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Ancient Near Eastern Laments

Tombs in Hierapolis in the Lycus Valley of Asia Minor (Turkey)

Photograph: © Rachel Smith/Bible Places.com

Lamentations 3 Mourning over calamities and deaths are common in human society, and both Israel and other ancient societies had ritualized means for expressing lamentation and grief.¹ A lament could be for a single person who had died or for an entire city that had met disaster. Both kinds of laments are well represented in the Bible.

• For individuals:

A number of texts indicate mourning for soldiers and kings killed in combat. David composed a lament for Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1).² Second Chronicles 35:24 describes a national lamentation for Josiah after his death in battle, and David commanded respectful mourning for Abner (2Sa 3:31).

People naturally mourn the death of a loved one. Abraham grieved for Sarah (Ge 23:2), and David mourned excessively for Absalom (2Sa 18:33), considering the awkward circumstances with regard to his loyal troops. Luke 8:52–53 reflects the presence of professional mourners carrying out ritual lamentation for a deceased girl.

Job repeatedly bewailed the calamities that had befallen him (e.g., Job 3:1–26; 30:26–31). In his case personal disasters of several kinds (the deaths of loved ones, the loss of wealth and status, and personal sickness) were the occasions for his laments.

• For cities and states:

The entire book of Lamentations is a series of lament songs for Jerusalem, which had been destroyed in 586 B.C.³

Prophets often grieved for states and cities (Jer 6:26 [for Jerusalem]; Eze 27 [for Tyre]; Eze 32 [for Egypt]; and Mic 1:8–9 [for Jerusalem]).

The tradition of ritual mourning and the composition of lamentation texts is also found elsewhere in the ancient world. There are numerous examples of mourning over deceased individuals:

• Egyptian funerary texts tend to focus on the afterlife, but Egyptian funerals were carried out with elaborate bereavement ceremonies. The Egyptian Song of the Harper, for example, alludes to such mourning.⁴ Egyptian artwork contains depictions of weeping mourners in funeral processions.

• In the Epic of Gilgamesh (from Mesopotamia)⁵, the hero laments bitterly over the death of his friend, Enkidu.⁶

• A remarkable Akkadian poem bemoans a woman who had died in childbirth from the perspective of the deceased woman herself. She laments the fact that death has suddenly seized her and taken her away from her home, and she poignantly recalls how her husband grieved at her passing.

• In the Greek world, dirges were sung over the dead and elaborate funerals were carried out, as is reflected in various passages in the Iliad and Odyssey, as well as in Greek tragedy.

• Ritual mourning was a fixture in pagan religions that included a myth of a dying-and-rising god (such as Baal, Tammuz and Osiris). Worshipers would, in ritual fashion, lament the god’s death.⁷

Examples of mourning over a city occur in Sumerian literature. There we find lamentations for Ur, Sumer, Nippur, Eridu and Uruk, all dating from the Isin-Larsa period (c. 1950–1700 B.C.). For example, after Ur was destroyed by Elamites, a mourner bemoaned the fall of the city in great detail and in a manner reminiscent of the Biblical book of Lamentations. Although he had pleaded with the gods for the safety of Ur, they had decreed that the city be destroyed. The song describes the warriors being struck down, citizens perishing by fire and hunger and even children expiring in their mothers’ laps. Similarly, the Biblical book of Lamentations depicts Jerusalem’s fall as being by the will of God and speaks at length of the suffering of the people. In spite of these similarities, however, direct linkage between Lamentations and the Sumerian texts is improbable. Both are part of a broad literary tradition, and both reflect the universal human response to calamity.

1. See “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”

2. See “Songs of Warriors.”

3. See “The Last Days of Jerusalem.”

4. See “The Harper Songs From the Tomb of Neferhotep” and “The Harper Song From the Tomb of King Intef.”

5. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

6. For more on Gilgamesh, see “The Serpent Motif in Other Ancient Near Eastern Literature” and “Ecclesiastes and the Epic of Gilgamesh.”

7. See “Mourning for Tammuz.”

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by the rod of his wrath.^†

²He has driven me away and made me walk

in darkness^† rather than light;

³indeed, he has turned his hand against me^†

again and again, all day long.

⁴He has made my skin and my flesh grow old

and has broken my bones.^†

⁵He has besieged me and surrounded me

with bitterness^† and hardship.^†

⁶He has made me dwell in darkness

like those long dead.^†

⁷He has walled me in so I cannot escape;^†

he has weighed me down with chains.^†

⁸Even when I call out or cry for help,

he shuts out my prayer.^†

⁹He has barred my way with blocks of stone;

he has made my paths crooked.^†

¹⁰Like a bear lying in wait,

like a lion in hiding,

¹¹he dragged me from the path and mangled^† me

and left me without help.

¹²He drew his bow^†

and made me the target^† for his arrows.^†

¹³He pierced my heart

with arrows from his quiver.^†

¹⁴I became the laughingstock^† of all my people;

they mock me in song^† all day long.

¹⁵He has filled me with bitter herbs

and sated me with gall.^†

¹⁶He has broken my teeth with gravel;^†

he has trampled me in the dust.

¹⁷I have been deprived of peace;

I have forgotten what prosperity is.

¹⁸So I say, “My splendor is gone

and all that I had hoped from the LORD.”^†

¹⁹I remember my affliction and my wandering,

the bitterness and the gall.

²⁰I well remember them,

and my soul is downcast^† within me.^†

²¹Yet this I call to mind

and therefore I have hope:

²²Because of the LORD ’s great love we are not consumed,

for his compassions never fail.^†

²³They are new every morning;

great is your faithfulness.^†

²⁴I say to myself, “The LORD is my portion;^†

therefore I will wait for him.”

²⁵The LORD is good to those whose hope is in him,

to the one who seeks him;^†

²⁶it is good to wait quietly

for the salvation of the LORD.^†

²⁷It is good for a man to bear the yoke

while he is young.

²⁸Let him sit alone in silence,^†

for the LORD has laid it on him.

²⁹Let him bury his face in the dust—

there may yet be hope.^†

³⁰Let him offer his cheek to one who would strike him,^†

and let him be filled with disgrace.

³¹For men are not cast off

by the Lord forever.^†

³²Though he brings grief, he will show compassion,

so great is his unfailing love.^†

³³For he does not willingly bring affliction

or grief to the children of men.^†

³⁴To crush underfoot

all prisoners in the land,

³⁵to deny a man his rights

before the Most High,

³⁶to deprive a man of justice—

would not the Lord see such things?^†

³⁷Who can speak and have it happen

if the Lord has not decreed it?^†

³⁸Is it not from the mouth of the Most High

that both calamities and good things come?^†

³⁹Why should any living man complain

when punished for his sins?^†

⁴⁰Let us examine our ways and test them,^†

and let us return to the LORD.^†

⁴¹Let us lift up our hearts and our hands

to God in heaven,^† and say:

⁴²“We have sinned and rebelled^†

and you have not forgiven.^†

⁴³“You have covered yourself with anger and pursued us;

you have slain without pity.^†

⁴⁴You have covered yourself with a cloud^†

so that no prayer^† can get through.

⁴⁵You have made us scum^† and refuse

among the nations.

⁴⁶“All our enemies have opened their mouths

wide against us.^†

⁴⁷We have suffered terror and pitfalls,^†

ruin and destruction.^† ”

⁴⁸Streams of tears flow from my eyes^†

because my people are destroyed.^†

⁴⁹My eyes will flow unceasingly,

without relief,^†

⁵⁰until the LORD looks down

from heaven and sees.^†

⁵¹What I see brings grief to my soul

because of all the women of my city.

⁵²Those who were my enemies without cause

hunted me like a bird.^†

⁵³They tried to end my life in a pit^†

and threw stones at me;

⁵⁴the waters closed over my head,^†

and I thought I was about to be cut off.

⁵⁵I called on your name, O LORD,

from the depths of the pit.^†

⁵⁶You heard my plea:^† “Do not close your ears

to my cry for relief.”

⁵⁷You came near when I called you,

and you said, “Do not fear.”^†

⁵⁸O Lord, you took up my case;^†

you redeemed my life.^†

⁵⁹You have seen, O LORD, the wrong done to me.^†

Uphold my cause!

⁶⁰You have seen the depth of their vengeance,

all their plots against me.^†

⁶¹O LORD, you have heard their insults,

all their plots against me—

⁶²what my enemies whisper and mutter

against me all day long.^†

⁶³Look at them! Sitting or standing,

they mock me in their songs.

⁶⁴Pay them back what they deserve, O LORD,

for what their hands have done.^†

⁶⁵Put a veil over their hearts,^†

and may your curse be on them!

⁶⁶Pursue them in anger and destroy them

from under the heavens of the LORD.

Lamentations 4

^1[9] How the gold has lost its luster,

the fine gold become dull!

The sacred gems are scattered

at the head of every street.^†

²How the precious sons of Zion,

once worth their weight in gold,

are now considered as pots of clay,

the work of a potter’s hands!

³Even jackals offer their breasts

to nurse their young,

but my people have become heartless

like ostriches in the desert.^†

⁴Because of thirst the infant’s tongue

sticks to the roof of its mouth;^†

the children beg for bread,

but no one gives it to them.^†

⁵Those who once ate delicacies

are destitute in the streets.

Those nurtured in purple^†

now lie on ash heaps.^†

⁶The punishment of my people

is greater than that of Sodom,^†

which was overthrown in a moment

without a hand turned to help her.

⁷Their princes were brighter than snow

and whiter than milk,

their bodies more ruddy than rubies,

their appearance like sapphires.^[10]

⁸But now they are blacker^† than soot;

they are not recognized in the streets.

Their skin has shriveled on their bones;^†

it has become as dry as a stick.

⁹Those killed by the sword are better off

than those who die of famine;

racked with hunger, they waste away

for lack of food from the field.^†

¹⁰With their own hands compassionate women

have cooked their own children,^†

who became their food

when my people were destroyed.

¹¹The LORD has given full vent to his wrath;

he has poured out his fierce anger.

He kindled a fire^† in Zion

that consumed her foundations.^†

¹²The kings of the earth did not believe,

nor did any of the world’s people,

that enemies and foes could enter

the gates of Jerusalem.^†

¹³But it happened because of the sins of her prophets

and the iniquities of her priests,^†

who shed within her

the blood of the righteous.

¹⁴Now they grope through the streets

like men who are blind.^†

They are so defiled with blood^†

that no one dares to touch their garments.

¹⁵“Go away! You are unclean!” men cry to them.

“Away! Away! Don’t touch us!”

When they flee and wander about,

people among the nations say,

“They can stay here no longer.”^†

¹⁶The LORD himself has scattered them;

he no longer watches over them.^†

The priests are shown no honor,

the elders^† no favor.

¹⁷Moreover, our eyes failed,

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Ancient Voices

Indeed, the Nile overflows none plough for it;

Everyone says: “We do not know what has happened throughout the land.”

Indeed, women are barren, and none conceive,

Khnum does not create because of the condition of the land,

Indeed, many dead are buried in the river,

The stream is a grave and the tomb has become a stream.

Indeed the noblemen are in mourning and the poor man is full of joy,

—The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage: The Admonitions of Ipuwer

See “Calamity and Distress in Ipuwer” article.

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looking in vain^† for help;^†

from our towers we watched

for a nation^† that could not save us.

¹⁸Men stalked us at every step,

so we could not walk in our streets.

Our end was near, our days were numbered,

for our end had come.^†

¹⁹Our pursuers were swifter

than eagles^† in the sky;

they chased us^† over the mountains

and lay in wait for us in the desert.

²⁰The LORD ’s anointed,^† our very life breath,

was caught in their traps.^†

We thought that under his shadow

we would live among the nations.

²¹Rejoice and be glad, O Daughter of Edom,

you who live in the land of Uz.

But to you also the cup^† will be passed;

you will be drunk and stripped naked.^†

²²O Daughter of Zion, your punishment will end;^†

he will not prolong your exile.

But, O Daughter of Edom, he will punish your sin

and expose your wickedness.^†

Lamentations 5

¹Remember, O LORD, what has happened to us;

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Calamity and Distress in Ipuwer

Lamentations 5 Composed between 2000 and 1800 B.C., the text known as The Admonitions of Ipuwer laments the state of affairs in Egypt. Although it is found in a single Egyptian manuscript from the Nineteenth Dynasty, the work was in all probability written much earlier. The sage Ipuwer recounted the calamities that had befallen the nation, as well as the distress of the people, livestock and even the land. Much of the discussion is couched in terms that demonstrate reversals of the normal state of affairs: Slaves had become masters; the rich were reduced to poverty; servant girls ruled households; foreigners assumed leading positions of state; kings once buried in great pyramids now lay exposed on bare ground. Ipuwer blamed these disasters on the sun god Ra (Re), who, the sage pointed out, did not differentiate between good and evil people and had been unable to perceive the evil brooding in the hearts of the violent. Although there are differing interpretations of the text, it appears that Ipuwer also criticized the ineptitude of the reigning king and looked forward to the arrival of a redemptive ruler who would restore order and peace.

The book of Lamentations, written between 586 and 516 B.C., also deals with the themes of national calamity and distress. Here we also see reversals of fortunes: Jerusalem, once a queen, was now a slave (1:1), ruled by “slaves” (i.e., Babylonians; 5:8); gold and gems had lost their value (4:2); the rich sat in ash pits (4:5); and those who had been pure and polished in appearance were now so blackened with soot as to be unrecognizable (4:7–8). As in Ipuwer, foreigners had gained the upper hand (5:2), and princes and elders were being shown disrespect (v. 12). Unlike Ipuwer, however, the author of Lamentations did not blame the disaster on God’s passivity. Rather, he understood that the Lord was justly judging the sins of the people (1:5, 8, 18; 3:38–42; 4:13). Although God was displaying his righteous anger (2:1–4; 4:11), his love and compassion were ever near (3:21–26, 31–32). The judgment on the sins of Judah was his means of refining and restoring a remnant to himself.

Apart from that issue, Ipuwer does have some striking parallels to other parts of the Bible. The author bemoaned a situation of social upheaval in Egypt in which criminals, lowlifes and slaves had become wealthy and powerful and even maidservants felt free to be impudent toward their mistresses. This is similar to Ecclesiastes 10:6–7: “Fools are put in many high positions, while the rich occupy the low ones. I have seen slaves on horseback, while princes go on foot like slaves.” Also, Ipuwer contains a striking reference to the Nile being turned to blood.¹

1. See “ ‘The River Is Blood’ in the Admonitions of Ipuwer.”

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look, and see our disgrace.^†

²Our inheritance^† has been turned over to aliens,

our homes^† to foreigners.

³We have become orphans and fatherless,

our mothers like widows.^†

⁴We must buy the water we drink;

our wood can be had only at a price.^†

⁵Those who pursue us are at our heels;

we are weary^† and find no rest.

⁶We submitted to Egypt and Assyria^†

to get enough bread.

⁷Our fathers sinned and are no more,

and we bear their punishment.^†

⁸Slaves^† rule over us,

and there is none to free us from their hands.^†

⁹We get our bread at the risk of our lives

because of the sword in the desert.

¹⁰Our skin is hot as an oven,

feverish from hunger.^†

¹¹Women have been ravished^† in Zion,

and virgins in the towns of Judah.

¹²Princes have been hung up by their hands;

elders are shown no respect.^†

¹³Young men toil at the millstones;

boys stagger under loads of wood.

¹⁴The elders are gone from the city gate;

the young men have stopped their music.^†

¹⁵Joy is gone from our hearts;

our dancing has turned to mourning.^†

¹⁶The crown^† has fallen from our head.

Woe to us, for we have sinned!^†

¹⁷Because of this our hearts^† are faint,

because of these things our eyes^† grow dim

¹⁸for Mount Zion, which lies desolate,^†

with jackals prowling over it.

¹⁹You, O LORD, reign forever;

your throne endures^† from generation to generation.

²⁰Why do you always forget us?^†

Why do you forsake us so long?

²¹Restore^† us to yourself, O LORD, that we may return;

renew our days as of old

²²unless you have utterly rejected us

and are angry with us beyond measure.^†

EZEKIEL

Author, Place and Date of Writing

Ezekiel is named in Ezekiel 1:3 as the author of this book. Although some scholars have challenged this, arguing that Ezekiel was a late, postexilic work (perhaps as late as 200 B.C.), the vast majority consider this skepticism unfounded.

Ezekiel was carried into exile in Babylon, most likely along with Judah’s king Jehoiachin, in 597 B.C. This prophet, who came from a priestly family, was married and lived in his own house in Babylon, enjoying relative freedom of movement. His intellect was keen and his knowledge wide-ranging.

Many of the visions and events recounted in Ezekiel can be dated with pinpoint accuracy. Ezekiel 1:2 is dated to the fifth year, fourth month and fifth day: July 31, 593 B.C. Ezekiel 8:1 specifies the sixth year, sixth month and fifth day: September 17, 592, and 20:1 designates the seventh year, fifth month and tenth day: August 14, 591. Other dates are stipulated at 24:1; 26:1; 29:1, 17; 30:20; 31:1; 32:1, 17; 33:21; 40:1. The last dated vision (40:1) is reported to have come on April 28, 573 B.C. Thus, Ezekiel’s visions spanned 25 years, from 593 to 573 B.C. The date in 1:1 (thirtieth year, fourth month, fifth day) is an apparent reference to Ezekiel’s own life—that is, his age.

Audience

The book was written from Babylon during the exile and, although Ezekiel was carried to Jerusalem in a vision (ch. 8), was intended for the exiles. In particular, the prophet was given the distressing task of dashing the hopes of the early deportees that Jerusalem would be spared destruction and that they could soon return home. Beginning in 593, Ezekiel prepared his fellow captives for the heartrending events to come in 586: Jerusalem would be sacked and the temple burned to the ground.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Ezekiel lived during a time of international upheaval. The once mighty Assyrian Empire, which had been the northern kingdom’s nemesis and ultimate undoing, was beginning to crumble, but Babylon was flexing its muscles in alarming ways. Indeed, this resurgent power would dominate the international scene until being crushed itself by Persia in 539 B.C.

Ezekiel graphically portrayed the sinfulness of the Jerusalem of his day, as well as its consequent, certain judgment (see, e.g., ch. 16). In addition, he predicted the nature of that coming destruction (see, e.g., chs. 4–5) and provided its theological justification: The city was not inviolable, because God had abandoned his own temple (see “Temple Abandonment”). It is important to note, however, that the tragic tone is mitigated by hope: God allowed his spokesman to infuse his countrymen and women with anticipation not only of their own nation’s restoration but also of his coming judgment upon their oppressors for generations of idolatry and violence perpetrated against his people.

Timeline

As You Read

Ezekiel is a highly structured and symmetrical book (see outline). Be alert for contrasts, such as the following: the vision of the defiled temple, fit only for destruction (chs. 8–11), versus that of the restored and purified temple (chs. 40–48); the God of wrath (ch. 1) versus the God of comfort (48:35); Ezekiel’s callings to be a watchman (1) announcing divine judgment (ch. 3) and (2) announcing the coming new age (ch. 33); the rebuke against the mountains of Israel (ch. 6) versus the prediction of their consolation (ch. 36). Notice Ezekiel’s nontraditional prose, and listen for the hammering effect of his frequent repetitions. Pay special attention to the book’s four major visions (chs. 1–3; 8–11; 37:1–14; 40–48), twelve symbolic acts (3:22–26; 4:1–3; 4:4–8; 4:9–11; 4:12–14; 5:1–3; 12:1–16; 12:17–20; 21:6–7; 21:18–24; 24:15–24; 37:15–28) and five parables (chs. 15; 16; 17; 19; 23).

Did You Know?

• The practice of rubbing newborns with salt has been observed among Arab peasants as recently as A.D. 1918 (16:4).
• The inner courtyard of Ezekiel’s visionary temple was a perfect square—the “shape” of perfection, or holiness (40: 47).
• The Dead Sea contains so much salt that nothing can live in it (47:8).

Themes

The book of Ezekiel includes the following themes:

1. Judgment. The prophet Ezekiel used unusual means to prophesy God’s coming judgment. He baked food using excrement for fuel (4:9–17); shaved his head and beard, burning a third of the hair (5:1–4); dug a hole in the city wall and proceeded through it (12:1–6); and lay down without moving for extended periods of time (3:24–27; 4:4–8). These visible acts were matched by prophetic visions and images (1:1–28; 8:1–11:25; 40:1–48:35). God would judge both his people (1:1–24:27) and foreign nations (25:1–32:32) for their sinful behavior.
2. God’s sovereignty. God is sovereign over the course of human history. His judgments are often a means of his self-revelation.
3. Future hope. There would be hope for God’s people after judgment (33:1–39:29).

Outline

I. Ezekiel’s Call and Commission (1–3)

II. Judgment Against Judah and Jerusalem (4–24)

A. The Siege of Jerusalem Symbolized (4–5)

B. Prophecy of God’s Judgment on His People (6–7)

C. Prophecy of the Temple Corrupted by Idolatry (8–11)

D. The Coming Exile Acted Out and Prophesied (12)

E. Prophecies of Judgment on Sin (13–24)

III. Judgment on the Nations (25–32)

IV. The Hope of Consolation and Preparation for Restoration (33–39)

A. The Prophet as a Watchman (33:1–20)

B. The Reasons for Jerusalem’s Fall (33:21–33)

C. Unfaithful Shepherds and the Good Shepherd (34)

D. God’s Judgment on Edom (35)

E. Hope for the Mountains of Israel (36:1–15)

F. Recap of the Prophet’s Message (36:16–38)

G. New Life for the Valley of Dry Bones (37)

H. The Battle With Gog (38–39)

V. Renewed Worship (40–48)

Ezekiel 1

The Living Creatures and the Glory of the LORD

¹In the^[1] thirtieth year, in the fourth month on the fifth day, while I was among the exiles^† by the Kebar River, the heavens were opened^† and I saw visions^† of God.

²On the fifth of the month—it was the fifth year of the exile of King Jehoiachin^† — ³the word of the LORD came to Ezekiel the priest, the son of Buzi,^[2] by the Kebar River in the land of the Babylonians.^[3] There the hand of the LORD was upon him.^†

⁴I looked, and I saw a windstorm coming out of the north^† —an immense cloud with flashing lightning and surrounded by brilliant light. The center of the fire looked like glowing metal,^{† 5}and in the fire was what looked like four living creatures.^† In appearance their form was that of a man,^{† 6}but each of them had four faces^† and four wings. ⁷Their legs were straight; their feet were like those of a calf and gleamed like burnished bronze.^{† 8}Under their wings on their four sides they had the hands of a man.^† All four of them had faces and wings, ⁹and their wings touched one another. Each one went straight ahead; they did not turn as they moved.^†

¹⁰Their faces looked like this: Each of the four had the face of a man, and on the right side each had the face of a lion, and on the left the face of an ox; each also had the face of an eagle.^{† 11}Such were their faces. Their wings^† were spread out upward; each had two wings, one touching the wing of another creature on either side, and two wings covering its body. ¹²Each one went straight ahead. Wherever the spirit would go, they would go, without turning as they went. ¹³The appearance of the living creatures was like burning coals of fire or like torches. Fire moved back and forth among the creatures; it was bright, and lightning^† flashed out of it. ¹⁴The creatures sped back and forth like flashes of lightning.^†

¹⁵As I looked at the living creatures, I saw a wheel on the ground beside each creature with its four faces. ¹⁶This was the appearance and structure of the wheels: They sparkled like chrysolite,^† and all four looked alike. Each appeared to be made like a wheel intersecting a wheel. ¹⁷As they moved, they would go in any one of the four directions the creatures faced; the wheels did not turn^† about^[4] as the creatures went. ¹⁸Their rims were high and awesome, and all four rims were full of eyes^† all around.

¹⁹When the living creatures moved, the wheels beside them moved; and when the living creatures rose from the ground, the wheels also rose. ²⁰Wherever the spirit would go, they would go,^† and the wheels would rise along with them, because the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels. ²¹When the creatures moved, they also moved; when the creatures stood still, they also stood still; and when the creatures rose from the ground, the wheels rose along with them, because the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels.^†

²²Spread out above the heads of the living creatures was what looked like an expanse,^† sparkling like ice, and awesome. ²³Under the expanse their wings were stretched out one toward the other, and each had two wings covering its body. ²⁴When the creatures moved, I heard the sound of their wings, like the roar of rushing waters, like the voice^† of the Almighty,^[5] like the tumult of an army.^† When they stood still, they lowered their wings.

²⁵Then there came a voice from above the expanse over their heads as they stood with lowered wings. ²⁶Above the expanse over their heads was what looked like a throne of sapphire,^{[6] †} and high above on the throne was a figure like that of a man.^{† 27}I saw that from what appeared to be his waist up he looked like glowing metal, as if full of fire, and that from there down he looked like fire; and brilliant light surrounded him.^{† 28}Like the appearance of a rainbow^† in the clouds on a rainy day, so was the radiance around him.^†

This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory^† of the LORD. When I saw it, I fell facedown,^† and I heard the voice of one speaking.

Ezekiel 2

Ezekiel’s Call

¹He said to me, “Son of man, stand^† up on your feet and I will speak to you.” ²As he spoke, the Spirit came into me and raised me^† to my feet, and I heard him speaking to me.

³He said: “Son of man, I am sending you to the Israelites, to a rebellious nation that has rebelled against me; they and their fathers have been in revolt against me to this very day.^{† 4}The people to whom I am sending you are obstinate and stubborn.^† Say to them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says.’ ⁵And whether they listen or fail to listen^† —for they are a rebellious house^† —they will know that a prophet has been among them.^{† 6}And you, son of man, do not be afraid^† of them or their words. Do not be afraid, though briers and thorns^† are all around you and you live among scorpions. Do not be afraid of what they say or terrified by them, though they are a rebellious house.^{† 7}You must speak my words to them, whether they listen or fail to listen, for they are rebellious.^{† 8}But you, son of man, listen to what I say to you. Do not rebel like that rebellious house;^† open your mouth and eat^† what I give you.”

⁹Then I looked, and I saw a hand^† stretched out to me. In it was a scroll, ¹⁰which he unrolled before me. On both sides of it were written words of lament and mourning and woe.^†

Ezekiel 3

¹And he said to me, “Son of man, eat what is before you, eat this scroll; then go and speak to the house of Israel.” ²So I opened my mouth, and he gave me the scroll to eat.

³Then he said to me, “Son of man, eat this scroll I am giving you and fill your stomach with it.” So I ate^† it, and it tasted as sweet as honey^† in my mouth.

⁴He then said to me: “Son of man, go now to the house of Israel and speak my words to them. ⁵You are not being sent to a people of obscure speech and difficult language,^† but to the house of Israel— ⁶not to many peoples of obscure speech and difficult language, whose words you cannot understand. Surely if I had sent you to them, they would have listened to you.^{† 7}But the house of Israel is not willing to listen to you because they are not willing to listen to me, for the whole house of Israel is hardened and obstinate.^{† 8}But I will make you as unyielding and hardened as they are.^{† 9}I will make your forehead like the hardest stone, harder than flint. Do not be afraid of them or terrified by them, though they are a rebellious house.^† ”

¹⁰And he said to me, “Son of man, listen carefully and take to heart all the words I speak to you. ¹¹Go now to your countrymen in exile and speak to them. Say to them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says,’ whether they listen or fail to listen.^† ”

¹²Then the Spirit lifted me up,^† and I heard behind me a loud rumbling sound—May the glory of the LORD be praised in his dwelling place!— ¹³the sound of the wings of the living creatures brushing against each other and the sound of the wheels beside them, a loud rumbling sound.^{† 14}The Spirit then lifted me up and took me away, and I went in bitterness and in the anger of my spirit, with the strong hand of the LORD upon me. ¹⁵I came to the exiles who lived at Tel Abib near the Kebar River.^† And there, where they were living, I sat among them for seven days^† —overwhelmed.

Warning to Israel

¹⁶At the end of seven days the word of the LORD came to me:^{† 17}“Son of man, I have made you a watchman^† for the house of Israel; so hear the word I speak and give them warning from me. ¹⁸When I say to a wicked man, ‘You will surely die,’ and you do not warn him or speak out to dissuade him from his evil ways in order to save his life, that wicked man will die for^[7] his sin, and I will hold you accountable for his blood.^{† 19}But if you do warn the wicked man and he does not turn from his wickedness or from his evil ways, he will die for his sin; but you will have saved yourself.^†

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Filled With the Spirit

	Person	Reference
Skill	Bezalel	Exodus 31:3; 35:30–31
Leadership	Moses Joshua Othniel Gideon Jephthah Samson David Saul	Numbers 11:17 Deuteronomy 34:9 Judges 3:10 Judges 6:34 Judges 11:29 Judges 14:6, 19; 15:14 1 Samuel 16:13 1 Samuel 10:10; 11:6; 19:23
Prophecy	Seventy Elders Balaam Messengers of Saul Amasa Azariah Zechariah Isaiah Ezekiel	Numbers 11:25 Numbers 24:2 1 Samuel 19:20 1 Chronicles 12:18 2 Chronicles 15:1 2 Chronicles 24:20 Isaiah 61:1 Ezekiel 3:24; 11:15

Chronological and Background Charts of the Old Testament, p. 111

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²⁰“Again, when a righteous man turns from his righteousness and does evil, and I put a stumbling block before him, he will die. Since you did not warn him, he will die for his sin. The righteous things he did will not be remembered, and I will hold you accountable for his blood.^{† 21}But if you do warn the righteous man not to sin and he does not sin, he will surely live because he took warning, and you will have saved yourself.^† ”

²²The hand of the LORD^† was upon me there, and he said to me, “Get up and go^† out to the plain,^† and there I will speak to you.” ²³So I got up and went out to the plain. And the glory of the LORD was standing there, like the glory I had seen by the Kebar River,^† and I fell facedown.^†

²⁴Then the Spirit came into me and raised me^† to my feet. He spoke to me and said: “Go, shut yourself inside your house. ²⁵And you, son of man, they will tie with ropes; you will be bound so that you cannot go out among the people.^{† 26}I will make your tongue stick to the roof of your mouth so that you will be silent and unable to rebuke them, though they are a rebellious house.^{† 27}But when I speak to you, I will open your mouth and you shall say to them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says.’^† Whoever will listen let him listen, and whoever will refuse let him refuse; for they are a rebellious house.^†

Ezekiel 4

Siege of Jerusalem Symbolized

¹“Now, son of man, take a clay tablet, put it in front of you and draw the city of Jerusalem on it. ²Then lay siege to it: Erect siege works against it, build a ramp^† up to it, set up camps against it and put battering rams around it.^{† 3}Then take an iron pan, place it as an iron wall between you and the city and turn your face toward it. It will be under siege, and you shall besiege it. This will be a sign^† to the house of Israel.^†

⁴“Then lie on your left side and put the sin of the house of Israel upon yourself.^[8] You are to bear their sin for the number of days you lie on your side. ⁵I have assigned you the same number of days as the years of their sin. So for 390 days you will bear the sin of the house of Israel.

⁶“After you have finished this, lie down again, this time on your right side, and bear the sin of the house of Judah. I have assigned you 40 days, a day for each year.^{† 7}Turn your face toward the siege of Jerusalem and with bared arm prophesy against her. ⁸I will tie you up with ropes so that you cannot turn from one side to the other until you have finished the days of your siege.^†

⁹“Take wheat and barley, beans and lentils, millet and spelt;^† put them in a storage jar and use them to make bread for yourself. You are to eat it during the 390 days you lie on your side. ¹⁰Weigh out twenty shekels^[9] of food to eat each day and eat it at set times. ¹¹Also measure out a sixth of a hin^[10] of water and drink it at set times. ¹²Eat the food as you would a barley cake; bake it in the sight of the people, using human excrement^† for fuel.” ¹³The LORD said, “In this way the people of Israel will eat defiled food among the nations where I will drive them.”^†

¹⁴Then I said, “Not so, Sovereign LORD!^† I have never defiled myself. From my youth until now I have never eaten anything found dead^† or torn by wild animals. No unclean meat has ever entered my mouth.^† ”

¹⁵“Very well,” he said, “I will let you bake your bread over cow manure instead of human excrement.”

¹⁶He then said to me: “Son of man, I will cut off^† the supply of food in Jerusalem. The people will eat rationed food in anxiety and drink rationed water in despair,^{† 17}for food and water will be scarce. They will be appalled at the sight of each other and will waste away because of^[11] their sin.^†

Ezekiel 5

¹“Now, son of man, take a sharp sword and use it as a barber’s razor^† to shave^† your head and your beard.^† Then take a set of scales and divide up the hair. ²When the days of your siege come to an end, burn a third of the hair with fire inside the city. Take a third and strike it with the sword all around the city. And scatter a third to the wind. For I will pursue them with drawn sword.^{† 3}But take a few strands of hair and tuck them away in the folds of your garment.^{† 4}Again, take a few of these and throw them into the fire and burn them up. A fire will spread from there to the whole house of Israel.

⁵“This is what the Sovereign LORD says: This is Jerusalem, which I have set in the center of the nations, with countries all around her. ⁶Yet in her wickedness she has rebelled against my laws and decrees more than the nations and countries around her. She has rejected my laws and has not followed my decrees.^†

⁷“Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: You have been more unruly than the nations around you and have not followed my decrees or kept my laws. You have not even^[12] conformed to the standards of the nations around you.^†

⁸“Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I myself am against you, Jerusalem, and I will inflict punishment on you in the sight of the nations.^{† 9}Because of all your detestable idols, I will do to you what I have never done before and will never do again.^{† 10}Therefore in your midst fathers will eat their children, and children will eat their fathers.^† I will inflict punishment on you and will scatter all your survivors to the winds.^{† 11}Therefore as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, because you have defiled my sanctuary with all your vile images^† and detestable practices,^† I myself will withdraw my favor; I will not look on you with pity or spare you.^{† 12}A third of your people will die of the plague or perish by famine inside you; a third will fall by the sword outside your walls; and a third I will scatter to the winds and pursue with drawn sword.^†

¹³“Then my anger will cease and my wrath^† against them will subside, and I will be avenged.^† And when I have spent my wrath upon them, they will know that I the LORD have spoken in my zeal.

¹⁴“I will make you a ruin and a reproach among the nations around you, in the sight of all who pass by.^{† 15}You will be a reproach and a taunt, a warning and an object of horror to the nations around you when I inflict punishment on you in anger and in wrath and with stinging rebuke.^† I the LORD have spoken.^{† 16}When I shoot at you with my deadly and destructive arrows of famine, I will shoot to destroy you. I will bring more and more famine upon you and cut off your supply of food.^{† 17}I will send famine and wild beasts against you, and they will leave you childless. Plague and bloodshed^† will sweep through you, and I will bring the sword against you. I the LORD have spoken.^† ”

Ezekiel 6

A Prophecy Against the Mountains of Israel

¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²“Son of man, set your face against the mountains^† of Israel; prophesy against them ³and say: ‘O mountains of Israel, hear the word of the Sovereign LORD. This is what the Sovereign LORD says to the mountains and hills, to the ravines and valleys:^† I am about to bring a sword against you, and I will destroy your high places.^{† 4}Your altars will be demolished and your incense altars^† will be smashed; and I will slay your people in front of your idols. ⁵I will lay the dead bodies of the Israelites in front of their idols, and I will scatter your bones^† around your altars. ⁶Wherever you live, the towns will be laid waste and the high places demolished, so that your altars will be laid waste and devastated, your idols^† smashed and ruined, your incense altars^† broken down, and what you have made wiped out.^{† 7}Your people will fall slain among you, and you will know that I am the LORD.

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The High Places

Ezekiel 6 English Bible readers are often bewildered by the regular references to the “high places” of Israel. The Hebrew word for “high place” is bamah (lit., “height”). The term refers to local, open-air shrines that were frequently described as being located on a hill but could in reality have been found anywhere, including a city, gate or valley (Jer 7:31). Some surmise that a shrine was called a “high place” because of its location; others suggest that the name refers to its construction. Regardless, a bamah might have been either a shrine perched upon a hilltop, such as in Petra,¹ or an elevated platform like the mound of unhewn stones uncovered at Megiddo²,³ (see “Map 6”).

Altar from Megiddo

The Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem. Photographed by permission.

A typical high place consisted of a man-made platform or altar with associated buildings (1Ki 12:31; 2Ki 17:29). It is likely that many high places were located in spots that had originally been sacred to the Canaanites—and that the conquering Israelites were supposed to have destroyed (Nu 33:52). In Israel’s early history in Canaan, high places became venues for the offering of animal sacrifices and incense to Yahweh (1Sa 9:12ff.). The rationale offered was that people “were still sacrificing at the high places, because a temple had not yet been built for the Name of the LORD” (1Ki 3:2).⁴ It may be that Elijah chose Mount Carmel for his contest with the prophets of Baal (1Ki 18) because the site was sacred to both Israelites and pagans.

Gibeon (“Map 4”) was known as “the most important high place” (1Ki 3:4);⁵ although the ark was transferred by David from there to Jerusalem, the tabernacle and bronze altar remained at Gibeon (2Ch 1:3–5).⁶ Also, Gibeon was the place at which the prophet Samuel celebrated festivals and where Solomon received a vision from the Lord.

Once worship of the Lord had been centralized in Jerusalem, however, high places came to pose a threat to the purity of Israel’s faith. When Israelites worshiped the Lord away from the temple and its priestly oversight, they were at risk of being influenced by local, pagan cults and traditions. Prophets attacked high places for their syncretism: They were all too frequently locations at which the gods Molech, Chemosh and Asherah were worshiped, indiscriminately, alongside the God of Israel (1Ki 11:7–8; 2Ki 23:13). High places were regarded as centers of apostasy because they competed with Jerusalem for Israel’s devotion (2Ki 17:9–11).

In the historical narratives kings are routinely evaluated by whether or not they demolished these sanctuaries. Josiah’s reforms dealt a powerful blow to the high places (2Ki 23:15–20); even so, attachment to them survived. These locations of temptation are cited specifically as a cause for God’s judgment upon Judah (Eze 6:3–7).⁷

1. See “Aretas IV of Nabatea and Petra.”

2. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

3. See “Megiddo.”

4. See “Israelite Shrines and Worship Before the Temple of Solomon.”

5. See “Gibeon.”

6. See “The Tabernacle and the Ark.”

7. See also “The High Place at Dan.”

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⁸“ ‘But I will spare some, for some of you will escape^† the sword when you are scattered among the lands and nations.^{† 9}Then in the nations where they have been carried captive, those who escape will remember me—how I have been grieved^† by their adulterous hearts, which have turned away from me, and by their eyes, which have lusted after their idols.^† They will loathe themselves for the evil they have done and for all their detestable practices.^{† 10}And they will know that I am the LORD; I did not threaten in vain to bring this calamity on them.

¹¹“ ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Strike your hands together and stamp your feet and cry out “Alas!” because of all the wicked and detestable practices of the house of Israel, for they will fall by the sword, famine and plague.^{† 12}He that is far away will die of the plague, and he that is near will fall by the sword, and he that survives and is spared will die of famine. So will I spend my wrath upon them.^{† 13}And they will know that I am the LORD, when their people lie slain among their idols around their altars, on every high hill and on all the mountaintops, under every spreading tree and every leafy oak^† —places where they offered fragrant incense to all their idols.^{† 14}And I will stretch out my hand^† against them and make the land a desolate waste from the desert to Diblah^[13] —wherever they live. Then they will know that I am the LORD.^† ’ ”

Ezekiel 7

The End Has Come

¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²“Son of man, this is what the Sovereign LORD says to the land of Israel: The end!^† The end has come upon the four corners^† of the land. ³The end is now upon you and I will unleash my anger against you. I will judge you according to your conduct and repay you for all your detestable practices. ⁴I will not look on you with pity^† or spare you; I will surely repay you for your conduct and the detestable practices among you. Then you will know that I am the LORD.

⁵“This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Disaster!^† An unheard-of^[14] disaster is coming. ⁶The end has come! The end has come! It has roused itself against you. It has come! ⁷Doom has come upon you—you who dwell in the land. The time has come, the day is near;^† there is panic, not joy, upon the mountains. ⁸I am about to pour out my wrath^† on you and spend my anger against you; I will judge you according to your conduct and repay you for all your detestable practices.^{† 9}I will not look on you with pity or spare you; I will repay you in accordance with your conduct and the detestable practices among you. Then you will know that it is I the LORD who strikes the blow.

¹⁰“The day is here! It has come! Doom has burst forth, the rod^† has budded, arrogance has blossomed! ¹¹Violence has grown into^[15] a rod to punish wickedness; none of the people will be left, none of that crowd—no wealth, nothing of value.^{† 12}The time has come, the day has arrived. Let not the buyer rejoice nor the seller grieve, for wrath is upon the whole crowd.^{† 13}The seller will not recover the land he has sold as long as both of them live, for the vision concerning the whole crowd will not be reversed. Because of their sins, not one of them will preserve his life.^{† 14}Though they blow the trumpet and get everything ready, no one will go into battle, for my wrath is upon the whole crowd.

¹⁵“Outside is the sword, inside are plague and famine; those in the country will die by the sword, and those in the city will be devoured by famine and plague.^{† 16}All who survive and escape will be in the mountains, moaning like doves^† of the valleys, each because of his sins.^{† 17}Every hand will go limp,^† and every knee will become as weak as water. ¹⁸They will put on sackcloth and be clothed with terror.^† Their faces will be covered with shame and their heads will be shaved.^{† 19}They will throw their silver into the streets, and their gold will be an unclean thing. Their silver and gold will not be able to save them in the day of the LORD ’s wrath.^† They will not satisfy their hunger or fill their stomachs with it, for it has made them stumble^† into sin.^{† 20}They were proud of their beautiful jewelry and used it to make their detestable idols and vile images.^† Therefore I will turn these into an unclean thing for them. ²¹I will hand it all over as plunder to foreigners and as loot to the wicked of the earth, and they will defile it.^{† 22}I will turn my face^† away from them, and they will desecrate my treasured place; robbers will enter it and desecrate it.

²³“Prepare chains, because the land is full of bloodshed^† and the city is full of violence. ²⁴I will bring the most wicked of the nations to take possession of their houses; I will put an end to the pride of the mighty, and their sanctuaries^† will be desecrated.^{† 25}When terror comes, they will seek peace, but there will be none.^{† 26}Calamity upon calamity^† will come, and rumor upon rumor. They will try to get a vision from the prophet; the teaching of the law by the priest will be lost, as will the counsel of the elders.^{† 27}The king will mourn, the prince will be clothed with despair,^† and the hands of the people of the land will tremble. I will deal with them according to their conduct,^† and by their own standards I will judge them. Then they will know that I am the LORD.^† ”

Ezekiel 8

Idolatry in the Temple

¹In the sixth year, in the sixth month on the fifth day, while I was sitting in my house and the elders^† of Judah were sitting before^† me, the hand of the Sovereign LORD came upon me there.^{† 2}I looked, and I saw a figure like that of a man.^[16] From what appeared to be his waist down he was like fire, and from there up his appearance was as bright as glowing metal.^{† 3}He stretched out what looked like a hand and took me by the hair of my head. The Spirit lifted me up^† between earth and heaven and in visions of God he took me to Jerusalem, to the entrance to the north gate of the inner court, where the idol that provokes to jealousy^† stood. ⁴And there before me was the glory^† of the God of Israel, as in the vision I had seen in the plain.^†

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Mourning for Tammuz

Ezekiel 8 Among the pagan rituals the prophet Ezekiel was shown in Ezekiel 8 was a group of women “mourning for Tammuz” (v. 14). Numerous pagan religions feature a dying-and-rising god (such as Tammuz, Baal or Osiris), whose restoration comes about partly through the aid of his consort (partner) goddess (Ishtar, Anat or Isis, respectively, for the previous examples). The myths of the dying gods are not all the same; each is distinctive, and the various versions of these myths are sometimes contradictory and difficult to unravel.¹ Tammuz was sometimes regarded as a Mesopotamian version of the fertility god Baal but actually appears to have been a relatively minor shepherd god—who may or may not be thought to have returned from the dead.

It is clear that the cult of Tammuz was of very ancient origin, from Sumer. Even so, it persisted for millennia in the Near East and was especially popular, for unknown reasons, with women. One text from the Seleucid period (after 300 B.C.) contains a liturgy of the goddess Ishtar (also called Inanna),² who was weeping over him. This text contains echoes of Sumerian lamentation from 2,000 years earlier. Indeed, the Tammuz cult still existed among Sabean women in the tenth century A.D.! Although the women in Ezekiel 8 could have been professional mourners in the employ of the temple, it appears that they were ordinary people who had been swept up in a popular religious cult that had particularly strong appeal to women.

1. See “Power Over Egypt in the Hymn to Osiris” and “Baal and the Fertility Cults.”

2. See “The Queen of Heaven.”

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⁵Then he said to me, “Son of man, look toward the north.” So I looked, and in the entrance north of the gate of the altar I saw this idol^† of jealousy.

⁶And he said to me, “Son of man, do you see what they are doing—the utterly detestable^† things the house of Israel is doing here, things that will drive me far from my sanctuary? But you will see things that are even more detestable.”

⁷Then he brought me to the entrance to the court. I looked, and I saw a hole in the wall. ⁸He said to me, “Son of man, now dig into the wall.” So I dug into the wall and saw a doorway there.

⁹And he said to me, “Go in and see the wicked and detestable things they are doing here.” ¹⁰So I went in and looked, and I saw portrayed all over the walls all kinds of crawling things and detestable animals and all the idols of the house of Israel.^{† 11}In front of them stood seventy elders of the house of Israel, and Jaazaniah son of Shaphan was standing among them. Each had a censer^† in his hand, and a fragrant cloud of incense^† was rising.

¹²He said to me, “Son of man, have you seen what the elders of the house of Israel are doing in the darkness, each at the shrine of his own idol? They say, ‘The LORD does not see^† us; the LORD has forsaken the land.’ ” ¹³Again, he said, “You will see them doing things that are even more detestable.”

¹⁴Then he brought me to the entrance to the north gate of the house of the LORD, and I saw women sitting there, mourning for Tammuz. ¹⁵He said to me, “Do you see this, son of man? You will see things that are even more detestable than this.”

¹⁶He then brought me into the inner court of the house of the LORD, and there at the entrance to the temple, between the portico and the altar,^† were about twenty-five men. With their backs toward the temple of the LORD and their faces toward the east, they were bowing down to the sun in the east.^†

¹⁷He said to me, “Have you seen this, son of man? Is it a trivial matter for the house of Judah to do the detestable things they are doing here? Must they also fill the land with violence^† and continually provoke me to anger?^† Look at them putting the branch to their nose! ¹⁸Therefore I will deal with them in anger; I will not look on them with pity^† or spare them. Although they shout in my ears, I will not listen^† to them.”

Ezekiel 9

Idolaters Killed

¹Then I heard him call out in a loud voice, “Bring the guards of the city here, each with a weapon in his hand.” ²And I saw six men coming from the direction of the upper gate, which faces north, each with a deadly weapon in his hand. With them was a man clothed in linen^† who had a writing kit at his side. They came in and stood beside the bronze altar.

³Now the glory^† of the God of Israel went up from above the cherubim,^† where it had been, and moved to the threshold of the temple. Then the LORD called to the man clothed in linen who had the writing kit at his side ⁴and said to him, “Go throughout the city of Jerusalem and put a mark^† on the foreheads of those who grieve and lament^† over all the detestable things that are done in it.^† ”

⁵As I listened, he said to the others, “Follow him through the city and kill, without showing pity^† or compassion. ⁶Slaughter old men, young men and maidens, women and children, but do not touch anyone who has the mark. Begin at my sanctuary.” So they began with the elders^† who were in front of the temple.^†

⁷Then he said to them, “Defile the temple and fill the courts with the slain. Go!” So they went out and began killing throughout the city. ⁸While they were killing and I was left alone, I fell facedown,^† crying out, “Ah, Sovereign LORD! Are you going to destroy the entire remnant of Israel in this outpouring of your wrath on Jerusalem?^† ”

⁹He answered me, “The sin of the house of Israel and Judah is exceedingly great; the land is full of bloodshed and the city is full of injustice.^† They say, ‘The LORD has forsaken the land; the LORD does not see.’^{† 10}So I will not look on them with pity^† or spare them, but I will bring down on their own heads what they have done.^† ”

¹¹Then the man in linen with the writing kit at his side brought back word, saying, “I have done as you commanded.”

Ezekiel 10

The Glory Departs From the Temple

¹I looked, and I saw the likeness of a throne^† of sapphire^{[17] †} above the expanse^† that was over the heads of the cherubim. ²The LORD said to the man clothed in linen,^† “Go in among the wheels^† beneath the cherubim. Fill^† your hands with burning coals from among the cherubim and scatter them over the city.” And as I watched, he went in.

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Temple Abandonment

Ezekiel 10 The desecration or destruction of temples in the ancient Near East represented grave national and religious calamities. Temples were considered the abodes of deities who served as guardians of lands, peoples and nations, and elaborate temple liturgies were aimed at securing the presence of the deity. Conquering armies plundered temples as a demonstrable sign that the gods of the victors had triumphed over those of the vanquished (Isa 36:18–20; 37:12). Sacred objects were regularly transported and then installed in the sanctuary of the conquering deity. For example, when the Philistines captured the ark of the covenant from Israel, they placed it in the temple of their god, Dagon (1Sa 5:1–5).¹

From the perspective of the vanquished, it appeared that the temple had been abandoned by the deity. This gave rise to a genre of ritual laments for temples and cities that had been destroyed. A significant example of this motif is found in the Sumerian lamentation over the destruction of Ur.

The prophets used similar language to explain the destruction of the Jerusalem temple (La 2:7; cf. Eze 10). Biblical laments assert that the Lord had abandoned his sanctuary because Israel had first abandoned her God.

The idea of temple abandonment occurs as well with respect to the second temple. Second Maccabees, an Apocryphal book, reports that the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes plundered the sanctuary of Jerusalem, an act that should have brought down divine judgment upon his head.² The text explains that such desecration was possible because God had temporarily abandoned the sanctuary on account of the sins of his people (2Mc 5:17). Other sources suggest that God abandoned the temple just prior to its destruction by the Romans in A.D. 70. The ancient Jewish historian Josephus described a sound like that of a great multitude from within the sanctuary, announcing the departure of God’s presence (Jewish Wars, 6.5.3).³ Second Baruch, a Jewish apocalyptic text written sometime after A.D. 70, narrates a visionary account of the angel of the Lord descending into the Most Holy Place, removing the sacred vessels and proclaiming: “Enter enemies and come adversaries because he who guarded the house has abandoned it” (2Bar 6:7–9; 8:2).

1. See “Dagon.”

2. See “Ancient Near Eastern Laments.”

3. See “Antiochus IV Epiphanes.”

4. See “Josephus and the Fall of Jerusalem.”

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³Now the cherubim were standing on the south side of the temple when the man went in, and a cloud filled the inner court. ⁴Then the glory of the LORD^† rose from above the cherubim and moved to the threshold of the temple. The cloud filled the temple, and the court was full of the radiance of the glory of the LORD. ⁵The sound of the wings of the cherubim could be heard as far away as the outer court, like the voice^† of God Almighty^[18] when he speaks.

⁶When the LORD commanded the man in linen, “Take fire from among the wheels, from among the cherubim,” the man went in and stood beside a wheel. ⁷Then one of the cherubim reached out his hand to the fire that was among them. He took up some of it and put it into the hands of the man in linen, who took it and went out. ⁸(Under the wings of the cherubim could be seen what looked like the hands of a man.)^†

⁹I looked, and I saw beside the cherubim four wheels, one beside each of the cherubim; the wheels sparkled like chrysolite.^{† 10}As for their appearance, the four of them looked alike; each was like a wheel intersecting a wheel. ¹¹As they moved, they would go in any one of the four directions the cherubim faced; the wheels did not turn about^[19] as the cherubim went. The cherubim went in whatever direction the head faced, without turning as they went. ¹²Their entire bodies, including their backs, their hands and their wings, were completely full of eyes,^† as were their four wheels.^{† 13}I heard the wheels being called “the whirling wheels.” ¹⁴Each of the cherubim^† had four faces:^† One face was that of a cherub, the second the face of a man, the third the face of a lion, and the fourth the face of an eagle.^†

¹⁵Then the cherubim rose upward. These were the living creatures^† I had seen by the Kebar River. ¹⁶When the cherubim moved, the wheels beside them moved; and when the cherubim spread their wings to rise from the ground, the wheels did not leave their side. ¹⁷When the cherubim stood still, they also stood still; and when the cherubim rose, they rose with them, because the spirit of the living creatures was in them.^†

¹⁸Then the glory of the LORD departed from over the threshold of the temple and stopped above the cherubim.^{† 19}While I watched, the cherubim spread their wings and rose from the ground, and as they went, the wheels went with them.^† They stopped at the entrance to the east gate of the LORD ’s house, and the glory of the God of Israel was above them.

²⁰These were the living creatures I had seen beneath the God of Israel by the Kebar River,^† and I realized that they were cherubim. ²¹Each had four faces^† and four wings,^† and under their wings was what looked like the hands of a man. ²²Their faces had the same appearance as those I had seen by the Kebar River. Each one went straight ahead.

Ezekiel 11

Judgment on Israel’s Leaders

¹Then the Spirit lifted me up and brought me to the gate of the house of the LORD that faces east. There at the entrance to the gate were twenty-five men, and I saw among them Jaazaniah son of Azzur and Pelatiah son of Benaiah, leaders of the people.^{† 2}The LORD said to me, “Son of man, these are the men who are plotting evil and giving wicked advice in this city. ³They say, ‘Will it not soon be time to build houses?^[20] This city is a cooking pot,^† and we are the meat.’^{† 4}Therefore prophesy^† against them; prophesy, son of man.”

⁵Then the Spirit of the LORD came upon me, and he told me to say: “This is what the LORD says: That is what you are saying, O house of Israel, but I know what is going through your mind.^{† 6}You have killed many people in this city and filled its streets with the dead.^†

⁷“Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: The bodies you have thrown there are the meat and this city is the pot, but I will drive you out of it.^{† 8}You fear the sword, and the sword is what I will bring against you, declares the Sovereign LORD.^{† 9}I will drive you out of the city and hand you over^† to foreigners and inflict punishment on you.^{† 10}You will fall by the sword, and I will execute judgment on you at the borders of Israel.^† Then you will know that I am the LORD. ¹¹This city will not be a pot^† for you, nor will you be the meat in it; I will execute judgment on you at the borders of Israel. ¹²And you will know that I am the LORD, for you have not followed my decrees^† or kept my laws but have conformed to the standards of the nations around you.^† ”

¹³Now as I was prophesying, Pelatiah^† son of Benaiah died. Then I fell facedown and cried out in a loud voice, “Ah, Sovereign LORD! Will you completely destroy the remnant of Israel?^† ”

¹⁴The word of the LORD came to me: ¹⁵“Son of man, your brothers—your brothers who are your blood relatives^[21] and the whole house of Israel—are those of whom the people of Jerusalem have said, ‘They are^[22] far away from the LORD; this land was given to us as our possession.’^†

Promised Return of Israel

¹⁶“Therefore say: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Although I sent them far away among the nations and scattered them among the countries, yet for a little while I have been a sanctuary^† for them in the countries where they have gone.’

¹⁷“Therefore say: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: I will gather you from the nations and bring you back from the countries where you have been scattered, and I will give you back the land of Israel again.’^†

¹⁸“They will return to it and remove all its vile images^† and detestable idols.^{† 19}I will give them an undivided heart^† and put a new spirit in them; I will remove from them their heart of stone^† and give them a heart of flesh.^{† 20}Then they will follow my decrees and be careful to keep my laws.^† They will be my people, and I will be their God.^{† 21}But as for those whose hearts are devoted to their vile images and detestable idols, I will bring down on their own heads what they have done, declares the Sovereign LORD.^† ”

²²Then the cherubim, with the wheels beside them, spread their wings, and the glory of the God of Israel was above them.^{† 23}The glory^† of the LORD went up from within the city and stopped above the mountain^† east of it. ²⁴The Spirit^† lifted me up and brought me to the exiles in Babylonia^[23] in the vision^† given by the Spirit of God.

Then the vision I had seen went up from me, ²⁵and I told the exiles everything the LORD had shown me.^†

Ezekiel 12

The Exile Symbolized

¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²“Son of man, you are living among a rebellious people. They have eyes to see but do not see and ears to hear but do not hear, for they are a rebellious people.^†

³“Therefore, son of man, pack your belongings for exile and in the daytime, as they watch, set out and go from where you are to another place. Perhaps^† they will understand,^† though they are a rebellious house.^{† 4}During the daytime, while they watch, bring out your belongings packed for exile. Then in the evening, while they are watching, go out like those who go into exile.^{† 5}While they watch, dig through the wall and take your belongings out through it. ⁶Put them on your shoulder as they are watching and carry them out at dusk. Cover your face so that you cannot see the land, for I have made you a sign^† to the house of Israel.”

⁷So I did as I was commanded.^† During the day I brought out my things packed for exile. Then in the evening I dug through the wall with my hands. I took my belongings out at dusk, carrying them on my shoulders while they watched.

⁸In the morning the word of the LORD came to me: ⁹“Son of man, did not that rebellious house of Israel ask you, ‘What are you doing?’^†

¹⁰“Say to them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: This oracle concerns the prince in Jerusalem and the whole house of Israel who are there.’ ¹¹Say to them, ‘I am a sign to you.’

“As I have done, so it will be done to them. They will go into exile as captives.^†

¹²“The prince among them will put his things on his shoulder at dusk^† and leave, and a hole will be dug in the wall for him to go through. He will cover his face so that he cannot see the land.^{† 13}I will spread my net^† for him, and he will be caught in my snare;^† I will bring him to Babylonia, the land of the Chaldeans, but he will not see^† it, and there he will die.^{† 14}I will scatter to the winds all those around him—his staff and all his troops—and I will pursue them with drawn sword.^†

¹⁵“They will know that I am the LORD, when I disperse them among the nations and scatter them through the countries. ¹⁶But I will spare a few of them from the sword, famine and plague, so that in the nations where they go they may acknowledge all their detestable practices. Then they will know that I am the LORD.^† ”

¹⁷The word of the LORD came to me: ¹⁸“Son of man, tremble as you eat your food,^† and shudder in fear as you drink your water. ¹⁹Say to the people of the land: ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says about those living in Jerusalem and in the land of Israel: They will eat their food in anxiety and drink their water in despair, for their land will be stripped of everything^† in it because of the violence of all who live there.^{† 20}The inhabited towns will be laid waste and the land will be desolate. Then you will know that I am the LORD.^† ’ ”

²¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²²“Son of man, what is this proverb you have in the land of Israel: ‘The days go by and every vision comes to nothing’?^{† 23}Say to them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am going to put an end to this proverb, and they will no longer quote it in Israel.’ Say to them, ‘The days are near when every vision will be fulfilled.^{† 24}For there will be no more false visions or flattering divinations^† among the people of Israel. ²⁵But I the LORD will speak what I will, and it shall be fulfilled without delay. For in your days, you rebellious house, I will fulfill whatever I say, declares the Sovereign LORD.^† ’ ”

²⁶The word of the LORD came to me: ²⁷“Son of man, the house of Israel is saying, ‘The vision he sees is for many years from now, and he prophesies about the distant future.’^†

²⁸“Therefore say to them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: None of my words will be delayed any longer; whatever I say will be fulfilled, declares the Sovereign LORD.’ ”

Ezekiel 13

False Prophets Condemned

¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²“Son of man, prophesy against the prophets of Israel who are now prophesying. Say to those who prophesy out of their own imagination: ‘Hear the word of the LORD!^{† 3}This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Woe to the foolish^[24] prophets^† who follow their own spirit and have seen nothing!^{† 4}Your prophets, O Israel, are like jackals among ruins. ⁵You have not gone up to the breaks in the wall to repair^† it for the house of Israel so that it will stand firm in the battle on the day of the LORD.^{† 6}Their visions are false and their divinations a lie. They say, “The LORD declares,” when the LORD has not sent them; yet they expect their words to be fulfilled.^{† 7}Have you not seen false visions and uttered lying divinations when you say, “The LORD declares,” though I have not spoken?

⁸“ ‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because of your false words and lying visions, I am against you, declares the Sovereign LORD. ⁹My hand will be against the prophets who see false visions and utter lying divinations. They will not belong to the council of my people or be listed in the records^† of the house of Israel, nor will they enter the land of Israel. Then you will know that I am the Sovereign LORD.^†

¹⁰“ ‘Because they lead my people astray,^† saying, “Peace,” when there is no peace, and because, when a flimsy wall is built, they cover it with whitewash,^{† 11}therefore tell those who cover it with whitewash that it is going to fall. Rain will come in torrents, and I will send hailstones hurtling down, and violent winds will burst forth.^{† 12}When the wall collapses, will people not ask you, “Where is the whitewash you covered it with?”

¹³“ ‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: In my wrath I will unleash a violent wind, and in my anger hailstones^† and torrents of rain will fall with destructive fury.^{† 14}I will tear down the wall you have covered with whitewash and will level it to the ground so that its foundation^† will be laid bare. When it^[25] falls,^† you will be destroyed in it; and you will know that I am the LORD. ¹⁵So I will spend my wrath against the wall and against those who covered it with whitewash. I will say to you, “The wall is gone and so are those who whitewashed it, ¹⁶those prophets of Israel who prophesied to Jerusalem and saw visions of peace for her when there was no peace, declares the Sovereign LORD.^† ” ’

¹⁷“Now, son of man, set your face against the daughters^† of your people who prophesy out of their own imagination. Prophesy against them^{† 18}and say, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Woe to the women who sew magic charms on all their wrists and make veils of various lengths for their heads in order to ensnare people. Will you ensnare the lives of my people but preserve your own? ¹⁹You have profaned^† me among my people for a few handfuls of barley and scraps of bread. By lying to my people, who listen to lies, you have killed those who should not have died and have spared those who should not live.^†

²⁰“ ‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: I am against your magic charms with which you ensnare people like birds and I will tear them from your arms; I will set free the people that you ensnare like birds. ²¹I will tear off your veils and save my people from your hands, and they will no longer fall prey to your power. Then you will know that I am the LORD.^{† 22}Because you disheartened the righteous with your lies, when I had brought them no grief, and because you encouraged the wicked not to turn from their evil ways and so save their lives,^{† 23}therefore you will no longer see false visions or practice divination.^† I will save my people from your hands. And then you will know that I am the LORD.^† ’ ”

Ezekiel 14

Idolaters Condemned

¹Some of the elders of Israel came to me and sat down in front of me.^{† 2}Then the word of the LORD came to me: ³“Son of man, these men have set up idols in their hearts and put wicked stumbling blocks^† before their faces. Should I let them inquire of me at all?^{† 4}Therefore speak to them and tell them, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: When any Israelite sets up idols in his heart and puts a wicked stumbling block before his face and then goes to a prophet, I the LORD will answer him myself in keeping with his great idolatry. ⁵I will do this to recapture the hearts of the people of Israel, who have all deserted^† me for their idols.’^†

⁶“Therefore say to the house of Israel, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Repent! Turn from your idols and renounce all your detestable practices!^†

⁷“ ‘When any Israelite or any alien^† living in Israel separates himself from me and sets up idols in his heart and puts a wicked stumbling block before his face and then goes to a prophet to inquire of me, I the LORD will answer him myself. ⁸I will set my face against^† that man and make him an example and a byword.^† I will cut him off from my people. Then you will know that I am the LORD.

⁹“ ‘And if the prophet^† is enticed^† to utter a prophecy, I the LORD have enticed that prophet, and I will stretch out my hand against him and destroy him from among my people Israel.^{† 10}They will bear their guilt—the prophet will be as guilty as the one who consults him. ¹¹Then the people of Israel will no longer stray^† from me, nor will they defile themselves anymore with all their sins. They will be my people, and I will be their God, declares the Sovereign LORD.^† ’ ”

Judgment Inescapable

¹²The word of the LORD came to me: ¹³“Son of man, if a country sins against me by being unfaithful and I stretch out my hand against it to cut off its food supply^† and send famine upon it and kill its men and their animals,^{† 14}even if these three men—Noah,^† Daniel^{[26] †} and Job^† —were in it, they could save only themselves by their righteousness,^† declares the Sovereign LORD.

¹⁵“Or if I send wild beasts^† through that country and they leave it childless and it becomes desolate so that no one can pass through it because of the beasts,^{† 16}as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, even if these three men were in it, they could not save their own sons or daughters. They alone would be saved, but the land would be desolate.^†

¹⁷“Or if I bring a sword^† against that country and say, ‘Let the sword pass throughout the land,’ and I kill its men and their animals,^{† 18}as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, even if these three men were in it, they could not save their own sons or daughters. They alone would be saved.

¹⁹“Or if I send a plague into that land and pour out my wrath^† upon it through bloodshed, killing its men and their animals,^{† 20}as surely as I live, declares the Sovereign LORD, even if Noah, Daniel and Job were in it, they could save neither son nor daughter. They would save only themselves by their righteousness.^†

²¹“For this is what the Sovereign LORD says: How much worse will it be when I send against Jerusalem my four dreadful judgments—sword and famine and wild beasts and plague—to kill its men and their animals!^{† 22}Yet there will be some survivors—sons and daughters who will be brought out of it.^† They will come to you, and when you see their conduct^† and their actions, you will be consoled regarding the disaster I have brought upon Jerusalem—every disaster I have brought upon it. ²³You will be consoled when you see their conduct and their actions, for you will know that I have done nothing in it without cause, declares the Sovereign LORD.^† ”

Ezekiel 15

Jerusalem, A Useless Vine

¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²“Son of man, how is the wood of a vine^† better than that of a branch on any of the trees in the forest? ³Is wood ever taken from it to make anything useful? Do they make pegs from it to hang things on? ⁴And after it is thrown on the fire as fuel and the fire burns both ends and chars the middle, is it then useful for anything?^{† 5}If it was not useful for anything when it was whole, how much less can it be made into something useful when the fire has burned it and it is charred?

⁶“Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says: As I have given the wood of the vine among the trees of the forest as fuel for the fire, so will I treat the people living in Jerusalem. ⁷I will set my face against^† them. Although they have come out of the fire, the fire will yet consume them. And when I set my face against them, you will know that I am the LORD.^{† 8}I will make the land desolate^† because they have been unfaithful,^† declares the Sovereign LORD.”

Ezekiel 16

An Allegory of Unfaithful Jerusalem

¹The word of the LORD came to me: ²“Son of man, confront Jerusalem with her detestable practices^{† 3}and say, ‘This is what the Sovereign LORD says to Jerusalem: Your ancestry^† and birth were in the land of the Canaanites; your father was an Amorite and your mother a Hittite.^{† 4}On the day you were born^† your cord was not cut, nor were you washed with water to make you clean, nor were you rubbed with salt or wrapped in cloths. ⁵No one looked on you with pity or had compassion enough to do any of these things for you. Rather, you were thrown out into the open field, for on the day you were born you were despised.

⁶“ ‘Then I passed by and saw you kicking about in your blood, and as you lay there in your blood I said to you, “Live!”^{[27] † 7}I made you grow^† like a plant of the field. You grew up and developed and became the most beautiful of jewels.^[28] Your breasts were formed and your hair grew, you who were naked and bare.^†

⁸“ ‘Later I passed by, and when I looked at you and saw that you were old enough for love, I spread the corner of my garment^† over you and covered your nakedness. I gave you my solemn oath and entered into a covenant with you, declares the Sovereign LORD, and you became mine.^†

⁹“ ‘I bathed^[29] you with water and washed^† the blood from you and put ointments on you. ¹⁰I clothed you with an embroidered^† dress and put leather sandals on you. I dressed you in fine linen^† and covered you with costly garments.^{† 11}I adorned you with jewelry:^† I put bracelets^† on your arms and a necklace^† around your neck, ¹²and I put a ring on your nose,^† earrings on your ears and a beautiful crown^† on your head. ¹³So you were adorned with gold and silver; your clothes were of fine linen and costly fabric and embroidered cloth. Your food was fine flour, honey and olive oil.^† You became very beautiful and rose to be a queen.^{† 14}And your fame^† spread among the nations on account of your beauty,^† because the splendor I had given you made your beauty perfect, declares the Sovereign LORD.

¹⁵“ ‘But you trusted in your beauty and used your fame to become a prostitute. You lavished your favors on anyone who passed by^† and your beauty became his.^{[30] † 16}You took some of your garments to make gaudy high places, where you carried on your prostitution.^† Such things should not happen, nor should they ever occur. ¹⁷You also took the fine jewelry I gave you, the jewelry made of my gold and silver, and you made for yourself male idols and engaged in prostitution with them.^{† 18}And you took your embroidered clothes to put on them, and you offered my oil and incense before them. ¹⁹Also the food I provided for you—the fine flour, olive oil and honey I gave you to eat—you offered as fragrant incense before them. That is what happened, declares the Sovereign LORD.^†

²⁰“ ‘And you took your sons and daughters^† whom you bore to me^† and sacrificed them as food to the idols. Was your prostitution not enough?^{† 21}You slaughtered my children and sacrificed them^[31] to the idols.^{† 22}In all your detestable practices and your prostitution you did not remember the days of your youth,^† when you were naked and bare, kicking about in your blood.^†

²³“ ‘Woe! Woe to you, declares the Sovereign LORD. In addition to all your other wickedness, ²⁴you built a mound for yourself and made a lofty shrine^† in every public square.^{† 25}At the head of every street you built your lofty shrines and degraded your beauty, offering your body with increasing promiscuity to anyone who passed by.^{† 26}You engaged in prostitution with the Egyptians, your lustful neighbors, and provoked^† me to anger with your increasing promiscuity.^{† 27}So I stretched out my hand^† against you and reduced your territory; I gave you over to the greed of your enemies, the daughters of the Philistines,^† who were shocked by your lewd conduct. ²⁸You engaged in prostitution with the Assyrians^† too, because you were insatiable; and even after that, you still were not satisfied. ²⁹Then you increased your promiscuity to include Babylonia,^{[32] †} a land of merchants, but even with this you were not satisfied.

³⁰“ ‘How weak-willed you are, declares the Sovereign LORD, when you do all these things, acting like a brazen prostitute!^{† 31}When you built your mounds at the head of every street and made your lofty shrines^† in every public square, you were unlike a prostitute, because you scorned payment.

³²“ ‘You adulterous wife! You prefer strangers to your own husband! ³³Every prostitute receives a fee, but you give gifts^† to all your lovers, bribing them to come to you from everywhere for your illicit favors.^{† 34}So in your prostitution you are the opposite of others; no one runs after you for your favors. You are the very opposite, for you give payment and none is given to you.

³⁵“ ‘Therefore, you prostitute, hear the word of the LORD! ³⁶This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because you poured out your wealth^[33] and exposed your nakedness in your promiscuity with your lovers, and because of all your detestable idols, and because you gave them your children’s blood,^{† 37}therefore I am going to gather all your lovers, with whom you found pleasure, those you loved as well as those you hated. I will gather them against you from all around and will strip you in front of them, and they will see all your nakedness.^{† 38}I will sentence you to the punishment of women who commit adultery and who shed blood;^† I will bring upon you the blood vengeance of my wrath and jealous anger.^{† 39}Then I will hand you over to your lovers, and they will tear down your mounds and destroy your lofty shrines. They will strip you of your clothes and take your fine jewelry and leave you naked and bare.^{† 40}They will bring a mob against you, who will stone^† you and hack you to pieces with their swords. ⁴¹They will burn down^† your houses and inflict punishment on you in the sight of many women.^† I will put a stop^† to your prostitution, and you will no longer pay your lovers. ⁴²Then my wrath against you will subside and my jealous anger will turn away from you; I will be calm and no longer angry.^†