during the Crusader period. It fell into near ruin again during the period of Turkish rule, but repairs were made beginning in 1670. To this day the church continues to be at the center of religious and political tensions.

1. See “Bethlehem.”

2. See “Constantine and Queen Helena’s Role in Preserving Holy Sites.”

---

⁴So Joseph also went up from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to Bethlehem^† the town of David, because he belonged to the house and line of David. ⁵He went there to register with Mary, who was pledged to be married to him and was expecting a child. ⁶While they were there, the time came for the baby to be born, ⁷and she gave birth to her firstborn, a son. She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn.

The Shepherds and the Angels

⁸And there were shepherds living out in the fields nearby, keeping watch over their flocks at night. ⁹An angel^† of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terrified. ¹⁰But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid.^† I bring you good news of great joy that will be for all the people. ¹¹Today in the town of David a Savior^† has been born to you; he is Christ^{[5] †} the Lord. ¹²This will be a sign^† to you: You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger.”

¹³Suddenly a great company of the heavenly host appeared with the angel, praising God and saying,

¹⁴“Glory to God in the highest,

and on earth peace^† to men on whom his favor rests.”

¹⁵When the angels had left them and gone into heaven, the shepherds said to one another, “Let’s go to Bethlehem and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has told us about.”

¹⁶So they hurried off and found Mary and Joseph, and the baby, who was lying in the manger. ¹⁷When they had seen him, they spread the word concerning what had been told them about this child, ¹⁸and all who heard it were amazed at what the shepherds said to them. ¹⁹But Mary treasured up all these things and pondered them in her heart.^{† 20}The shepherds returned, glorifying and praising God^† for all the things they had heard and seen, which were just as they had been told.

Jesus Presented in the Temple

²¹On the eighth day, when it was time to circumcise him,^† he was named Jesus, the name the angel had given him before he had been conceived.^†

²²When the time of their purification according to the Law of Moses^† had been completed, Joseph and Mary took him to Jerusalem to present him to the Lord ²³(as it is written in the Law of the Lord, “Every firstborn male is to be consecrated to the Lord”^[6]),^{† 24}and to offer a sacrifice in keeping with what is said in the Law of the Lord: “a pair of doves or two young pigeons.”^{[7] †}

²⁵Now there was a man in Jerusalem called Simeon, who was righteous and devout.^† He was waiting for the consolation of Israel,^† and the Holy Spirit was upon him. ²⁶It had been revealed to him by the Holy Spirit that he would not die before he had seen the Lord’s Christ. ²⁷Moved by the Spirit, he went into the temple courts. When the parents brought in the child Jesus to do for him what the custom of the Law required,^{† 28}Simeon took him in his arms and praised God, saying:

²⁹“Sovereign Lord, as you have promised,^†

you now dismiss^[8] your servant in peace.^†

³⁰For my eyes have seen your salvation,^†

³¹which you have prepared in the sight of all people,

³²a light for revelation to the Gentiles

and for glory to your people Israel.”^†

³³The child’s father and mother marveled at what was said about him. ³⁴Then Simeon blessed them and said to Mary, his mother:^† “This child is destined to cause the falling^† and rising of many in Israel, and to be a sign that will be spoken against, ³⁵so that the thoughts of many hearts will be revealed. And a sword will pierce your own soul too.”

³⁶There was also a prophetess,^† Anna, the daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher. She was very old; she had lived with her husband seven years after her marriage, ³⁷and then was a widow until she was eighty-four.^{[9] †} She never left the temple but worshiped night and day, fasting and praying.^{† 38}Coming up to them at that very moment, she gave thanks to God and spoke about the child to all who were looking forward to the redemption of Jerusalem.^†

³⁹When Joseph and Mary had done everything required by the Law of the Lord, they returned to Galilee to their own town of Nazareth.^{† 40}And the child grew and became strong; he was filled with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon him.^†

The Boy Jesus at the Temple

⁴¹Every year his parents went to Jerusalem for the Feast of the Passover.^{† 42}When he was twelve years old, they went up to the Feast, according to the custom. ⁴³After the Feast was over, while his parents were returning home, the boy Jesus stayed behind in Jerusalem, but they were unaware of it. ⁴⁴Thinking he was in their company, they traveled on for a day. Then they began looking for him among their relatives and friends. ⁴⁵When they did not find him, they went back to Jerusalem to look for him. ⁴⁶After three days they found him in the temple courts, sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking them questions. ⁴⁷Everyone who heard him was amazed^† at his understanding and his answers. ⁴⁸When his parents saw him, they were astonished. His mother^† said to him, “Son, why have you treated us like this? Your father^† and I have been anxiously searching for you.”

⁴⁹“Why were you searching for me?” he asked. “Didn’t you know I had to be in my Father’s house?”^{† 50}But they did not understand what he was saying to them.^†

⁵¹Then he went down to Nazareth with them^† and was obedient to them. But his mother treasured all these things in her heart.^{† 52}And Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men.^†

Luke 3

John the Baptist Prepares the Way

¹In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar—when Pontius Pilate^† was governor of Judea, Herod^† tetrarch of Galilee, his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturea and Traconitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene— ²during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas,^† the word of God came to John^† son of Zechariah^† in the desert. ³He went into all the country around the Jordan, preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins.^{† 4}As is written in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet:

“A voice of one calling in the desert,

‘Prepare the way for the Lord,

make straight paths for him.

⁵Every valley shall be filled in,

every mountain and hill made low.

The crooked roads shall become straight,

the rough ways smooth.

⁶And all mankind will see God’s salvation.’ ”^{[10] †}

⁷John said to the crowds coming out to be baptized by him, “You brood of vipers!^† Who warned you to flee from the coming wrath?^{† 8}Produce fruit in keeping with repentance. And do not begin to say to yourselves, ‘We have Abraham as our father.’^† For I tell you that out of these stones God can raise up children for Abraham. ⁹The ax is already at the root of the trees, and every tree that does not produce good fruit will be cut down and thrown into the fire.”^†

¹⁰“What should we do then?”^† the crowd asked.

¹¹John answered, “The man with two tunics should share with him who has none, and the one who has food should do the same.”^†

¹²Tax collectors also came to be baptized.^† “Teacher,” they asked, “what should we do?”

¹³“Don’t collect any more than you are required to,”^† he told them.

¹⁴Then some soldiers asked him, “And what should we do?”

He replied, “Don’t extort money and don’t accuse people falsely^†—be content with your pay.”

¹⁵The people were waiting expectantly and were all wondering in their hearts if John^† might possibly be the Christ.^{[11] † 16}John answered them all, “I baptize you with^[12] water.^† But one more powerful than I will come, the thongs of whose sandals I am not worthy to untie. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire.^{† 17}His winnowing fork^† is in his hand to clear his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his barn, but he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire.”^{† 18}And with many other words John exhorted the people and preached the good news to them.

¹⁹But when John rebuked Herod^† the tetrarch because of Herodias, his brother’s wife, and all the other evil things he had done, ²⁰Herod added this to them all: He locked John up in prison.^†

The Baptism and Genealogy of Jesus

²¹When all the people were being baptized, Jesus was baptized too. And as he was praying,^† heaven was opened ²²and the Holy Spirit descended on him^† in bodily form like a dove. And a voice came from heaven: “You are my Son,^† whom I love; with you I am well pleased.”^†

²³Now Jesus himself was about thirty years old when he began his ministry.^† He was the son, so it was thought, of Joseph,^†

the son of Heli, ²⁴the son of Matthat,

the son of Levi, the son of Melki,

the son of Jannai, the son of Joseph,

²⁵the son of Mattathias, the son of Amos,

the son of Nahum, the son of Esli,

the son of Naggai, ²⁶the son of Maath,

the son of Mattathias, the son of Semein,

the son of Josech, the son of Joda,

²⁷the son of Joanan, the son of Rhesa,

the son of Zerubbabel,^† the son of Shealtiel,

the son of Neri, ²⁸the son of Melki,

the son of Addi, the son of Cosam,

the son of Elmadam, the son of Er,

²⁹the son of Joshua, the son of Eliezer,

the son of Jorim, the son of Matthat,

the son of Levi, ³⁰the son of Simeon,

the son of Judah, the son of Joseph,

the son of Jonam, the son of Eliakim,

³¹the son of Melea, the son of Menna,

the son of Mattatha, the son of Nathan,^†

the son of David, ³²the son of Jesse,

the son of Obed, the son of Boaz,

the son of Salmon,^[13] the son of Nahshon,

³³the son of Amminadab, the son of Ram,^[14]

the son of Hezron, the son of Perez,^†

the son of Judah, ³⁴the son of Jacob,

the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham,

the son of Terah, the son of Nahor,^†

³⁵the son of Serug, the son of Reu,

the son of Peleg, the son of Eber,

the son of Shelah, ³⁶the son of Cainan,

the son of Arphaxad,^† the son of Shem,

the son of Noah, the son of Lamech,^†

³⁷the son of Methuselah, the son of Enoch,

the son of Jared, the son of Mahalalel,

the son of Kenan, ³⁸the son of Enosh,

the son of Seth, the son of Adam,

the son of God.^†

Luke 4

The Temptation of Jesus

¹Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit,^† returned from the Jordan^† and was led by the Spirit^† in the desert, ²where for forty days^† he was tempted by the devil. He ate nothing during those days, and at the end of them he was hungry.

---

*

Disease and Medicine in the Ancient World

Luke 4 Ancient doctors were few in number, expensive, lacking in knowledge of effective treatments and, although learned for their time, still quite ignorant and superstitious. Temples to Asclepius, the Greco-Roman god of healing, were found all over the Mediterranean world. These temples were somewhat like the spas of today; therapy consisted more of rest, massage and a modified diet than of what we would call medicine. Religion also played a major role. A common healing method was “incubation,” whereby the sick person would sleep in the confines of the temple of Asclepius in the hope of receiving a dream-revelation from the god. Those who had been healed made special contributions to the temples, which often included plaster reproductions of whatever parts of their bodies had been healed. These were set on display as testimonies to the healing power of the god.¹

Diagnoses of medical conditions with prognoses of outcome; Babylonia, c. 1900–1700 B.C.

© The Schøyen Collection; photography courtesy of Mr. Martin Schøyen

The second-century orator and chronic invalid Aelius Aristides, in his Sacred Tales, gives us an insight into the need people had for healing and the methods employed to that end.² After falling ill on a journey to Rome and enduring brutal surgery at the hands of Roman doctors, Aristides became a devotee of Asclepius. The cures prescribed for him in the dreams included bathing in a churning river during winter, pouring mud on himself before sitting in the courtyard of the temple, walking about without shoes all winter and blood-letting from various parts of his body.

It was in such a world that Jesus performed his ministry of healing. Unlike many doctors connected to temples, Jesus healed without charge or fanfare. Also, he did not follow any specific ritual that might have been regarded as the key to tapping into magical, healing power.³ Sometimes he would touch a person; in other instances he might place a daub of mud on a blind man’s eyes (Jn 9:6) or simply speak a word (Mt 8:13). In short, Jesus’ healings pointed to the power of God that dwelled within him; they did not encourage people to seek out rituals for magical healing but were part of his proclamation of the kingdom. Physical healing pointed always to the restoration of creation.

Ancient surgical instruments

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The British Museum

1. See also “The Gods of the Greeks and Romans.”

2. See “Miracle Workers and Magicians in the First Century A.D..”

3. See “Magic in the Greco-Roman World.”

---

³The devil said to him, “If you are the Son of God, tell this stone to become bread.”

⁴Jesus answered, “It is written: ‘Man does not live on bread alone.’^[15] ”^†

⁵The devil led him up to a high place and showed him in an instant all the kingdoms of the world.^{† 6}And he said to him, “I will give you all their authority and splendor, for it has been given to me,^† and I can give it to anyone I want to. ⁷So if you worship me, it will all be yours.”

⁸Jesus answered, “It is written: ‘Worship the Lord your God and serve him only.’^[16] ”^†

⁹The devil led him to Jerusalem and had him stand on the highest point of the temple. “If you are the Son of God,” he said, “throw yourself down from here. ¹⁰For it is written:

“ ‘He will command his angels concerning you

to guard you carefully;

¹¹they will lift you up in their hands,

so that you will not strike your foot against a stone.’^[17] ”^†

¹²Jesus answered, “It says: ‘Do not put the Lord your God to the test.’^[18] ”^†

¹³When the devil had finished all this tempting,^† he left him^† until an opportune time.

Jesus Rejected at Nazareth

¹⁴Jesus returned to Galilee^† in the power of the Spirit, and news about him spread through the whole countryside.^{† 15}He taught in their synagogues,^† and everyone praised him.

¹⁶He went to Nazareth,^† where he had been brought up, and on the Sabbath day he went into the synagogue,^† as was his custom. And he stood up to read. ¹⁷The scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written:

¹⁸“The Spirit of the Lord is on me,^†

because he has anointed me

to preach good news to the poor.

He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners

and recovery of sight for the blind,

to release the oppressed,

¹⁹to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor.”^{[19] †}

²⁰Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant and sat down.^† The eyes of everyone in the synagogue were fastened on him, ²¹and he began by saying to them, “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing.”

²²All spoke well of him and were amazed at the gracious words that came from his lips. “Isn’t this Joseph’s son?” they asked.^†

²³Jesus said to them, “Surely you will quote this proverb to me: ‘Physician, heal yourself! Do here in your hometown^† what we have heard that you did in Capernaum.’ ”^†

²⁴“I tell you the truth,” he continued, “no prophet is accepted in his hometown.^{† 25}I assure you that there were many widows in Israel in Elijah’s time, when the sky was shut for three and a half years and there was a severe famine throughout the land.^{† 26}Yet Elijah was not sent to any of them, but to a widow in Zarephath in the region of Sidon.^{† 27}And there were many in Israel with leprosy^[20] in the time of Elisha the prophet, yet not one of them was cleansed—only Naaman the Syrian.”^†

²⁸All the people in the synagogue were furious when they heard this. ²⁹They got up, drove him out of the town,^† and took him to the brow of the hill on which the town was built, in order to throw him down the cliff. ³⁰But he walked right through the crowd and went on his way.^†

Jesus Drives Out an Evil Spirit

³¹Then he went down to Capernaum,^† a town in Galilee, and on the Sabbath began to teach the people. ³²They were amazed at his teaching,^† because his message had authority.^†

³³In the synagogue there was a man possessed by a demon, an evil^[21] spirit. He cried out at the top of his voice, ³⁴“Ha! What do you want with us,^† Jesus of Nazareth?^† Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are^†—the Holy One of God!”^†

³⁵“Be quiet!” Jesus said sternly.^† “Come out of him!” Then the demon threw the man down before them all and came out without injuring him.

³⁶All the people were amazed^† and said to each other, “What is this teaching? With authority^† and power he gives orders to evil spirits and they come out!” ³⁷And the news about him spread throughout the surrounding area.^†

Jesus Heals Many

³⁸Jesus left the synagogue and went to the home of Simon. Now Simon’s mother-in-law was suffering from a high fever, and they asked Jesus to help her. ³⁹So he bent over her and rebuked^† the fever, and it left her. She got up at once and began to wait on them.

⁴⁰When the sun was setting, the people brought to Jesus all who had various kinds of sickness, and laying his hands on each one,^† he healed them.^{† 41}Moreover, demons came out of many people, shouting, “You are the Son of God!”^† But he rebuked^† them and would not allow them to speak,^† because they knew he was the Christ.^[22]

⁴²At daybreak Jesus went out to a solitary place. The people were looking for him and when they came to where he was, they tried to keep him from leaving them. ⁴³But he said, “I must preach the good news of the kingdom of God^† to the other towns also, because that is why I was sent.” ⁴⁴And he kept on preaching in the synagogues of Judea.^{[23] †}

Luke 5

The Calling of the First Disciples

¹One day as Jesus was standing by the Lake of Gennesaret,^[24] with the people crowding around him and listening to the word of God,^{† 2}he saw at the water’s edge two boats, left there by the fishermen, who were washing their nets. ³He got into one of the boats, the one belonging to Simon, and asked him to put out a little from shore. Then he sat down and taught the people from the boat.^†

---

*

Fishing in New Testament Times

Luke 5 Fishing was an important part of the Galilean economy, as reflected in place-names like Bethsaida (“House of Fish”) and Taricheae (“Preserved Fish Town”). The major types of fish in the Sea of Galilee would have been tilapia, carp and sardines. Much of the catch would have been dried for sale or manufactured into fish sauce and imported throughout the Mediterranean world. Fishing was thus embedded in the larger economy of the Roman Empire.¹

In 1986 a fishing boat from the time of Jesus was discovered on the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee.² Largely made of cedar and oak, the boat measured 26.5 feet (8 m) long, 7.5 feet (2.3 m) wide and 4.5 feet (1.4 m) deep. It could hold approximately one ton—either five crew members and the catch or the crew and ten passengers. The fishermen could have used a large dragnet, which might have been hundreds of feet long, or a circular casting net approximately 6.3–8.8 yards (5.7–8 m) in diameter. A hook and line might also have been employed. Galilean fishermen were most often employees or partners in small, family-run business cooperatives. Storms were a real danger in that they could come in quickly off the Mediterranean through the wind tunnel formed by the Arbel Pass.

1. See “The Roman Empire” and “Trade and Mercantilism in the Roman Empire.”

2. See “Galilee in Jesus’ Time.”

---

⁴When he had finished speaking, he said to Simon, “Put out into deep water, and let down^[25] the nets for a catch.”^†

⁵Simon answered, “Master,^† we’ve worked hard all night and haven’t caught anything.^† But because you say so, I will let down the nets.”

⁶When they had done so, they caught such a large number of fish that their nets began to break.^{† 7}So they signaled their partners in the other boat to come and help them, and they came and filled both boats so full that they began to sink.

⁸When Simon Peter saw this, he fell at Jesus’ knees and said, “Go away from me, Lord; I am a sinful man!”^{† 9}For he and all his companions were astonished at the catch of fish they had taken, ¹⁰and so were James and John, the sons of Zebedee, Simon’s partners.

Then Jesus said to Simon, “Don’t be afraid;^† from now on you will catch men.” ¹¹So they pulled their boats up on shore, left everything and followed him.^†

The Man With Leprosy

¹²While Jesus was in one of the towns, a man came along who was covered with leprosy.^{[26] †} When he saw Jesus, he fell with his face to the ground and begged him, “Lord, if you are willing, you can make me clean.”

¹³Jesus reached out his hand and touched the man. “I am willing,” he said. “Be clean!” And immediately the leprosy left him.

¹⁴Then Jesus ordered him, “Don’t tell anyone,^† but go, show yourself to the priest and offer the sacrifices that Moses commanded^† for your cleansing, as a testimony to them.”

¹⁵Yet the news about him spread all the more,^† so that crowds of people came to hear him and to be healed of their sicknesses. ¹⁶But Jesus often withdrew to lonely places and prayed.^†

Jesus Heals a Paralytic

¹⁷One day as he was teaching, Pharisees and teachers of the law,^† who had come from every village of Galilee and from Judea and Jerusalem, were sitting there. And the power of the Lord was present for him to heal the sick.^{† 18}Some men came carrying a paralytic on a mat and tried to take him into the house to lay him before Jesus. ¹⁹When they could not find a way to do this because of the crowd, they went up on the roof and lowered him on his mat through the tiles into the middle of the crowd, right in front of Jesus.

²⁰When Jesus saw their faith, he said, “Friend, your sins are forgiven.”^†

²¹The Pharisees and the teachers of the law began thinking to themselves, “Who is this fellow who speaks blasphemy? Who can forgive sins but God alone?”^†

²²Jesus knew what they were thinking and asked, “Why are you thinking these things in your hearts? ²³Which is easier: to say, ‘Your sins are forgiven,’ or to say, ‘Get up and walk’? ²⁴But that you may know that the Son of Man^† has authority on earth to forgive sins …” He said to the paralyzed man, “I tell you, get up, take your mat and go home.” ²⁵Immediately he stood up in front of them, took what he had been lying on and went home praising God. ²⁶Everyone was amazed and gave praise to God.^† They were filled with awe and said, “We have seen remarkable things today.”

The Calling of Levi

²⁷After this, Jesus went out and saw a tax collector by the name of Levi sitting at his tax booth. “Follow me,”^† Jesus said to him, ²⁸and Levi got up, left everything and followed him.^†

²⁹Then Levi held a great banquet for Jesus at his house, and a large crowd of tax collectors^† and others were eating with them. ³⁰But the Pharisees and the teachers of the law who belonged to their sect^† complained to his disciples, “Why do you eat and drink with tax collectors and ‘sinners’?”^†

³¹Jesus answered them, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. ³²I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.”^†

Jesus Questioned About Fasting

³³They said to him, “John’s disciples^† often fast and pray, and so do the disciples of the Pharisees, but yours go on eating and drinking.”

³⁴Jesus answered, “Can you make the guests of the bridegroom^† fast while he is with them? ³⁵But the time will come when the bridegroom will be taken from them;^† in those days they will fast.”

³⁶He told them this parable: “No one tears a patch from a new garment and sews it on an old one. If he does, he will have torn the new garment, and the patch from the new will not match the old. ³⁷And no one pours new wine into old wineskins. If he does, the new wine will burst the skins, the wine will run out and the wineskins will be ruined. ³⁸No, new wine must be poured into new wineskins. ³⁹And no one after drinking old wine wants the new, for he says, ‘The old is better.’ ”

Luke 6

Lord of the Sabbath

¹One Sabbath Jesus was going through the grainfields, and his disciples began to pick some heads of grain, rub them in their hands and eat the kernels.^{† 2}Some of the Pharisees asked, “Why are you doing what is unlawful on the Sabbath?”^†

---

Ancient Voices

The book of the rule of the community: To seek God with the whole heart and the entire being, to do what is good and right before him, just as he commanded by the hand of Moses and by the hand of all his servants the prophets; to love all that he has chosen and hate all that he has rejected; to be far from all evil and to cling to all good deeds; to behave with integrity, righteousness, and justice in the land; and to walk no longer in the stubbornness of a guilty heart and lustful eyes, whereby one does all kinds of evil …

Now this is the rule for the men of the community, that is, for those who of their own volition turn away from all evil and cling to all that he commanded us according to his will. They should separate from the congregation of wicked men and become a community in doctrine and in common possession of property, and conduct their affairs under the direction of the sons of Zadok, who are the priests who keep the covenant, and under the direction of the full body of the men of the community, which is a community of men who hold fast to the covenant. Under their direction every decision will be made in every matter of doctrine, community property and enforcement of rules, so that they may together behave with integrity and humility, with righteousness and justice and love of kindness, and so that they may be careful to walk in all the ways of the community, and that no one may walk in the stubbornness of his heart and go astray, following his own heart and eyes and inclinations.

—Excerpts From the Community Rule of Qumran

From the Dead Sea Scrolls, 1QS, beginnings of chapters 1 and 5, trans. by Duane Garrett

See “Qumran and the New Testament” article.

---

*

Qumran and the New Testament

Scroll fragments from Qumran

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The Amman Museum

Luke 6 The Dead Sea Scrolls (found at Qumran) are the texts of a Jewish religious community now called the Qumran community. Numerous scholars have pointed out that there are similarities between the beliefs and practices of the Qumran community and those of New Testament Christians. Some have gone so far as to view Christianity as an offshoot of the Qumran community. There is no doubt that the Dead Sea Scrolls provide a unique window into the world of early Judaism and that their value for understanding the New Testament is great, but it is possible to exaggerate the similarities and overlook the differences between the Qumran community and the early Christians.

To be sure, we can find significant examples of how the Qumran community parallels the New Testament church:

• The Qumran community saw itself as the remnant of Israel that had entered into a new covenant with God in the end times.

• The community relied on revelations given to the “Teacher of Righteousness,” who had been persecuted by the Jerusalem authorities for his unorthodox beliefs.¹

• Community members made a sustained effort to read the Old Testament Scriptures in light of the realities of the “last days” that had now come upon Israel.

But these similarities should not be allowed to mask some crucial differences:

• Unlike the Qumran community, the early Christians did not withdraw into the desert. Instead, they remained within the Jewish communities in the Holy Land and in the Diaspora.²

• Even more radical was the willingness of the early Christians to bring the Good News to the Gentiles, an idea completely absent from Qumran.

• The Qumran community abandoned the Jewish mainstream largely because of perceived defects in their calendar and in their interpretation of purity laws.³ The early Christians, meanwhile, made it clear that such matters should not be allowed to become sources of division (cf. Mt 7:19; Col 2:20–23).

• Finally, while the instruction of the Teacher of Righteousness remained foundational for the Qumran community, this concept pales beside the Christian belief that Jesus has risen from the dead and sits exalted to reign at the right hand of God.

In sum, the Dead Sea Scrolls give us information on the kinds of issues of concern to Jews during the New Testament era: the identity of God’s true people, questions of ritual and purity and the search for a fresh word of revelation in troubled times. But the community that emerged from Jesus’ teaching was radically different from that of Qumran. In many ways Qumran depicts for us “the road not taken” by the early Christians.

Caves 4a and 4b at Qumran

Photograph courtesy of © Dr. Gary Pratico

1. See “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis.”

2. See “The Church From the Resurrection to the Conversion of Paul” and “The Jewish Diaspora in the First Century A.D..”

3. See “The Jewish Priesthood and Religious Life in the First Century A.D..”

---

³Jesus answered them, “Have you never read what David did when he and his companions were hungry?^{† 4}He entered the house of God, and taking the consecrated bread, he ate what is lawful only for priests to eat.^† And he also gave some to his companions.” ⁵Then Jesus said to them, “The Son of Man^† is Lord of the Sabbath.”

⁶On another Sabbath^† he went into the synagogue and was teaching, and a man was there whose right hand was shriveled. ⁷The Pharisees and the teachers of the law were looking for a reason to accuse Jesus, so they watched him closely^† to see if he would heal on the Sabbath.^{† 8}But Jesus knew what they were thinking^† and said to the man with the shriveled hand, “Get up and stand in front of everyone.” So he got up and stood there.

⁹Then Jesus said to them, “I ask you, which is lawful on the Sabbath: to do good or to do evil, to save life or to destroy it?”

¹⁰He looked around at them all, and then said to the man, “Stretch out your hand.” He did so, and his hand was completely restored. ¹¹But they were furious^† and began to discuss with one another what they might do to Jesus.

The Twelve Apostles

¹²One of those days Jesus went out to a mountainside to pray, and spent the night praying to God.^{† 13}When morning came, he called his disciples to him and chose twelve of them, whom he also designated apostles:^{† 14}Simon (whom he named Peter), his brother Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, ¹⁵Matthew,^† Thomas, James son of Alphaeus, Simon who was called the Zealot, ¹⁶Judas son of James, and Judas Iscariot, who became a traitor.

Blessings and Woes

¹⁷He went down with them and stood on a level place. A large crowd of his disciples was there and a great number of people from all over Judea, from Jerusalem, and from the coast of Tyre and Sidon,^{† 18}who had come to hear him and to be healed of their diseases. Those troubled by evil^[27] spirits were cured, ¹⁹and the people all tried to touch him,^† because power was coming from him and healing them all.^†

²⁰Looking at his disciples, he said:

“Blessed are you who are poor,

for yours is the kingdom of God.^†

²¹Blessed are you who hunger now,

for you will be satisfied.^†

Blessed are you who weep now,

for you will laugh.^†

²²Blessed are you when men hate you,

when they exclude you^† and insult you^†

and reject your name as evil,

because of the Son of Man.^†

²³“Rejoice in that day and leap for joy,^† because great is your reward in heaven. For that is how their fathers treated the prophets.^†

²⁴“But woe to you who are rich,^†

for you have already received your comfort.^†

²⁵Woe to you who are well fed now,

for you will go hungry.^†

Woe to you who laugh now,

for you will mourn and weep.^†

²⁶Woe to you when all men speak well of you,

for that is how their fathers treated the false prophets.^†

Love for Enemies

²⁷“But I tell you who hear me: Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you,^{† 28}bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you.^{† 29}If someone strikes you on one cheek, turn to him the other also. If someone takes your cloak, do not stop him from taking your tunic. ³⁰Give to everyone who asks you, and if anyone takes what belongs to you, do not demand it back.^{† 31}Do to others as you would have them do to you.^†

³²“If you love those who love you, what credit is that to you?^† Even ‘sinners’ love those who love them. ³³And if you do good to those who are good to you, what credit is that to you? Even ‘sinners’ do that. ³⁴And if you lend to those from whom you expect repayment, what credit is that to you?^† Even ‘sinners’ lend to ‘sinners,’ expecting to be repaid in full. ³⁵But love your enemies, do good to them,^† and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be sons^† of the Most High,^† because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. ³⁶Be merciful,^† just as your Father^† is merciful.

Judging Others

³⁷“Do not judge, and you will not be judged.^† Do not condemn, and you will not be condemned. Forgive, and you will be forgiven.^{† 38}Give, and it will be given to you. A good measure, pressed down, shaken together and running over, will be poured into your lap.^† For with the measure you use, it will be measured to you.”^†

³⁹He also told them this parable: “Can a blind man lead a blind man? Will they not both fall into a pit?^{† 40}A student is not above his teacher, but everyone who is fully trained will be like his teacher.^†

⁴¹“Why do you look at the speck of sawdust in your brother’s eye and pay no attention to the plank in your own eye? ⁴²How can you say to your brother, ‘Brother, let me take the speck out of your eye,’ when you yourself fail to see the plank in your own eye? You hypocrite, first take the plank out of your eye, and then you will see clearly to remove the speck from your brother’s eye.

A Tree and Its Fruit

⁴³“No good tree bears bad fruit, nor does a bad tree bear good fruit. ⁴⁴Each tree is recognized by its own fruit.^† People do not pick figs from thornbushes, or grapes from briers. ⁴⁵The good man brings good things out of the good stored up in his heart, and the evil man brings evil things out of the evil stored up in his heart. For out of the overflow of his heart his mouth speaks.^†

The Wise and Foolish Builders

⁴⁶“Why do you call me, ‘Lord, Lord,’^† and do not do what I say?^{† 47}I will show you what he is like who comes to me and hears my words and puts them into practice.^{† 48}He is like a man building a house, who dug down deep and laid the foundation on rock. When a flood came, the torrent struck that house but could not shake it, because it was well built. ⁴⁹But the one who hears my words and does not put them into practice is like a man who built a house on the ground without a foundation. The moment the torrent struck that house, it collapsed and its destruction was complete.”

Luke 7

The Faith of the Centurion

¹When Jesus had finished saying all this^† in the hearing of the people, he entered Capernaum. ²There a centurion’s servant, whom his master valued highly, was sick and about to die. ³The centurion heard of Jesus and sent some elders of the Jews to him, asking him to come and heal his servant. ⁴When they came to Jesus, they pleaded earnestly with him, “This man deserves to have you do this, ⁵because he loves our nation and has built our synagogue.” ⁶So Jesus went with them.

---

*

The Jewish Custom of Kissing

Luke 7 In the Biblical world, kissing could be either erotic or nonerotic in nature, but the nonerotic variety is most commonly mentioned in the Bible. In Old Testament narratives, relatives often kissed one another as a greeting, especially following a long absence (Ge 27:26–27; 29:11, 13; 33:4; 45:15; Ex 18:7). Kissing was also a sign of farewell prior to a prolonged departure (Ge 31:28; Ru 1:9; 1Ki 19:20). Close, nonfamilial friends also greeted one another with a kiss, such as in the case of David and Jonathan (1Sa 20:41), and it was not uncommon to kiss a guest as a sign of hospitality. This ritual could also demonstrate homage or submission. In 1 Samuel 10:1, for example, Samuel anointed David king and kissed him as part of the ritual. Likewise, in Psalm 2:12 the kings of the earth are commanded to “kiss the Son” as a way of expressing homage to the Messiah.

By contrast, kissing for sexual pleasure is mentioned in Proverbs 7:13 and Song of Songs 1:2. In Biblical times public kissing was always of the nonerotic nature and was either between friends or relatives of the same sex or relatives of the opposite sex. Kissing one’s lover—or even one’s spouse—in public was taboo, because such an action might easily cross the boundary between nonerotic and erotic (SS 8:1).

Extrabiblical literature of the time also refers to both erotic and nonerotic kissing. Egyptian love poetry written from the thirteenth century B.C. speaks of the pleasures young men and women take in each other’s kisses. Greco-Roman narratives contain many examples of the use of the kiss as a greeting but also suggest that the Greeks and Romans were uncomfortable with public kissing.

The custom of kissing remained common among the Jews throughout the New Testament period. Early Jewish sources suggest that there were three kinds of acceptable public kisses: those for greeting, for farewell or for expressing devotion. In Jesus’ parable, a father greets a long lost son with a kiss (Lk 15:20). Judas’s act of kissing Jesus (Mt 26:49; Lk 22:47) connoted affection, as well as, most likely, devotion to him as a teacher (thus Judas called out, “Greetings, Rabbi!”); it was therefore darkly ironic that this was the sign of his betrayal of Jesus. A distinctive case is that of the sinful woman in 7:36–50, who repeatedly kissed Jesus’ feet, though she was neither a close friend nor a relative. Nevertheless, her kisses were not erotic but were a sign of devotion and repentance. Even so, her actions made some of the guests uncomfortable. When Simon criticized the woman’s actions, Jesus pointed out that his host had failed to offer even the traditional kiss of greeting, whereas the woman had not ceased offering kisses of devotion.

Paul regularly called upon Christians to greet one another with a “holy kiss,” a term that appears to have been a Christian innovation (Ro 16:16; 1Co 16:20; 2Co 13:12; 1Th 5:26). It is possible that the qualifier “holy” was added to make clear that such kisses were to be given in such a way that they had no erotic connotations. It is conceivable that such a kiss was given in concert with the celebration of the Lord’s Supper and thus was holy by virtue of its association with that sacrament. At any rate, the gesture was clearly intended to reinforce the bond of love between believers.

---

He was not far from the house when the centurion sent friends to say to him: “Lord, don’t trouble yourself, for I do not deserve to have you come under my roof. ⁷That is why I did not even consider myself worthy to come to you. But say the word, and my servant will be healed.^{† 8}For I myself am a man under authority, with soldiers under me. I tell this one, ‘Go,’ and he goes; and that one, ‘Come,’ and he comes. I say to my servant, ‘Do this,’ and he does it.”

⁹When Jesus heard this, he was amazed at him, and turning to the crowd following him, he said, “I tell you, I have not found such great faith even in Israel.” ¹⁰Then the men who had been sent returned to the house and found the servant well.

Jesus Raises a Widow’s Son

¹¹Soon afterward, Jesus went to a town called Nain, and his disciples and a large crowd went along with him. ¹²As he approached the town gate, a dead person was being carried out—the only son of his mother, and she was a widow. And a large crowd from the town was with her. ¹³When the Lord^† saw her, his heart went out to her and he said, “Don’t cry.”

¹⁴Then he went up and touched the coffin, and those carrying it stood still. He said, “Young man, I say to you, get up!”^{† 15}The dead man sat up and began to talk, and Jesus gave him back to his mother.

¹⁶They were all filled with awe^† and praised God.^† “A great prophet^† has appeared among us,” they said. “God has come to help his people.”^{† 17}This news about Jesus spread throughout Judea^[28] and the surrounding country.^†

Jesus and John the Baptist

¹⁸John’s^† disciples^† told him about all these things. Calling two of them, ¹⁹he sent them to the Lord to ask, “Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?”

²⁰When the men came to Jesus, they said, “John the Baptist sent us to you to ask, ‘Are you the one who was to come, or should we expect someone else?’ ”

²¹At that very time Jesus cured many who had diseases, sicknesses^† and evil spirits, and gave sight to many who were blind. ²²So he replied to the messengers, “Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy^[29] are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor.^{† 23}Blessed is the man who does not fall away on account of me.”

²⁴After John’s messengers left, Jesus began to speak to the crowd about John: “What did you go out into the desert to see? A reed swayed by the wind? ²⁵If not, what did you go out to see? A man dressed in fine clothes? No, those who wear expensive clothes and indulge in luxury are in palaces. ²⁶But what did you go out to see? A prophet?^† Yes, I tell you, and more than a prophet. ²⁷This is the one about whom it is written:

“ ‘I will send my messenger ahead of you,

who will prepare your way before you.’^{[30] †}

²⁸I tell you, among those born of women there is no one greater than John; yet the one who is least in the kingdom of God^† is greater than he.”

²⁹(All the people, even the tax collectors, when they heard Jesus’ words, acknowledged that God’s way was right, because they had been baptized by John.^{† 30}But the Pharisees and experts in the law^† rejected God’s purpose for themselves, because they had not been baptized by John.)

³¹“To what, then, can I compare the people of this generation? What are they like? ³²They are like children sitting in the marketplace and calling out to each other:

“ ‘We played the flute for you,

and you did not dance;

we sang a dirge,

and you did not cry.’

³³For John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine,^† and you say, ‘He has a demon.’ ³⁴The Son of Man came eating and drinking, and you say, ‘Here is a glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and “sinners.” ’^{† 35}But wisdom is proved right by all her children.”

Jesus Anointed by a Sinful Woman

³⁶Now one of the Pharisees invited Jesus to have dinner with him, so he went to the Pharisee’s house and reclined at the table. ³⁷When a woman who had lived a sinful life in that town learned that Jesus was eating at the Pharisee’s house, she brought an alabaster jar of perfume, ³⁸and as she stood behind him at his feet weeping, she began to wet his feet with her tears. Then she wiped them with her hair, kissed them and poured perfume on them.

³⁹When the Pharisee who had invited him saw this, he said to himself, “If this man were a prophet,^† he would know who is touching him and what kind of woman she is—that she is a sinner.”

⁴⁰Jesus answered him, “Simon, I have something to tell you.”

“Tell me, teacher,” he said.

⁴¹“Two men owed money to a certain moneylender. One owed him five hundred denarii,^[31] and the other fifty. ⁴²Neither of them had the money to pay him back, so he canceled the debts of both. Now which of them will love him more?”

⁴³Simon replied, “I suppose the one who had the bigger debt canceled.”

“You have judged correctly,” Jesus said.

⁴⁴Then he turned toward the woman and said to Simon, “Do you see this woman? I came into your house. You did not give me any water for my feet,^† but she wet my feet with her tears and wiped them with her hair. ⁴⁵You did not give me a kiss,^† but this woman, from the time I entered, has not stopped kissing my feet. ⁴⁶You did not put oil on my head,^† but she has poured perfume on my feet. ⁴⁷Therefore, I tell you, her many sins have been forgiven—for she loved much. But he who has been forgiven little loves little.”

⁴⁸Then Jesus said to her, “Your sins are forgiven.”^†

⁴⁹The other guests began to say among themselves, “Who is this who even forgives sins?”

⁵⁰Jesus said to the woman, “Your faith has saved you;^† go in peace.”^†

Luke 8

The Parable of the Sower

¹After this, Jesus traveled about from one town and village to another, proclaiming the good news of the kingdom of God.^† The Twelve were with him, ²and also some women who had been cured of evil spirits and diseases: Mary (called Magdalene)^† from whom seven demons had come out; ³Joanna the wife of Cuza, the manager of Herod’s^† household; Susanna; and many others. These women were helping to support them out of their own means.

---

*

The Synoptic Problem and “Q”

Luke 8 The bulk of the material recorded in Luke 8 also appears in Matthew and Mark. At times the authors used language that was nearly identical (cf. Mt 8:27 with Mk 4:41; Lk 8:25). They displayed further similarities in the order in which they arranged their material (cf. Mk 4:1–25 with Lk 8:4–18). Observations of this sort have prompted reflection on the precise relationship that exists among the Synoptic Gospels (the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke). How are the similarities in wording and arrangement to be explained? The “Synoptic Problem” is the name that has been given to the question of these relationships.

Armenian copy of the Gospels dated to 1435 A.D.

© The Schøyen Collection; photography courtesy of Mr. Martin Schøyen

Some explain the parallels in the synoptic accounts with appeals to historical accuracy or inspiration by the Holy Spirit. However, two accounts of the same incident may both be historically accurate without employing identical or nearly identical wording. Furthermore, as the Synoptic Gospels were inspired by the Holy Spirit, so was the Gospel of John, yet John’s word choice and ordering of material are quite different from that of the synoptic authors.¹ Inspiration need not require or even imply precise agreement in wording or similar arrangement of material.

The stories of Jesus’ life and ministry circulated widely in the first century, forming a body of oral tradition. Undoubtedly the evangelists all drew upon this common body of tradition in writing their Gospels. Although the role of common oral tradition should not be underestimated, it seems likely that the Synoptic Gospels share some sort of literary relationship and that the later Gospel writers used one or more of the earlier writings as a source for their works. Several hypotheses attempt to explain the precise literary relationship of the Synoptic Gospels, although no single proposal solves all of the difficulties.

One widely held solution to the Synoptic Problem is the Two-Source Hypothesis. These two sources are identified as Mark and “Q” (an unknown source).

• This theory claims that Mark was the first Gospel written (an idea referred to as “Markan priority”) and that Matthew and Luke both independently used Mark as a source, often polishing its literary style and making editorial changes. Matthew and Luke also added material that is absent from Mark’s Gospel.²

• Sometimes Matthew and Luke referred to the same or similar events, suggesting that they were drawing upon a second common source. This hypothetical source for Matthew and Luke has been given the name “Q source” (from the German Quelle, meaning “source”). No copies of “Q” exist, but by definition it is a source containing material common to Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark. Therefore “Q” is said to include such passages as the temptations of Jesus by the devil (Mt 4:2–11; Lk 4:2–13), the Beatitudes (Mt 5:3–12; Lk 6:20–23) and the Lord’s Prayer (Mt 6:9–13; Lk 11:2–4).

Still, the very existence of “Q” is purely hypothetical and much debated, and alternative explanations for the history of the writing of the Synoptic Gospels have been proposed. Not all New Testament scholars believe in Markan priority, and some insist that more attention needs to be given to the fact that Matthew was an eyewitness to many of the events he recorded.

1. See “Can John’s Gospel Be Trusted?.”

2. See “The Ending of Mark.”

---

⁴While a large crowd was gathering and people were coming to Jesus from town after town, he told this parable: ⁵“A farmer went out to sow his seed. As he was scattering the seed, some fell along the path; it was trampled on, and the birds of the air ate it up. ⁶Some fell on rock, and when it came up, the plants withered because they had no moisture. ⁷Other seed fell among thorns, which grew up with it and choked the plants. ⁸Still other seed fell on good soil. It came up and yielded a crop, a hundred times more than was sown.”

When he said this, he called out, “He who has ears to hear, let him hear.”^†

⁹His disciples asked him what this parable meant. ¹⁰He said, “The knowledge of the secrets of the kingdom of God has been given to you,^† but to others I speak in parables, so that,

“ ‘though seeing, they may not see;

though hearing, they may not understand.’^{[32] †}

¹¹“This is the meaning of the parable: The seed is the word of God.^{† 12}Those along the path are the ones who hear, and then the devil comes and takes away the word from their hearts, so that they may not believe and be saved. ¹³Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in the time of testing they fall away.^{† 14}The seed that fell among thorns stands for those who hear, but as they go on their way they are choked by life’s worries, riches^† and pleasures, and they do not mature. ¹⁵But the seed on good soil stands for those with a noble and good heart, who hear the word, retain it, and by persevering produce a crop.

A Lamp on a Stand

¹⁶“No one lights a lamp and hides it in a jar or puts it under a bed. Instead, he puts it on a stand, so that those who come in can see the light.^{† 17}For there is nothing hidden that will not be disclosed, and nothing concealed that will not be known or brought out into the open.^{† 18}Therefore consider carefully how you listen. Whoever has will be given more; whoever does not have, even what he thinks he has will be taken from him.”^†

Jesus’ Mother and Brothers

¹⁹Now Jesus’ mother and brothers came to see him, but they were not able to get near him because of the crowd. ²⁰Someone told him, “Your mother and brothers^† are standing outside, wanting to see you.”