29:2 The “queen mother” (Nehushta), as well as the officials, craftsmen and artisans, were deported (see the note on 24:1; see also “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East”).
29:3 Jeremiah’s letter was placed in the ancient equivalent of a diplomatic pouch to ensure its safe arrival.
Gemariah was a common name in Jeremiah’s time (see, e.g., 36:10). It has been found on one of the Lachish ostraca (see “The Lachish Ostraca”), as well as in at least two of the Elephantine papyri (see the note on 32:10–11; see also “The Elephantine Community”). Gemariah’s father, Hilkiah, may have been the same Hilkiah who was high priest under Josiah. (see “Gemariah, the Official, and Jerahmeel, the King’s Son.”)
29:7 Seeking and praying for the prosperity of one’s captors was an unprecedented and unique concept in the ancient world.
29:22 The Babylonians used fire as a method of execution (see Da 3:6, 24). This is attested in sections 25, 110 and 157 of the Code of Hammurabi (an ancient Babylonian law code; see “Hammurabi”).
29:24 Shemaiah was a false prophet (see v. 31).
29:25 This Zephaniah was not the prophet of that name (see the note on 21:1).
29:26 This Jehoiada was not the priest during the days of King Joash (see 2Ki 12:7).
29:27 For “Anathoth,” see the note on 1:1.
30:1–33:26 Chapters 30–33 are often called Jeremiah’s “book of consolation.” The entire section can be dated to 587 B.C., the year before Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar and its people exiled to Babylon.
30:2 For information on writing materials and literacy in ancient Israel, see the note on Exodus 17:14; see also “Sumerian Scribal Education”, “The Scribe” and “Writing Materials in the Ancient World.”
30:3 The northern kingdom of Israel was exiled in 722 B.C., and the southern kingdom of Judah would meet the same fate in 586 B.C.
30:8 For “yoke,” see the note on 27:2.
30:9 “David their king” refers to the Messiah (see the note on 23:5). The Targum (ancient Aramaic paraphrase) here reads “Messiah, the son of David, their king.”
30:14 For “allies,” see the note on 22:20.
30:18 The Hebrew for “ruins” is tel(l), referring to a mound resulting from the accumulation of years or centuries of debris caused by a successive series of towns having been built on the same site (see “Glossary”).
30:20 The phrase “days of old” probably refers to the early days of the united kingdom, and especially to the reign of David.
30:21 Although the Targum renders “leader” and “ruler” as “Messiah” in this context, the terms probably refer in the first place to the rulers of Judah immediately following the exile. But Jesus Christ ultimately fulfilled the promise.
31:4 Tambourines were used on joyful occasions (see Ps 68:25; see also “Ancient Musical Instruments”), especially following a military victory. Dancing in ancient times was often a religious activity (see 2Sa 6:14; Ps 149:3 and its note; 150:4).
31:5 Sargon II conquered Samaria in 722/721 B.C. (see 2Ki 17:24), but the northern kingdom’s former capital would someday be resettled by God’s people.
31:6 Watchmen were stationed at the city gates (see Ne 11:19) and on the walls (see 2Sa 18:24–27; 2Ki 9:17–20; Isa 62:6) and also patrolled the streets at night (see SS 5:7). They were accountable to warn of danger, as well as to observe and report upon the appearance of the various phases of the moon in order to fix the times of the important feasts.
In ancient Israel a person always went “up” to Jerusalem (see, e.g., Ezr 1:3; 7:7; Isa 2:3; Jn 2:13), not only because its elevation was above the surrounding countryside but also because it was the royal city and the center of the nation’s religious life.
31:15 Ramah was located about five miles (eight km) north of Jerusalem. The people of Jerusalem passed through Ramah on their way to exile in Babylonia.
Rachel, the grandmother of Ephraim and Manasseh (see Ge 30:22–24; 48:1–2), the two most powerful tribes in the northern kingdom, is here a personification of the northern kingdom (sometimes called “Ephraim”). See “Rachel’s Tomb.”
31:19 Beating one’s breast was an expression of grief and mourning. Similar expressions are found in other ancient literature, such as the Babylonian Descent of Ishtar (see “The Descent of Ishtar”) and Homer’s Iliad (15.397–398; 16.125) and Odyssey (13.198–199). See also “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”
31:21 “Road signs” were tombstone-shaped markers (see 2Ki 23:17; Eze 39:15).
31:23 For “sacred mountain,” see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God.”
31:29 This saying was apparently a popular proverb that had originated in a misunderstanding of such passages as Exodus 20:5 and Numbers 14:18, which teach that sins can have a negative effect upon an individual’s descendants. In Jeremiah’s time many people assumed that God’s judgment against them was due not to their own sins but to those of their ancestors.
31:31 This verse contains the only Old Testament use of the phrase “new covenant,” which (together with its use in the NT) has come down to us (via Latin) as “new testament,” the name that was later applied to the distinctively Christian part of the Biblical canon.
31:32 The “covenant [God] made with their forefathers” was the covenant at Sinai, which eventually became known as the “old covenant” (2Co 3:14) or “first covenant” (Heb 8:7; 9:15, 18).
31:38 The Tower of Hananel and the Corner Gate were at the eastern and western ends of the northern wall, respectively.
31:39 Gareb and Goah were probably west of Jerusalem.
31:40 The “valley” most likely refers to the Hinnom Valley (see the note on 2:23).
The Horse Gate was probably at the easternmost point in the city wall—a gate through which one could reach the Kidron Valley.
32:1 The date was 587 B.C., the year before Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians. The siege began in 588.
32:2 King Zedekiah had imprisoned Jeremiah in the courtyard of the guard, where the prophet remained until Jerusalem fell.
32:5 Zedekiah was taken to Babylon, where he eventually died (see 52:11).
32:7 In the Old Testament the word “uncle” is used to denote any kinsman on the father’s side (cf. Lev 10:4).
For “Anathoth,” see the note on 1:1.
32:8 Hanamel’s request for Jeremiah to buy the land was in accordance with the ancient law of redemption (see Lev 25:23–25; see also the note on Ru 4:1–3 and “The Kinsman-Redeemer”).
32:9 The shekel was the most common unit of weight in ancient times. Coinage was not yet commonly used in Judah.
32:10–11 The deed was sealed to guarantee its content and to prevent tampering. An unsealed copy was also available for ready reference, the authenticity of which could be guaranteed by the sealed copy if the unsealed copy should be lost, damaged or changed (deliberately or otherwise). Examples of tied and sealed papyri have been found at Elephantine in southern Egypt (see “The Elephantine Community” and “Scrolls, Seals and Codices”).
32:12 See “Baruch, Scribe of Jeremiah.”
32:14 Documents discovered in clay jars at Elephantine and Qumran (west of the Dead Sea) were preserved almost intact for more than 2,000 years (see “The Elephantine Community”, “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis” and “Qumran and the New Testament”).
32:15 Jeremiah’s deed of purchase would have enabled him (or his heirs) to reclaim the field when normal economic conditions resumed after the exile.
32:35 For “Molech,” see “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East.”
32:44 For “the Negev,” see “The Negev: Its Climate and Features.”
33:1–26 This section is not found in the Septuagint. See “The Septuagint and the Masoretic Text” and “The Problem of the Septuagint Version of Jeremiah.”
33:4 The houses were torn down so that their stones could be used to rebuild the city’s walls. For “siege ramps,” see “Siege Warfare.”
34:1 Nebuchadnezzar’s empire was vast (see “Nebuchadnezzar”). As was common in ancient times, the nations subject to him were expected to supply troops to fight alongside him as their overlord. In a fourteenth-century B.C. treaty between the Hittite ruler Mursilis II and Duppi-Tessub, king of the Amorites, Mursilis stated, “If you do not send your son or brother with your foot soldiers and charioteers to help the Hittite king, you act in disregard of the gods of the oath.”
34:5 The “funeral fire” was a memorial fire in honor of the deceased (see 2Ch 16:14; 21:19). This is not a reference to cremation, which, though practiced, was reserved primarily for serious offenders (Lev 20:14; 21:9; Jos 7:15, 25).
34:9 “Jew” is a shortened form of “Judahite” (an inhabitant of the kingdom of Judah, where a remnant of the Israelites was still living). Strictly speaking, the term “Jew” is properly applied only to the Old Testament people of God and their descendants from the time of the Babylonian exile forward.
34:11 When the Babylonian siege was temporaily lifted due to Egyptian intervention, the people of Judah reclaimed the slaves they had freed (in violation of Dt 15:12).
34:18 See “The Hittite Ritual of Passing Between the Pieces of a Sacrifice.”
35:1–19 Chapters 35–36 are a flashback to the reign of Jehoiakim. The mention of “Babylonian and Aramean armies” (v. 11) dates chapter 35 to no earlier than the eighth year of King Jehoiakim, who began his reign in 609 B.C. His capital city of Jerusalem was besieged in 605 by Nebuchadnezzar, against whom he rebelled three or four years later—an unwise act that led to raids on his territory by Babylonians, Arameans and others.
35:2 The Recabites were related to Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro the Kenite (Ex 3:1; Jdg 1:16; 1Ch 2:55; see also “The Kenites”). Though not ethnic Jews, this nomadic tribe lived among or near the Israelites and zealously attempted to be faithful to the Lord. They got their name from their forefather Recab, whose son Jonadab (or Jehonadab) had helped to remove Baal worship temporarily from Israel 250 years earlier (2Ki 10:15–28). The Recabites from one generation to the next took a permanent vow not to drink wine and obeyed Jonadab’s other instructions, including living in tents rather than in houses and towns—until the Babylonian invasion forced them to take refuge in Jerusalem. Their faithfulness to their community’s values contrasted starkly with the lack of integrity in Judah as a whole, and particularly in Jerusalem, regarding the people’s covenant with God.
The question has been raised whether the Recabites were included within the Nazirite classification (Nazirites, such as Samson and John the Baptist, were Israelites who consecrated themselves, taking a vow of separation and self-imposed abstinence for the purpose of some special service). It appears, however, that the Recabites had more the status of a Hebrew nomadic group, since they were not merely forbidden to drink wine but were also required to refrain from owning real estate, opting instead to live in tents (see vv. 7, 10).
The side rooms of the temple were used for storage and/or as living quarters.
35:3 Jaazaniah was a common name in Jeremiah’s time; it appears on a stamp seal discovered at Tell en-Nasbeh north of Jerusalem dating to about 600 B.C. (see “The Seals of Jaazaniah, Ishmael and Elishama”), as well as on one of the Lachish ostraca (see “The Lachish Ostraca”).
The Jeremiah mentioned here was not the prophet by that name.
35:4 Three doorkeepers (see 52:24) guarded the entrances to the temple (see 2Ki 12:9).
35:5 These “bowls” were large vessels, from which smaller cups would be filled.
35:19 Various traditions in the Jewish Mishnah (rabbinic interpretations and applications of Pentateuchal laws) claim that the Recabites were later given special duties to perform in connection with the Jerusalem temple built after the return from Babylonian exile.
36:2 For “scroll,” see the note on Exodus 17:14.
Although most workers in the simple culture of Old Testament times were what we today would call “unskilled,” there were certain exceptions. The potter (ch. 18) has left behind unnumbered examples of his skill. Some technology in the working of metals was known, and the remains of smelting furnaces have been discovered. Stone masons, scribes (36:2, 4; Eze 9:2), dyers, weavers and workers in precious stones and ivory carried on their work. But in general life was simple, work arduous, hours long and wages meager. By New Testament times the picture had changed, and the more complex civilization of the Roman world, with its skilled and more diversified occupations and better standards of living, had come to the Holy Land.
36:6 A day of fasting was often proclaimed during a national emergency. Perhaps in this case it was called due to the Babylonian attack.
36:8 If the book were arranged in chronological order, chapter 45 would appear after this verse.
36:9 The month and year were December 604 B.C.
36:10 Gemariah’s name has been found in Jerusalem on a seal impression. (See “Gemariah, the Official, and Jerahmeel, the King’s Son.”) For the “New Gate,” see the notes on 7:2 and 26:10.
36:12 For “Elnathan,” see the note on 26:22.
36:18 Ink is mentioned only here in the Old Testament (but see also 2Co 3:3; 2Jn 12; 3Jn 13). In ancient times ink was made from soot or lampblack mixed with gum arabic, oil or a metallic substance (see “Writing Materials in the Ancient World”).
36:22 The “winter apartment” (lit., “winter house”) was probably a large room in a king’s palace (see “Ramat Rahel”). In the highlands, as at Jerusalem, it became quite cold in winter (Ezr 10:9, 13), especially since the houses were inadequately heated.
In the region now known as Palestine stoves were usually made of clay. Some were small, portable fireplaces that burned charcoal, while others were built outside the house and heated with dry sticks, grass and even dung. The hearth or firepot mentioned in Jeremiah 36:22 was a bronze heater—a brazier that only the well-to-do could afford. For cooking, the stove was molded so as to hold the pot or pan above the fire bowl through which air passed from vents at the bottom. The fire by which Peter warmed himself during the trial of Jesus was probably in a brazier (Mk 14:67). See the note on hearths and home heating at Psalm 102:3.
36:23 The scroll, or roll, was the usual form of a book in Bible times. It had been used in Egypt from very early times, the earliest ones having been made of papyrus, the paper-like tissue taken from the reeds growing along the Nile. As the successive columns of Jeremiah’s scroll were read, the king cut them off and burned them. Since the burning of skins in an open fire pot would have produced an intolerably bad odor, we may surmise that this roll was made of papyrus imported from Egypt. Several sheets, glued together to the desired length, were rolled on rods so that the beginning of the scroll was on the right and the end on the left (the Hebrews wrote from right to left).
A “scribe’s knife” was used to sharpen reed pens. Knives in the ancient Near East were not used for eating. Meat was cut into small pieces before being served, and bread was broken at the table. The Philistines had metal knives long before they came into general use in Israel (see 1Sa 13:19, 22).
36:26 Jerahmeel’s name, along with his title, has been found on a seal impression discovered in a burnt archive near Jerusalem (see “Gemariah, the Official, and Jerahmeel, the King’s Son”). He is called a “son of the king.” However, since Jehoiakim was only about thirty years old (see 2Ki 23:36), the phrase is most likely not to be understood literally but may perhaps mean “member of the royal court” (cf. 1Ki 22:26; Jer 38:6; Zep 1:8).
36:30 Jehoiakim’s son Jehoiachin (see 2Ki 24:6) ruled for only three months and then was captured and carried off to exile in Babylonia, where he eventually died (see “Jehoiachin in Captivity and Evil-Merodach”).
36:32 Obviously this scroll (see “The Scribe”) was not our present book, which carries on the history for at least 20 more years. This account is of great interest in that it gives the only detailed Old Testament description of the writing of a prophetic book. That Jeremiah dictated to a secretary was normal for the times. Writing was a specialized skill, often restricted to a professional class. Learned men might have been able to read but scorned to write. The document was probably written on a blank papyrus scroll imported from Egypt.
Two seal impressions with the words “the scribe Baruch son of Neriah” have been found in the same burnt archive as that mentioned in the note on verse 26. See “Baruch, Scribe of Jeremiah.”
37:1 In 597 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar made Zedekiah king in place of Jehoiachin. This fulfilled the prophecy concerning Jehoiakim in 36:30 (see also the note there).
37:5 “Pharaoh’s army” refers to the troops of Hophra (see 44:30; see also “Hophra, King of Egypt”) that were probably sent in response to Zedekiah’s request for help as he attempted to defend Jerusalem from the Babylonian attack. Lachish Ostracon #3 (see “The Lachish Ostraca”) mentions a visit to Egypt made by the commander of Judah’s army.
37:7 Hophra would soon be defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (see “Hophra, King of Egypt”).
37:12 While there was a brief lull in the Babylonian invasion, Jeremiah wanted to settle matters of estate with the other members of his family.
37:13 As Jeremiah approached the Benjamin Gate (see the note on 38:7), he was accused of desertion. Such an accusation was understandable, since the prophet had recommended surrendering to the Babylonians (see 21:9; 38:2) and since many other Judahites were in fact defecting (see 38:19; 39:9; 52:15).
37:16 The “dungeon” was actually a cistern (see the note on 38:6).
37:21 “The courtyard of the guard” was a less objectionable prison than the dungeon (see the note on 38:1).
“The street of the bakers” may have been near the Tower of the Ovens, which was located on the northern end of the western wall.
38:1 For “Pashhur,” see the note on 20:1. For “Pashhur son of Malkijah,” see the note on 21:1.
Even though Jeremiah was confined in the courtyard of the guard (see 37:21), he was allowed to have visitors and to speak freely to them (see 32:8, 12).
38:4 The word “discouraging” is literally “weakening the hands of,” as in a similar expression found in Lachish Ostracon #6 (see “The Lachish Ostraca”): “The words of the officials are not good; they serve only to weaken our hands.”
38:6 A cistern was a pit with a relatively small opening at the top (see “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World”).
38:7 Since a city gateway was often used as a courtroom or town hall (see “The City Gate”), Zedekiah may have been there settling legal matters and so would have been in a position to help Ebed-Melech.
38:11 The “room under the treasury” may have been a wardrobe storeroom (see 2Ki 10:22).
38:17–18 “The officers of the king of Babylon” were the men in charge of the siege of Jerusalem (see 39:3, 13).
38:22 Women in a conquered king’s harem became the property of the conquerors.
39:1 The final Babylonian siege of Jerusalem began on January 15, 588 B.C.
39:2 The siege ended on July 18, 586 B.C. It had lasted for just over two and a half years (see “Siege Warfare” and “The Last Days of Jerusalem”).
39:3 The Middle Gate may have been located in the wall separating the citadel of Mount Zion from the lower city, therefore serving as a strategic vantage point for the invaders.
Nergal-Sharezer was probably Neriglissar, who later became a successor of Nebuchadnezzar as ruler of Babylonia (560–556 B.C.).
39:4 The Arabah includes the valley of the Jordan (from the Sea of Galilee to the southern end of the Dead Sea) and the valley extending down to the Gulf of Aqaba.
39:5 Riblah, Nebuchadnezzar’s headquarters, was a city north of Damascus on the Orontes River.
39:14 Gedaliah became the governor of Judah (see “Gedaliah, Governor of Judah, and Baalis, King of Ammon”) and resided in Mizpah (see “Mizpah”). An early sixth-century B.C. seal impression found at Lachish reads: “Belonging to Gedaliah, who is over the house.”
40:1 For “Ramah,” see the note on 31:15.
40:5 For “Gedaliah,” see the note on 39:14.
40:6 For “Mizpah,” see “Mizpah.”
40:8 For “Jaazaniah,” see “The Seals of Jaazaniah, Ishmael and Elishama.”
40:10 Nebuzaradan, the commander of the imperial guard, had arrived in Jerusalem in August of 586 B.C. (see “Nebuzaradan, Captain of the Guard”), at a time when the grapes, figs and olives were harvested (see “Food and Agriculture”).
40:14 Three royal inscriptions have been found that may relate to “Baalis king of the Ammonites”: (1) “King Ba‘lay,” as his name is written on an early sixth-century B.C. bottle discovered in Jordan; (2) “Ba‘alYasha,” an Ammonite king whose name appears on a stamp seal found at Tell el ‘Umeiri in Jordan in 1984; and (3) “Baalis king of [the Ammonites],” as his name reads on an Ammonite stamp seal that came to light in 1998.
For “Ammonites,” see “Ammon.”
41:1 Ishmael’s loyalty to Zedekiah might explain his assassination of Gedaliah, whom he considered to be a Babylonian puppet ruler (see “The Seals of Jaazaniah, Ishmael and Elishama”).
Hospitality was one of the most highly regarded virtues of the ancient world. Ancient custom with respect to hospitality normally meant that a host tried to protect a guest from harm. Gedaliah likely assumed that his guests in turn would not harm him, much less kill him.
41:5 Shaving off one’s beard, tearing one’s clothing and cutting oneself were all signs of mourning (see 16:6 and its note; see also “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation” and “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World”). In this context the mourning was probably over the destruction of Jerusalem.
Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria had been worship centers in the north (see “Shechem”, “The Tabernacle at Shiloh” and “The Destruction of Shiloh”). After the northern kingdom was destroyed in 722/721 B.C., many Israelites made periodic pilgrimages to Jerusalem.
They were bringing bloodless offerings, since the altar of the Jerusalem temple had been destroyed. Even though the temple itself was in ruins, the site was still considered holy.
41:6 Gedaliah had made his residence in Mizpah (see “Mizpah”).
41:7 For “cistern,” see “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World.”
41:9 Since cisterns were essential for storing water during times of siege, Asa had probably built these as part of the fortifications at Mizpah (see 1Ki 15:22). Archaeologists have discovered numerous cisterns in the ruins of ancient Mizpah (modern Tell en-Nasbeh), 7.5 miles (12 km) north of Jerusalem (see “Mizpah”).
41:10 The phrase “king’s daughters” refers here to women who had been members of King Zedekiah’s court; they were not necessarily daughters of the king himself.
For “Ammonites,” see “Ammon.”
41:12 See “Gibeon” and “The Pool of Gibeon.”
42:1 “Jezaniah son of Hoshaiah” may be the same as “Jaazaniah the son of the Maacathite” (see “The Seals of Jaazaniah, Ishmael and Elishama”). Apparently Jezaniah was also known as Azariah, as was King Uzziah.
43:2 For “Azariah,” see the note on 42:1.
43:3 See “Baruch, Scribe of Jeremiah.”
43:6 For “king’s daughters,” see the note on 41:10.
43:7 For “Tahpanhes,” see the note on 2:16.
43:9 “Pharaoh’s palace” is not necessarily a reference to his principal residence. One of the Elephantine papyri mentions the “king’s house,” apparently a more modest dwelling for the pharaoh’s use when he visited Elephantine in southern Egypt (see “The Elephantine Community”).
43:11 A fragmentary text now owned by the British Museum in London states that Nebuchadnezzar carried out a punitive expedition against Egypt in his thirty-seventh year (568–567 B.C.), during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis.
43:13 The “temple of the sun in Egypt” probably refers to the temple in the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (Greek for “city of the sun”), called On in Hebrew.
“Sacred pillars” refer to obelisks, for which ancient Heliopolis was famous.
44:1 Jews lived in Egypt as a result of previous deportations. For Lower and Upper Egypt, see the note on Isaiah 11:11. Migdol was probably in northern Egypt. For “Tahpanhes,” see the note on Jeremiah 2:16. For “Memphis,” see the note on Isaiah 19:13 and “Memphis.”
44:3 For “burning incense,” see the note on 19:13.
44:17 For “Queen of Heaven,” see the note on 7:18.
44:18 The people had stopped burning incense to the Queen of Heaven (as a result of King Josiah’s reform movement, which had begun in 621 B.C.). But beginning with Josiah’s death in 609 a series of disasters, including invasion and exile, had struck Judah. The people understandably (though mistakenly) attributed their misfortune to their failure to worship the Queen of Heaven.
44:19 Since Ishtar (the “Queen of Heaven”; see the note on 7:18) was a Babylonian goddess of fertility, women were particularly involved in her worship.
44:30 Hophra was pharaoh from 589 to 570 B.C. (see the note on 37:5; see also “Hophra, King of Egypt”).
45:1 The date was 605 B.C. Chapter 45 fits chronologically between 36:8 and 36:9 (see the note on 36:8).
See “Baruch, Scribe of Jeremiah.” For “scroll,” see the notes on Exodus 17:14 and Jeremiah 36:23.
46:2 Neco ruled Egypt from 610 until 595 B.C. In 605 he was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish (see “Josiah, Zechariah and Neco II”). Egypt’s defeat by Babylonia at Carchemish was decisive, ending Egypt’s ancient claims and pretensions to power in Syro-Palestine.
46:4 Egypt was the primary source of fine horses during this time period (see 1Ki 10:28).
46:9 Cush (see “Cush”) is Nubia, or modern Sudan. Located south of Egypt, this territory was also known as Ethiopia (not to be confused with modern Ethiopia, which is located farther to the southeast). Put is either Libya or the land the ancient Egyptians called Punt (modern Somalia). Lydia is either a region in west-central Asia Minor or in Africa. Men from Cush, Put and Lydia served as mercenaries in the Egyptian army.
46:11 For “Gilead” and its healing “balm,” see the note on 8:22. Egypt was renowned for its expertise in the healing arts, so this statement is ironic.
46:13 This occurred in 568/567 B.C., long after the battle of Carchemish (see the note on v. 2).
46:14 For Migdol, Tahpanhes and Memphis, see the note on 44:1.
46:15 The Hebrew for “be laid low” is translated “Apis has fled” in the Septuagint. Apis was a bull god worshiped in Egypt, especially at Memphis (see the note on 44:1).
46:17 After the battle of Carchemish (see v. 2), Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylonia upon learning of his father’s death. Egypt failed to press its advantage at that time.
46:18 Tabor and Carmel are two prominent mountains in Israel.
46:20 The use of the word “heifer” may be an ironic reference to Egyptian bull worship (see the note on v. 15).
46:22 Throughout much of Egypt’s history the pharaoh wore a cobra cast in metal on the front of his headdress as a symbol of his sovereignty.
46:25 Amon was the chief god of Egypt during much of its history. Wicked King Manasseh may have named his son after this Egyptian deity (see 2Ki 21:18).
Thebes was the capital of Upper (southern) Egypt. (see “Thebes.”)
47:1 The Philistines, neighbors and often enemies of Judah since the days of Israel’s judges, lived along the Mediterranean coast. Two Philistine cities are named in this chapter: Gaza (vv. 1, 5) and Ashkelon (vv. 5, 7). For more information on the Philistines, see “The Archaeology of Philistia” and “Technological Supremacy of the Philistines’ Iron Weapons.”
47:2 “The land” refers to Phoenicia (see “Phoenicia”) and Philistia (see “The Archaeology of Philistia”). “The towns” include Tyre and Sidon (see v. 4), as well as Gaza, Ashkelon and other Philistine cities.
47:4 See “The Downfall of Tyre.” For “Sidon,” see “Sidon.” Caphtor is most likely Crete, one of many islands in the Mediterranean believed to have been the original homeland of the Philistines. See also the note on Zephaniah 2:5.
47:5 The “plain” is roughly equivalent to the modern Gaza Strip; it lay west of the foothills that separated Philistia from Judah.
Shaving one’s head and cutting oneself were signs of mourning (see the note on 41:5).
47:7 The immediate fulfillment of this prophecy took place under Nebuchadnezzar in 604 B.C.
48:1 Josephus (Antiquities, 10.9.7) implied that Jeremiah’s prophecy concerning the future destruction of Moab was fulfilled in the “twenty-third year of Nebuchadnezzar’s reign” (582 B.C.). For information on Moab, see “Moab.”
Nebo was a town north of the Arnon River that had originally been allotted to the tribe of Reuben. Kiriathaim was an ancient town also allotted to Reuben. Nebo, Kiriathaim and several other towns referred to in this chapter are mentioned in an important Moabite inscription written by Mesha, king of Moab (see 2Ki 3:4), and discovered in 1868 in Dhiban, Jordan. See “The Mesha (Moabite) Stone.”
48:2 Heshbon, situated approximately 18 miles (29 km) east of the northern tip of the Dead Sea, was King Sihon’s capital before Israel captured the city. Heshbon was originally allotted to Reuben but was later reassigned to Gad as a Levitical town (see “Levitical Towns”).
48:7 Chemosh was the national god of Moab (see 1Ki 11:7, 33; 2Ki 23:13). Images of pagan deities were often carried about from place to place (see Jer 43:12; Am 5:26).
48:8 The “destroyer” probably refers here to Nebuchadnezzar (see the note on 4:7).
48:9 Salt was scattered over the land to render the soil unproductive and barren.
48:11 A copy of the Hebrew text of this verse has been found inscribed on a large clay seal dating to the early Christian era and apparently used for stamping the bitumen with which the mouths of wine jars were sealed.
Wine was an apt figure for Moab, since this nation was noted for her vineyards. The best wine was aged while being “left on its dregs,” a reference to thickening and congealing at the bottom of a container. The implication is that the people were complacent, indifferent and unmoved by prophetic warnings—like thick, syrupy wine.
48:13 “The house of Israel” refers to the northern kingdom, which was destroyed and exiled in 722/721 B.C.
Bethel may refer to the well-known town where one of Jeroboam’s golden calves was placed (see 1Ki 12:25–33; see also “Bethel” and “The High Place at Dan”). Alternatively, in parallelism with Chemosh, it may refer to the western Semitic deity known from contemporary Babylonian inscriptions as well as from the Elephantine papyri a century later.
48:17 Scepters and staffs were symbols of authority and dominion.
48:18 Dibon was a city east of the Dead Sea and about 4 miles (6.5 km) north of the Arnon River. In was an important (apparently at one time royal) Moabite town. Dibon has been identified as modern Dhiban, Jordan, where the famous Moabite Stone of King Mesha was discovered in 1868. See “The Mesha (Moabite) Stone.”
48:20 The Arnon, Moab’s most important river, served as the border between Moab and the region of the Amorites. It flows west into the midpoint of the Dead Sea.
48:22 For “Dibon,” see the note on verse 18 and for “Nebo” the note on verse 1. “Beth Diblathaim” may be the same as, or may have been near, Almon Diblathaim (see Nu 33:46).
48:23 For “Kiriathaim,” see the note on verse 1. Beth Gamul may be modern Khirbet Jumeil, five miles (eight km) east of Aroer. “Beth Meon” is the same as Baal Meon (see Nu 32:38) and Beth Baal Meon (see Jos 13:17).
48:24 Kerioth was probably a major (although otherwise unidentified) city with a shrine of Chemosh, the national god of Moab.
This Bozrah is not the same as the Bozrah in Edom (see 49:13, 22) but is another name for Bezer in Moab, which was located about 20 miles (32 km) east of the northeast corner of the Dead Sea.
48:29 Moab’s pride had long since become proverbial (see Isa 25:10–11; Zep 2:8–10).
48:31 Kir Hareseth, the original capital of Moab, is usually identified with present-day Kerak, located about 11 miles (18 km) east of the Dead Sea and 15 miles (24 km) south of the Arnon River.
48:32 For information on Jazer and Sibmah, see the note on Isaiah 16:8. For “destroyer,” see the note on verse 48:8.
48:36 Flutes were played by mourners at funerals (see “Ancient Musical Instruments”).
48:37 These were signs of mourning (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
48:40 The eagle was Nebuchadnezzar.
48:45 For “Heshbon,” see the note on verse 2. The town was apparently controlled by the Ammonites at this time (see 49:3). Sihon was the king who ruled Heshbon at the time of the conquest (see Nu 21:27; see also “The Kingdoms of Sihon and Og”). The idea seems to have been that a new Sihon ruled over Heshbon and that he, too, would see his city go down in flames.
48:46 For “Chemosh,” see the note on verse 7.
49:1 Ammon (see “Ammon”) was located north of Moab and east of the Jordan River. The chief god of the Ammonites was Molech, also known as Milcom, the god to whom child sacrifices were tragically offered in Judah (32:35; cf. Lev 20:2–5; 2Ki 23:10).
This verse probably refers to the time after Tiglath-Pileser III’s conquest of Transjordan (734–732 B.C.), when the Ammonites evidently recovered from their defeat and overran some of the territory owned by the Israelite tribe of Gad.
49:2 Rabbah (Philadelphia in NT times) was the capital of Ammon (see “Rabbah” and “Ammon”). Its remains form part of the impressive citadel at the heart of modern Amman, Jordan.
For “mound of ruins,” see the note on 30:18.
49:3 For “Heshbon,” see the note on 48:2 and for “Molech” the note on verse 1.
49:4 “Unfaithful daughter” is a personification of the Ammonites. According to Josephus (Antiquities, 10.9.7) Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Ammon in 582 B.C.
49:7 Edom was located in a remote region south of Moab and the Dead Sea (see “Edom”). Edom and Teman, an important Edomite town, were both noted for their wisdom.
49:8 Dedan was both a tribe and a region located in southern Edom (see the note on Isa 21:13–17).
Esau (the brother of the patriarch Jacob) was another name for Edom, just as Israel was another name for Jacob. The fact that Esau (the forefather of the Edomites) was Jacob’s brother made Edom’s enmity toward Israel all the more reprehensible (see Am 1:11; Ob 10).
49:13 This Bozrah is not the Bozrah of 48:24 (see the note there). The Edomite Bozrah was probably the capital of Edom in the days of Jeremiah.
49:16 “Rocks” may be a reference to Petra (“rock” in Greek), the most spectacular of the mountain strongholds for which Edom was noted.
49:18 Calamities of various kinds were often compared with the one that had befallen Sodom and Gomorrah (see “The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah”).
49:19 For “shepherd,” see the note on 3:15.
49:20 For “Teman,” see the note on verse 7.
“Flock” refers to the people of Edom.
49:22 The eagle probably represents Nebuchadnezzar, as in 48:40. A more complete subjugation of the Edomites, however, was accomplished by the Nabatean Arabs (perhaps the “desert jackals” of Mal 1:3) beginning about 550 B.C.
For “Bozrah,” see the note on verse 13.
49:23 For “Damascus”, see the note on Isaiah 17:1. Hamath was an important city on the Orontes River in the kingdom of Aram, and Arpad was a city near Hamath.
49:27 Hadad was a well-known Aramean deity, and the name Ben-Hadad designated a king as the adopted “son” (ben means “son”) of this god. Comparable to the term pharaoh in Egypt, several kings from Damascus used this title/name (see, e.g., 2Ki 6:24).
49:28 Kedar, a region in northern Arabia, to the east of Judah, was known for its flocks (60:7; Eze 27:21), tents and tent curtains, which were woven by hand from black goat hair.
Hazor is something of a mystery, since no location by that name is known in northern Arabia. It is not the city north of the Sea of Galilee frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. The “kingdoms of Hazor” may have included Dedan, Tema, Buz and other Arab regions (see the note on 25:23).
Both Kedar and Hazor likely refer to groups of Arab tribesmen who were attacked by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar in 599 B.C. For more than two millennia a mysterious “time warp” has kept nomadic Arab herders from the encroachment (good or bad) of modern civilization. While Kedar and Hazor may no longer exist, many places like them still dot the desert regions of the Middle East and northern Africa.
49:31 A nation that had “neither gates nor bars” refers to one whose people lived in unwalled villages.
49:34 Elam was located in the southern part of modern Iran. The Elamites, perpetual enemies of both Assyria and Babylon, became part of the Persian army that conquered Babylon under Cyrus in 539 B.C.
49:35 The Elamites were skilled archers.
50:2 This prophecy regarding Babylon was fulfilled in 539 B.C. (see “Babylon.”)
For “Bel,” see the note on Isaiah 46:1. The chief god of Babylon, as well as his images and idols, was doomed.
50:3 In Jeremiah, the foe from the north is almost always Babylon. Here, however, the reference is probably to Persia.
50:6 For “shepherds,” see the note on 3:15.
The phrase “mountain and hill” refers to sites where pagan gods were worshiped (see “The High Places”).
50:17 Lions symbolized both Assyria and Babylon (see the note on 4:7). The Assyrians destroyed Israel (the northern kingdom) “first” (722/721 B.C.), and the Babylonians sacked Judah (the southern kingdom) “last” (586 B.C.).
50:18 Nineveh, the proud Assyrian capital, fell in 612 B.C., and Assyria herself was conquered by a coalition of Medes and Babylonians in 609.
50:19 Carmel, Bashan, Ephraim and Gilead were all known for their lush pasturelands.
50:21 Merathaim is probably a pun on the Babylonian word marratu, which sometimes referred to a region in southern Babylonia that was characterized by briny waters. Pekod is a pun on Puqudu, the Babylonian name for an Aramean tribe living on the eastern bank of the lower Tigris River.
For “completely destroy,” see the NIV text note. The Hebrew for this expression usually denotes the ruin of everyone and everything that could possibly be destroyed. Objects like gold, silver and bronze, not subject to such damage, were stored in a secure place as God’s possession. The annihilation of people and things rendered them useless to the conquerors but put them in the hands of God, so the phrase is sometimes translated “destroyed” and sometimes “devoted” (see “Herem, Holy War”).
50:24 The Persian attack in 539 B.C. would catch the city of Babylon completely by surprise (see “Herodotus and the Fall of Babylon”).
50:26 For “completely destroy,” see the note on verse 21.
51:1 For “destroyer,” see the note on 4:7; here it includes the “kings of the Medes” (51:11).
Leb Kamai is a cryptogram (see the note on 25:26) for Chaldea (Babylonia).
51:3 For “completely destroy,” see the note on 50:21.
51:8 Balm was an odoriferous resin perhaps obtained in Gilead (Ge 37:25; Jer 8:22; 46:11) and exported from the region now known as Palestine. It was used as an ointment for healing wounds. Balm came from a small tree not found today in Gilead.
51:13 The “many waters” (the rivers) of Babylon, including the mighty Euphrates and a magnificent system of irrigation canals, were proverbial.
51:27 The name Ararat is related to the Assyrian Urartu, which became an extensive and mountainous kingdom, including much of the territory north of Mesopotamia and east of modern Turkey. Minni, a region mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions, was located somewhere in Armenia. Ashkenaz refers to the homeland of the later Scythians, located in the upper Euphrates region.
51:32 “River crossings” probably refers to fords and ferries (and perhaps bridges).
The marshes were set on fire to destroy the reeds in order to prevent fugitives from hiding among them.
51:36 See the note on verse 13.
51:44 For “Bel,” see the note on Isaiah 46:1–13.
Babylon was renowned for its secure walls (see “Babylon”).
51:51 Nebuchadnezzar defiled the Jerusalem temple in 586 B.C. The same kind of sacrilege would occur under Antiochus Epiphanes in 168 B.C. and again under the Romans in A.D. 70.
51:56 The “destroyer” here refers to Persia (see the note on 4:7).
51:58 Babylon was famous for its walls (see the note on v. 44), as well as for the Ishtar Gate, which was almost 40 feet (12 m) high.
51:59 As “the staff officer” (lit., “resting-place officer”), Seraiah was responsible for determining when and where his men on the march were to spend the night. An ancient seal bearing the inscription “Belonging to Seraiah son of Neriah” no doubt refers to the man mentioned here (see “Seraiah the Quartermaster”), who was also a brother of Jeremiah’s secretary, Baruch (see “Baruch, Scribe of Jeremiah”). This event likely occurred in 593 B.C., when Nebuchadnezzar summoned Zedekiah to Babylon to be interrogated (see the note on 27:3).
51:60 For “scroll,” see the notes on Exodus 17:14 and Jeremiah 36:23.
52:1 Jeremiah 52, an appendix to the book, was written by someone other than the prophet Jeremiah—perhaps Baruch (see “Baruch, Scribe of Jeremiah”). This chapter closely parallels the conclusion of 2 Kings. Rather than one copying the other, however, it is likely that the two relied upon the same sources.
Note that the Jeremiah mentioned in this verse is not the prophet Jeremiah.
52:12 The “tenth day” reads “seventh day” in the parallel account in 2 Kings 25:8. One of the numbers is a copyist’s error, but scholars cannot determine which (see “Textual Criticism”).
For Nebuzaradan, see “Nebuzaradan, Captain of the Guard.”
52:28–30 These verses record three deportations during Nebuchadnezzar’s reign: (1) those taken in 597 B.C. (this number probably included only adult males, since the figures in 2Ki 24 are significantly higher); (2) those deported, rather than killed, when Jerusalem fell in 586 B.C.; and (3) those exiled in 581 B.C.—perhaps as punishment for Gedaliah’s assassination (Jer 41:1–3). For information on deportation, see “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East.”
52:31–34 Evil-Merodach released Jehoiachin, king of Judah, from his 37-year Babylonian imprisonment and gave him a position of prominence among the captive kings, as well as a daily allowance of food for the rest of his life (2Ki 25:27–30; Jer 52:31–34)—but did not permit him to return to Judah (see “Jehoiachin in Captivity and Evil-Merodach”). Cuneiform tablets recovered from Babylon and assigned a date during Nebuchadnezzar’s reign refer to provisions supplied to Jehoiachin and to other royal prisoners. The latest of these tablets is at least eight years older than the date of Jehoiachin’s release, referred to in Scripture. Evil-Merodach may have increased the king’s allowance from the small amount mentioned in these tablets.
52:31 The “twenty-fifth day” reads “twenty-seventh day” in the parallel account in 2 Kings 25:27 (see “Early Scribal Emendation”).
Title This book, titled in many English versions The Lamentations of Jeremiah, is placed between Jeremiah and Ezekiel in the Septuagint, the Vulgate and the English Bible (see Glossary for definitions of the Septuagint and the Vulgate). In the Hebrew text, however, it appears in the Sacred Writings as the third of the Megilloth or “five scrolls.” Its Hebrew title, êkhâh (“Oh, how[!]”), is derived from the word with which the book begins. The Talmud renamed the work Qinoth (“Lamentations” or “elegies”) as a more accurate designation of its content. This approach was adopted in the Septuagint title Thrçnoi (“Elegies”) and the Threni (“Lamentations”) of the Latin versions.
1:1–5:22 Lamentations is comprised of five poems, each lamenting the desolation that had overtaken Jerusalem in 586 B.C. The first four compositions are highly artificial in structure, consisting of acrostics based on the Hebrew alphabet (see the introduction to this book; see also “Acrostics and Other Techniques of Ancient Poetry”). Each verse of chapters 1 and 2 begins with a word whose initial consonant is successively one of the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Slight variations of the regular order occur in 2:16–17, 3:47–48 and 4:16–17. In the third chapter a triple alphabetical arrangement is followed, so that all three lines in each stanza begin with the same letter. The fifth chapter is not an acrostic, although like the others it contains 22 stanzas, and it is a prayer rather than an elegy. Alphabetical forms of this kind probably served as a useful stimulus to memory at a time when manuscripts were rare and costly.
Some writers have regarded the mechanical structure of most of the book as incompatible with the grief and sincere penitence of the writer. These two ideas need not be inconsistent, however, particularly if the book was composed with a view to consistent liturgical usage. Judging from the manner in which this work has survived among the Jews, it seems well possible that this was the author’s intention.
1:1 It was common in the Old Testament for cities to be portrayed as women.
1:2 “Lovers” and “friends” refer to the international allies to whom the people of Jerusalem and Judah looked for security (see the note on Jer 22:20). All of them, like Edom (see “Edom”) and Ammon (see “Ammon”), had betrayed the Judahites.
1:3 The people of Judah had been deported to Babylonia (see the note on Jer 52:28–30; see also “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East”).
1:4 For information regarding Israel’s seven annual feasts, see “The Festivals of Israel.” See also “The Jewish Calendar.”
1:6 “Daughter of Zion” is a personification of Jerusalem. See the note on 1:1, above.
1:8 “Unclean” refers here to the ceremonial uncleanness of a woman during her menstrual period (see Lev 12:2, 5; 15:19).
1:9 “Filthiness” refers not to a lack of physical cleanliness but to ceremonial uncleanness, here caused by willful sin.
1:10 While foreigners were not permitted to enter the temple (Dt 23:1–8; Jer 51:51; Eze 44:9), they were allowed to be a part of Israel (Eze 47:22). The later temple of the New Testament era featured a large outer court of the Gentiles that covered several acres, along with an inner court that was subdivided into the courts of the women, men (Israelites) and priests. A written warning at the entrance to the temple prohibited Gentiles from entering, upon pain of death (see “The Dividing Wall of the Court of the Gentiles in Herod’s Temple”).
1:11 Food shortages were an ever-present problem for the Judahites during and after the siege of Jerusalem See “Siege Warfare” and “The Last Days of Jerusalem.”
1:15 The winepress was a common metaphor of divine judgment (see “The Winepress”).
“Virgin Daughter of Judah” is a personification of Judah.
1:17 For “unclean thing,” see the note on verse 8.
1:19 For “allies,” see the note on verse 2.
1:20 The Sumerian Lamentation Over the Destruction of Ur contains a striking parallel: “Inside it we die of famine, outside we are killed by weapons” (lines 403–404).
2:1 “Daughter of Zion” is a personification of Jerusalem.
2:3 “Horn” here symbolizes strength.
2:7 See “Temple Abandonment.”
2:8 Ramparts were sloping, wall-like fortifications of earth or stone that were used as a protective barrier against invaders (see “Siege Warfare”).
2:9 There were no longer any priests (see v. 20) to teach and interpret the covenant law, and the Lord was no longer communicating through prophets.
2:10 For “elders” see the note on Jeremiah 19:1.
Sackcloth was the coarse garb of mourners (see the notes on 1Ki 20:31–32 and Job 16:15, as well as “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
2:13 “Daughter of Jerusalem” and “Virgin Daughter of Zion” in this verse both personify Jerusalem.
2:17 “Exalted the horn” means “increased the strength.”
2:19 The Hebrews divided the night into three watches: (1) sunset–10:00 P.M., (2) 10:00 P.M.–2:00 A.M. and (3) 2:00 A.M.–sunrise.
Lifting one’s hands was a common posture of prayer.
2:20 See the note on Jeremiah 19:9.
3:6 For commentary on the Old Testament view of the afterlife, see the note on Psalm 6:5; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell.”
3:10 See “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel.”
3:13 For “heart” (lit., “kidneys”), see the notes on Psalms 4:7 and 7:9.
3:16 See the note on stones and gravel at Isaiah 27:9.
3:29 To “bury his face in the dust” was to demonstrate humble submission to God.
3:34 To “crush underfoot” recalls the treatment by the Babylonians in 586 B.C.
4:1–22 This lament over the conquest of Jerusalem by the Babylonians was apparently written by someone who had experienced the long siege of the city and the subsequent deportation of its people. See “Siege Warfare”, “The Last Days of Jerusalem” and “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East.”
4:1 “Gold” and “gems” are metaphors for God’s chosen people (see “Precious Stones of the Biblical World”). For similar imagery, see Song of Songs 5:11–12, 14–15, and Zechariah 9:16.
4:5 Purple was the color of royalty.
Ashes were symbolic of mourning (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
4:6 For “Sodom,” see the note on Jeremiah 20:16. That ancient city was destroyed “in a moment,” sparing it the suffering of a lengthy siege (like that of Jerusalem).
4:7 For “rubies” and “sapphires,” see “Precious Stones of the Biblical World.”
4:10 The threat of starvation during the siege of Jerusalem had driven some mothers to cook and eat their own children. The writer underscored the pain and despair of his generation by noting how drawn-out and painful it is to starve, as opposed to dying by the sword.
4:15 “Unclean!” was the prescribed cry of the person with a much dreaded skin disease (see Lev 13:45; see also “Skin Diseaes in the Ancient World”).
4:17 Egypt was one of the nations to whom Judah had looked for help (see Eze 29:16; see also the notes on Jer 22:20; 27:3; 37:5).
4:20 “The LORD’s anointed” refers to King Zedekiah of the dynasty of David—under whom the people of Judah felt secure because of God’s covenant with David.
“Our very life breath” (lit., “the breath of our nostrils”) was a title used also of Pharaoh Rameses II in an inscription found at Abydos in Egypt.
4:21 “Daughter of Edom” is a personification of Edom (see “Edom”). Because of Edom’s close relationship with Israel from earliest times and its persistent hostility, Edom often served as a representative of all Israel’s enemies.
For “Uz,” see the note on Job 1:1.
5:1–22 The circumstances described suggest the time immediately after the fall of Jerusalem, when all was chaotic in the land.
5:2 “Our inheritance” refers to the land of Judah.
5:3 See “The Care of Widows and Orphans in the Bible and the Ancient Near East.”
5:6 By this time “Egypt and Assyria” (as a pair) was a conventional way of referring to the great world powers to which the Israelites had frequently turned for protective alliances (see the note on Jer 22:20).
5:8 “Slaves” is an ironic reference to the Babylonian officials who now ruled over Jerusalem.
5:9 The “sword in the desert” probably refers to marauding bandits.
5:12 To be “hung up” was an added indignity following execution.
5:14 The “city gate” was often used as the municipal court, as well as a place for conversation and entertainment (see “The City Gate”).
5:18 The Hebrew for “jackals” can also mean “foxes.”
5:22 A similarly somber ending characterizes not only other laments but also other Old Testament books (e.g., Isa and Mal).
1:1 The “thirtieth year” probably refers to Ezekiel’s age (see the NIV text note). According to Numbers 4:3, a person entered active priestly ministry in his thirtieth year. Denied the ministry of the priesthood, Ezekiel received another commission—that of prophet.
The Kebar River is usually identified as a canal of the Euphrates near the city of Nippur, south of Babylon, and possibly a place of prayer for the exiles (see Ps 137:1; cf. Ac 16:13). Ezekiel lived there with other Jewish exiles (Eze 1:3; 3:15), in contrast to Daniel, who carried out his quite different work in the Babylonian court.
The “captivity” of the Jews consisted in their deportation to a foreign land (see “Exile and Genocide in the Ancient Near East”). Once they had arrived in Babylon, however, the exiles seem to have been completely free to settle and live their lives as they pleased. Records have been found at Nippur of a Jewish business house, the Murashu Sons, indicating the possibilities open to the exiles. Many of the Jews became so settled in their adopted land that they declined to leave it at the end of the exile, and from that time to the present the majority of Hebrews have lived outside of Palestine.
1:2 Ezekiel was one of about 10,000 Jews who had been exiled to Babylon along with King Jehoiachin in 597 B.C. (2Ki 24:14–15). They joined those already exiled in 605 B.C. (cf. Da 1:1–2).
1:3 Ezekiel’s name occurs elsewhere in the book only in 24:24.
Ezekiel was a powerful preacher. Possessing a deeply introspective and religious nature, he used allegory, vivid figures and symbolic actions to reinforce his message. His favorite expression to denote divine inspiration, “the hand of the LORD was upon me” (3:22; cf. 3:14), demonstrates how strongly he felt impelled to communicate the message given to him. His preaching was directed to his Jewish compatriots in exile and, like Jeremiah’s, it was often resented, for it held out little hope for the immediate future. No doubt his message was ultimately received, however, for the exile became a time of religious purging. In Babylon the Jews were cured permanently of their idolatry, and Ezekiel, their major religious leader, must be given much credit for that.
1:4 In ancient times people identified their gods with observable, awe-inspiring natural phenomena, especially storms (see “Storm Gods, Storm Imagery and Theophany”). Baal, the Canaanite fertility and weather god, is pictured as standing on a bull, a popular symbol of fertility and strength. The storm cloud was Baal’s chariot, thunder his voice and lightning his spear and arrows (see the note on Ps 68:4; see also “Baal and the Fertility Cults”).
1:5 The “living creatures,” called cherubim in 10:15, were throne attendants (see Ex 25:18–20 and its note). They were often depicted in the paintings and sculptures of the Middle Ages.
1:10 The lion was the strongest and most ferocious of the wild animals known in Israel and Mesopotamia (see “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel”); the ox was the most powerful of domesticated animals and the eagle the mightiest of the birds.
1:16 The precise identification of chrysolite is uncertain. It appears also with regard to the priestly breastplate in Exodus 28:20 (see “Precious Stones of the Biblical World”).
1:26 See “Thrones in the Ancient World” and “Precious Stones of the Biblical World.”
1:28 In the Old Testament God’s glory is depicted as a substantial, even concrete Presence—the visible manifestation of his attendance among his people, often associated with the temple in Jerusalem (see 1Ki 8:11; Ps 26:8; 63:2; 96:6; 102:16).
2:9–10 Normally, ancient scrolls were written on one side only (see the note on Ex 17:14).
3:15 This is the only mention in the book of the specific place where the exiles were living (modern Tel Aviv).
Seven days was the traditional period of mourning (see Ge 50:10; 1Sa 31:13).
3:17 In ancient Israel watchmen were stationed at the city gates (see Ne 11:19) and on the city walls to serve as the eyes of the city (see 2Sa 18:24–27; 2Ki 9:17–20; SS 3:3; 5:7; Isa 52:8; 62:6), with a primary goal to warn of approaching danger (see Ps 127:1; Isa 21:6; 56:10; Jer 6:17; Eze 33:2–3; Hos 9:8). They also patrolled the streets at night (see SS 5:7).
4:1–3 This is the first of several symbolic acts performed by the prophet. After inscribing a likeness of the city of Jerusalem on a moist clay tablet, such as those commonly used in Babylonia (see the note on 4:1), Ezekiel was to place around it models of siege works to represent the city under attack (see “Siege Warfare”). He was then to place an iron pan (perhaps a baking griddle used for baking flat loaves of bread) between himself and the symbolized city to indicate the unbreakable strength of the siege.
4:1 Ancient writing was done with a stylus on blocks of soft clay, which varied in size according to need (see “Cuneiform and Clay Tablets in the Ancient Near East” and “Writing Materials in the Ancient World”). Ezekiel used such a tile in drawing a prophetic picture of the doom awaiting Jerusalem (NIV, “tablet”). When a permanent record was desired, the inscribed tile was baked in a furnace. So skilled were the scribes of the day that many of their tiles remain in perfect condition after 3,000 years.
4:9 These food items would have constituted a scant, vegetarian diet, representing the meager provisions of a besieged city. No Israelite meal was complete without bread. Sometimes honey and oil were mixed into the dough as it was being made in the kneading troughs or in wooden bowls. In times of poverty bread was made with beans, millet and spelt. Bread was usually eaten warm and seldom by itself; it was generally served with sour wine or meat gravy (Jn 13:26; 21:13).
4:12 See the note on Isaiah 9:5. When thoroughly dried, cow manure was commonly used in the Near East as a fuel for baking; it is still sometimes used in that way today. Ezekiel showed his sensitivity to things ceremonially unclean, and God graciously responded to the prophet’s objection by allowing this substitute for human excrement.
5:1 See “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”
5:10 Cannibalism, the most gruesome practice associated with life under siege (see 2Ki 6:28; see also “Siege Warfare”), was threatened as a consequence of breaking the covenant (Dt 28:53; see Jer 19:9 and its note; La 2:20; Zec 11:9 and its note).
5:17 These judgments—famine, disease (“plague”), sword (“bloodshed”; i.e., violent death at human hands) and wild beasts (see “Lions and Other Wild Beasts in Ancient Israel”)—were the four main causes of death among the peoples of the ancient Near East.
6:3 The “mountains of Israel” were the heavily cultivated central highlands, which also provided the principal sites for “high places” (see “The High Places”).
6:4 Incense altars, constructed of burnt clay and about 2 feet (61 cm) in height, were typically inscribed with animal figures and idols of Canaanite gods.
6:14 Diblah may be Beth Diblathaim (Jer 48:22), a city in Moab, or Riblah, a city north of Damascus on the Orontes River. In Ezekiel this was the northern limit of God’s judgments that were to fall on the Holy Land for the people’s odious idolatry.
7:15 See the note on 5:17 with regard to this threefold threat.
7:18 Sackcloth was the coarse garb of mourners (see the notes at 1Ki 20:31–32 and Job 16:15, as well as “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
7:19 Wooden idols were often plated with precious metals to make them more attractive (see Isa 2:20; 30:22; 40:19).
7:20 Jewelry was sometimes melted down to make idols (see Ex 32:2–4).
7:26 There would be no guidance from God through the prophets, no reading or teaching of the law by the priests and no direction from the elders (see the note on Jer 19:1).
7:27 “The people of the land” were the full citizens of Judah (those holding inherited family property and those subject to military service).
8:1–11:25 Ezekiel 8–11 contains a unique vision of events that were transpiring in Jerusalem, made possible when “the Spirit lifted [Ezekiel] up … and took [him] to Jerusalem” (8:3). Elsewhere in the book an intimate knowledge of events in faraway Jerusalem is implied (e.g., 24:1–2). It appears impossible that Ezekiel in Babylon could have known in such detail events in Jerusalem except by divine inspiration. Therefore many scholars are now of the opinion that Ezekiel really prophesied in Jerusalem until the city fell. The clear statements of the book, however, indicate his presence with the Jews in Babylon when he “saw” (8:6, 9–10) the events taking place at Jerusalem.
8:1 The date was September 17, 592 B.C. (see the note on 1:2), and Ezekiel was sitting in his house. The exiles were permitted to build houses and enjoyed freedom of movement, assembly and worship.
8:3 This idol may have been a statue of Asherah, the Canaanite goddess of fertility (see 2Ki 21:7; 23:6; see also the note on Jdg 3:7, as well as “Devotion to Asherah in the Khirbet El-Qom Inscription” and “The Kuntillet Ajrûd Inscriptions: The Lord’s Asherah?”).
8:10 The nation’s leaders were secretly practicing animal worship, probably reflecting Egyptian influence (cf. 2Ki 23:31–35).
8:11 This Jaazaniah is not the same person as in 11:1.
8:14 This is the only Biblical reference to Tammuz, the Babylonian fertility god, who supposedly died each year at the height of the summer heat and then rose each spring (see “Mourning for Tammuz”). According to some interpreters, the god is alluded to in Daniel 11:37 as “the one desired by women.”
8:16 Almost all ancient temples were oriented toward the east. These “twenty-five men” were worshiping the sun, which required them to turn their backs to the temple.
8:17 The phrase “putting the branch to their nose” may describe a ceremonial gesture in pagan worship that is not documented elsewhere in the Bible, but the translation is uncertain.
9:2 See the note regarding labor in the ancient Near Eastern world at Jeremiah 36:2.
9:4 The “mark” here refers to a taw, the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, which originally looked like an X (see Rev 7:2–4).
10:1–22 That the cherubim were more than clouds or statues is plain from the description Ezekiel gave (9:3; 10:1–22), which shows that they are the “living creatures” of chapter 1. The four faces of each of the cherubim (1:10) stand for the four “excellencies” of the created order: the lion, the greatest of the wild beasts; the eagle, the greatest of the birds; the ox, the greatest of the domestic beasts; and man, the crown of creation. Ezekiel saw, over the heads of the cherubim, the throne of the God who is thus absolutely sovereign over his whole creation, in all its variety of life and being and in all its complexity of movement.
Ezekiel’s vision explains the Old Testament allusion to the Lord as seated (or enthroned) on/between the cherubim (e.g., Ps. 99:1); it is a metaphor of his total sovereignty. Likewise, when the Lord rides on the cherubim (e.g., here and in Ps 18:10), the thought is that all creation is subject to his sovereign rule and “intervention” and that all its powers are at his disposal.
To sum up: The cherubim are the living chariot or carriers of God when appearing to human beings. They are heavenly creatures, servants of God in theophany and judgment, appearing in winged human-animal form with the faces of lion, eagle, ox and man. Their representations in the tabernacle and later in the temple as statues, as well as in embroidery and carving, did not constitute a breach of the second commandment (Ex 20:4). They are significant in prophecy (Ezekiel) and in the Apocalypse (Revelation). Their service is rendered immediately to God, and they never come closer to people than when one took fire in his hand and gave it “into the hands of the man in linen” (Eze 10:7). Yet because the mercy seat, on which the blood of atonement was sprinkled, lay “between the cherubim,” nothing can more nearly touch our salvation. In the Old Testament sanctuary, where everything was done and taught by visible, tangible types and symbols, physical representations of the living, heavenly cherubim were essential. In Ezekiel’s new temple, and in the heavenly sanctuary of Hebrews and Revelation, they are no longer needed, for the redeemed themselves stand in the presence of the living cherubim. The carvings of 41:18 are memorials only.
10:15 For “Kebar River,” see the note on 1:1.
10:18 See “Temple Abandonment.”
11:1 These were the “twenty-five men” of 8:16. They were the “leaders of the people,” a small council of high officials who wielded significant power in Judah and had been able to remain in Jerusalem when many other Jews were exiled by the Babylonians in 597 B.C. They arrogantly boasted that they were the “meat” (v. 3), the best portion—implying that the exiles were the refuse.
This Jaazaniah is not the Jaazaniah of 8:11 (see the note there).
11:3 For information on a typical Israelite house, see “The Israelite Town and Home.”
11:11 “The borders of Israel” is a reference to Riblah (see 2Ki 25:20–21).
11:16 The Hebrew word for “sanctuary” refers almost exclusively to the tabernacle or temple. God’s sanctuary was his established earthly abode, the place where he chose to dwell among his people. Psalm 114:2 states that “Judah became God’s sanctuary, Israel his dominion.” God himself is, in the final analysis, a sanctuary for his people (Isa 8:14).
11:23 The Mount of Olives is a flattened, rounded ridge with four identifiable summits. Its name is derived from the olive groves that covered it in ancient times. It is of cretaceous limestone formation, something over a mile (almost 2 km) in length, and forms the highest level of the range of hills to the east of Jerusalem (Eze 11:23; Zec 14:4), rising 250 feet (79 m) higher than the temple mount, and up to 2,600 feet (813 m) above sea level. See “The Mount of Olives.”
12:5 This was a directive not to dig through the city wall, which was constructed of stone and was many feet thick, but through the sun-dried, brick wall of his own house (see “The Israelite Town and Home”).
12:10 See the note on verse 12.
12:12 The “prince” is Zedekiah.
12:13 For “Chaldeans,” see “The Chaldeans.”
Zedekiah would not see the land because Nebuchadnezzar’s men would put out his eyes (see 2Ki 25:7).
12:16 For commentary on this threefold threat, see the note on 5:17.
12:19 For “the people of the land,” see the note on 7:27.
13:4 Jackals travel in packs and feed on dead flesh—a powerfully negative image.
13:10–16 Untempered mortar (a KJV term; Hebrew, tâphçl) was mortar made of clay instead of slaked lime. It was smeared on the walls of houses made of small stones or mud bricks so as to prolong the life of the building. Ezekiel used the term (NIV “whitewash”) symbolically to refer to the flimsiness of the work of the false prophets. Recent scholarship holds to the belief that this passage does indeed refer to whitewash applied over a poorly constructed wall to disguise its weakness.
13:18 Exactly what the women were doing with the magic charms is not known, but that it was some kind of black magic or voodoo is clear. The Biblical writers consistently avoided explicit description of occult practices.
14:1 For “elders,” see the note on Jeremiah 19:1.
14:3 “Inquire” is a technical term for seeking an oracle from a prophet (see 2Ki 1:16; 3:11; 8:8) and does not necessarily imply a request for help.
14:14 These ancient men of renown were selected because of their proverbial righteousness. As the NIV text note indicates, another Daniel may be referred to (Ugaritic literature speaks of an honored “Danel”), since the Biblical Daniel’s righteousness had probably not become proverbial by this time (Daniel and Ezekiel were contemporaries).
15:4 See the note on Isaiah 9:5 regarding fuel.
15:7 The “fire” they had “come out of” refers to the siege of Jerusalem in 597 B.C., which resulted in the exile of which Ezekiel was a part. The “fire” that would “yet consume them” refers to the more devastating siege that would come in 586 B.C.
16:3 For information on Jerusalem’s “ancestry and birth,” see “Jerusalem.” For “Amorite” and “Hittite,” see “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament.”
16:4 The practice of rubbing newborns with salt has been observed among Arab peasants as recently as A.D. 1918.
16:5 The abandonment of infants to die of exposure, common in ancient pagan societies, was abhorrent to Israel.
16:8 This action was symbolic of entering a marriage relationship (see Ru 3:9 and its note).
16:10–13 The items mentioned here are representative of the very best materials, garments and ornamentations (see “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry” and “Precious Stones of the Biblical World”). Many of these clothing and jewelry items were used in wedding ceremonies (see “Weddings in Ancient Israel”).
16:10 Embroidery refers in the Old Testament to ornamental needlework on cloth. Several Hebrew words are used in connection with this and related skills. In Exodus 28:39 shâvats probably refers to a checkered weaving (ASV, RSV) or plaiting of a coat with colored threads. Hebrew râqam (Ex 35:35; 38:23) means “to variegate” or “to weave in colored threads.” “Embroidered” is used to translate Hebrew riqmâh, “variegated” (Eze 16:10, 13, 18). In Exodus 28:4 Hebrew tashbçts, “tessellated stuff,” is rendered by the ASV and RSV as “checkerwork” and by the NIV as “woven.” Riqmâh is also translated “various colors” and “varied colors” (Eze 17:3). Apart from the use of these Hebrew terms to describe the colors of gems and feathers, they seem to have referred to weaving into cloth or drawing in with a needle or appliqué colored threads to make checkered and other designs for hangings in the tabernacle; the coats, girdles and ephod of the priests; royal garments; and clothing in general. The details of such work provided in the Bible impress us with the rich and gorgeously colorful character of needlework that may be called embroidery, but they furnish no exact idea of its appearance or method of manufacture.
16:12 The ancient Hebrews had no specific word for earrings; these jewels were just rings or hoops made of gold (though sometimes the metal is not specified), worn by both men and women, either on the nose or in the ears: A nose ring is specified in some passages (here, as well as in Ge 24:47; Isa 3:21) and earrings in others (here, as well as in Ge 35:4; Ex 32:2–3). In the remaining passages where such rings or hoops are mentioned, they may be either nose rings or earrings (Ex 35:22; Nu 31:50; Jdg 8:24–26; Job 42:11; Pr 11:22; 25:12; Hos 2:13). It is probable that pendants were suspended from earrings. In Isaiah 3:20 the Hebrew term lachash is translated “amulets” (NASB), “charms” (NIV) or “earrings” (KJV).
16:20 Child sacrifice, or the burning of a child while still alive, seems to have been associated with Molech, the god worshiped by the Ammonites and others (see “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East”). God had expressly prohibited such practices (see Lev 18:21; Dt 18:10; cf. Lev 20:2–5; Dt 12:31).
16:24 Centers of idol worship were set up not only in the countryside but also in Jerusalem itself.
16:27 After the 701 B.C. siege of Jerusalem the Assyrian king Sennacherib gave some of Jerusalem’s territory to the Philistines.
16:38 The prescribed punishment for adultery was death (see Lev 20:10; Dt 22:22) by stoning (Dt 22:21–24; Eze 16:40) or burning (see Ge 38:24).
16:45 For “Hittite” and “Amorite,” see “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament.”
16:46 Historically, Samaria was not founded as a royal city until after 880 B.C., so “older” in this allegory apparently alludes to the fact that Samaria ruled over a significantly larger kingdom than Jerusalem did.
16:47 The wickedness of ancient Sodom was proverbial by this time.
17:1–24 This parable symbolizes King Zedekiah’s vacillating royal policy that led to his downfall. The parable is presented in verses 1–10, its explanation follows in verses 11–21, and verses 22–24 append a promise of better times to come.
17:2 The Hebrew for “riddles” can sometimes, as here, refer to allegories. On the popularity and function of riddles in the ancient world, see the note on Judges 14:12–14.
17:3 The “great eagle” is Nebuchadnezzar (see “Nebuchadnezzar”).
For “varied colors,” see the note on 16:10.
17:4 The “topmost shoot” is Jehoiachin; the “land of merchants” the country of Babylonia; and the “city of traders” the city of Babylon.
17:5 The “seed” is Zedekiah, the brother of Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim and the uncle of Jehoiachin. Nebuchadnezzar made Zedekiah king of Judah after taking King Jehoiachin captive to Babylon (2Ki 24:17; see “Jehoiachin in Captivity and Evil Merodach”).
17:7 The second “great eagle” is an Egyptian pharaoh, probably Psammetichus II (595–589 B.C.) but possibly Hophra (589–570). Hophra (Jer 44:30) was most likely the pharaoh who offered help to Jerusalem in 586 (see Jer 37:5; see also “Hophra, King of Egypt”), after Zedekiah appealed to Egypt for military aid (Eze 17:15), an act of rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar.
17:10 The “east wind” refers to the sirocco or khamsin, a hot, dry wind that brings with it storms of sand and dust. Here it stands for Nebuchadnezzar and his Babylonian forces.
18:6 Pagan rites included eating meat sacrificed to idols on the high places (see “The High Places”).
18:8 In the Old Testament there is no trace of any system of commercial credit. Large commercial loans were not made in ancient Israel. Only the poor borrowed, and they did so to obtain the necessities of life. The Law of Moses forbade lending at interest to fellow Israelites (Ex 22:25) but permitted charging interest to foreigners (Dt 23:20). A needy Israelite might sell himself as a servant (Lev 25:39; 2Ki 4:1). The prophets condemned the taking of interest as a heinous sin (Jer 15:10; Eze 18:13, 17). In the New Testament references to the receiving of interest occur in two parables—of the minas (Lk 19:23) and of the talents (Mt 25:27). In both cases the practice is distinctly encouraged.
During Israel’s time in Babylon many abuses arose regarding the lending of money (Eze 18:17). Because of this Nehemiah, after his return from exile, took measures to have the practice stopped (Ne 5:10–12).
19:1 A “lament” was a chant, usually composed for the funeral of a fallen leader, but the word was often used sarcastically by Old Testament prophets to predict the destruction (“death”) of a nation (see “Ancient Near Eastern Laments”).
19:2 The “lioness” is a personification of Israel, Judah or Jerusalem.
19:3 “One of her cubs” is Jehoahaz (also called Shallum), who ruled for only three months and whose reign was characterized by oppressive policies (Jer 22:13).
19:5 “Another of her cubs” may have been Jehoiachin but was more probably Zedekiah (the description in v. 7 appears to more appropriately describe Zedekiah). Both were taken to Babylon (v. 9). If the reference is to Jehoiachin (2Ki 24:15), this was a true lament; if to Zedekiah, it was a prediction (2Ki 25:7).
19:10 The one previously pictured as a lioness (see v. 2) is here depicted as a vine.
19:11 For “scepter,” see the note on Zechariah 10:11.
19:12 For “east wind,” see the note on 17:10.
19:13 The “desert” is Babylonia—which to Israel seemed like a wilderness (see 20:35).
19:14 “Fire” here represents rebellion (see 2Ki 24:20), and “one of its main branches” refers to Zedekiah.
20:1 The date was August 14, 591 B.C. For “elders of Israel,” see the note on Jeremiah 19:1. For “inquire,” see the note on Ezekiel 14:3.
20:5 Raising one’s hand was a standard oath-taking practice in ancient times.
20:9 For “name,” see the note on Jeremiah 16:21. The phrase used here is equivalent to “for my own sake.”
20:12 Israel’s observance of the Sabbath was to serve as a sign that the nation constituted the Lord’s holy people (see “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee”). Jewish legalism later corrupted the Sabbath law (see Mt 12:1–14).
20:25–26 This most likely refers to God’s requirement that Israel dedicate to him every firstborn male (Ex 13:2; 22:29)—which kings Ahaz and Manasseh, under the influence of the pagan religions of Israel’s neighbors, radicalized into a law calling for actual sacrifice of the firstborn (see the note on 16:20; see also “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East”).
20:37 The rod was an instrument of authority that was also used by shepherds for counting, guiding, rescuing and protecting sheep. The staff was used for support. (see “Shepherding in the Ancient World.”)
20:40 “My holy mountain” refers to Jerusalem or Zion (see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God”).
20:41 For “fragrant incense,” see “Incense.” Here the term is used in a metaphorical sense.
20:46 Ezekiel was to prophesy to Judah and Jerusalem. Any Babylonian invasion would traverse Israel from north to south (see the note on 26:7).
20:47 “From south to north” here expresses totality, not direction.
21:3 Here the “sword” refers to Babylon and Nebuchadnezzar (v. 19). The judgment to come on Israel would be complete—no one would escape its devastating effects, not even the righteous in the land.
21:9 This is a sword song, possibly accompanied by dancing or symbolic actions. Such songs may have been sung by warriors about to go into battle.
21:10 A scepter represented rule, government or kingdom. See the note on Zechariah 10:11.
21:11 The “slayer” is Nebuchadnezzar (v. 19).
21:12 These were acts of mourning (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
21:19 The “king of Babylon” is Nebuchadnezzar (see “Nebuchadnezzar”). The “same country” refers to Babylonia or possibly to Aram (Syria); Nebuchadnezzar headquartered his campaign at Riblah in northern Aram (see 2Ki 25:6).
21:20 Rabbah (see “Rabbah”), was the capital of Ammon (see “Ammon”). The city was called Philadelphia in the New Testament era and today is Amman, the capital of Jordan.
21:21 Divination with arrows (see “Akkadian Divination”) was used to seek good omens for a coming military campaign. Apparently arrows were labeled (e.g., “Rabbah,” “Jerusalem”), placed into a quiver and drawn out, one with each hand. Right-hand selection was seen as a good omen (see v. 22).
The Hebrew for “idols” is translated “household gods” in Genesis 31:19 (see the note there). Consulting them is referred to in Hosea 3:4 and Zechariah 10:2. Some household gods (Ge 31:19–35) were small enough to hide in a saddle, while others were life-sized (1Sa 19:13–16).
Inspecting the color and configurations of sheep livers to foretell the future was common practice in ancient Babylonia and Rome, but it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible.
21:22 See “Siege Warfare.”
21:25 The “prince of Israel” is Zedekiah.
21:26 Linen headdresses, twisted as turbans, were common for men, wealthy women, bridegrooms and priests (Ex 28:40; Isa 3:20; 61:10; see “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry”). Only here is such a headdress mentioned as royal headwear. It was also worn by priests as a setting for the crown (Ex 29:6; Lev 8:9).
21:28 See the note on verse 9.
21:31 “Brutal men” refers to the people of the East, as in 25:4.
21:32 See the note on Isaiah 9:5 regarding fuel.
22:2 “This city” is Jerusalem.
22:11 All of the sins mentioned in this verse were specifically forbidden in the Mosaic Law (Lev 18:7–20; 20:10–21; Dt 22:22–23, 30; 27:22).
22:25 Ezekiel began to speak plainly concerning the “dross” of verses 18–22. All of Jerusalem’s leaders and people were included: princes (here), priests (v. 26), officials (v. 27), prophets (v. 28) and people (v. 29).
23:5 See “Sexuality and Religion in the Sumerian Hymns to Ishtar.”
23:10 “Stripped her naked” is a reference to the fall of Samaria to the Assyrians in 722 B.C.
23:14 See “The Chaldeans.”
23:23 Babylonians and Chaldeans were often identified with one another; here they are distinguished probably because the Chaldeans were relative newcomers (see “The Chaldeans”). Pekod refers to Aramaic people located east of Babylon, while Shoa and Koa were Babylonian allies of uncertain origin and location.
23:34 Beating the breasts was a sign of mourning. Here it was intensified to the point of the tearing of flesh in a frantic attempt to find relief from intolerable suffering.
23:40 For information on bathing practices, see “Bathing.” From ancient times women painted their eyelids in order to enhance the beauty of their faces (see also 2Ki 9:30; Jer 4:30). Oriental women still paint their eyelids with antimony or kohl (a black powder made of the smoke black from the burning of frankincense) to make them look full and sparkling, the blackened margin contrasting with the white of the eye.
23:41 This verse describes the scene of a banquet.
23:42 Saba, situated between the Nile and the Atbara, is a region about 400 miles (667 km) long and 200 miles (333 km) broad that was known to the Hebrews as Cush (see “Cush”). The ancient historian Strabo stated that a harbor named Saba was located on the western coast of the Red Sea. Josephus identified the Sabeans with the people of Saba in Upper (southern) Egypt, which he claimed that Moses had besieged and captured while in the service of the Egyptians. Another Sabean race, mentioned in Genesis 10:28 and 25:3, was located in Arabia. These Sabeans built a unique civilization and a great empire. The queen of Sheba, who made a visit of state to the court of Solomon, came from there (see “Sheba”).
24:1–2 See the note on 8:1–11:25.
24:1 The date was January 15, 588 B.C., some two and a half years after the preceding dated oracle (see 20:1).
24:4 The “choice pieces” were the people of Jerusalem who thought they had been spared the exile in 597 B.C. because of their goodness.
24:5 “Wood” refers to Nebuchadnezzar’s siege equipment (see “Siege Warfare”).
24:6 After the siege of Jerusalem in 597 B.C., the Babylonians may have cast lots to see which of the local inhabitants they would take with them into exile. This time everyone would go.
24:11 Jerusalem, emptied of inhabitants, would be set ablaze.
24:17 Mourners normally removed their turbans and poured dust on their heads. Removing one’s sandals was a sign of grief and covering one’s face a gesture of shame. See “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation.”
24:18 Ezekiel’s wife died on the same day the temple was burned—August 14, 586 B.C.
24:21 God would “desecrate” his own temple by allowing Nebuchadnezzar to burn it down.
25:4 “People of the East” is probably a reference to nomadic tribes of the desert east of Ammon, although the term could refer to Nebuchadnezzar and his army (see 21:31).
25:5 For “Rabbah,” see the note on 21:20.
25:8–11 The nations around Judah were addressed in clockwise order, starting with Ammon, east of the Jordan River, and moving south, then west and north.
25:8 See “Moab.” For “Seir,” see “Edom.”
25:9 Beth Jeshimoth was a town located in the plains of Moab. Baal Meon and Kiriathaim were Moabite towns mentioned in an inscribed monument of Mesha, king of Moab, discovered in 1868 in Dhiban, Jordan. See “The Mesha (Moabite) Stone.”
25:12–14 The Edomites (see “Edom”) had not just gloated over Judah’s downfall in 586 B.C. but had participated in it. In Obadiah 10–14 Edom is accused of aiding Babylon, seizing Judah’s wealth, cutting down the fugitives and handing over the survivors. Even though the Edomites, as descendants of Jacob’s brother Esau, were related to the Israelites, their history demonstrated a lack of compassion for their brothers (cf. Nu 20:14–21). God would use his own people to execute judgment upon Edom.
25:13 Teman was a district near Petra in central Edom (see “Edom”), and Dedan was a tribe and territory in southern Edom.
25:15–17 Like the Edomites, the Philistines (see “The Archaeology of Philistia”) were charged with trying to settle old scores. As longtime enemies of Israel, they sought to work out their “ancient hostility” (v. 15) by taking vengeance on God’s chosen people. They, in turn, would experience God’s retribution and would belatedly recognize his sovereign power. The Kerethites, related or perhaps identical to the Philistines, would be “cut off” (v. 16; Kereth sounds like the Hebrew word for “cut off”).
25:16 In the Old Testament the Kerethites (1Sa 30:14), thought to be a Philistine tribe, are identified as Cretans; indeed, the Philistines are thought to have originated in Crete. See also the note on Zephaniah 2:5.
26:1 The date is uncertain, as the number of the month is missing. The entire year dates from April 23, 587, to April 13, 586 B.C. The oracle must date from the end of that year, in the eleventh or the twelfth month (February 13 or March 15, 586). But there is a problem with these dates: This oracle describes Tyre’s gloating over the destruction of Jerusalem (v. 2), yet Jerusalem did not fall until on or about July 18, 586 B.C. (see “The Last Days of Jerusalem”), and was not burned until August 14, 586—several months after the date given here for Tyre’s celebration of the fact that Jerusalem “now … lies in ruins” (Eze 26:2). Many interpreters believe that the probable reading of the original Hebrew text was “In the eleventh month of the twelfth year, on the first day of the month,” and that the words “month of the twelfth” must have been inadvertently omitted by a copyist (see “Textual Criticism”). The restored reading would yield the date February 3, 585, which would fit nicely the chronology in 33:21 (see also the note there).
26:2 For information on Tyre, see the note on Isaiah 23:1; see also “The Downfall of Tyre.”
26:7 Nebuchadnezzar (see “Nebuchadnezzar”) would descend upon Tyre from the north, after first marching his army up the Euphrates River valley rather than across the Arabian Desert.
26:8 See “Siege Warfare.”
26:14 This prophecy was eventually fulfilled by Alexander’s devastating siege in 332 B.C. (see “The Downfall of Tyre”).
26:16 The “princes of the coast” (called “kings” in 27:35) were probably trading partners with Tyre. Their actions in this verse demonstrate their grief and terror at Tyre’s downfall.
For information on “robes” and “embroidered garments,” see “Ancient Israelite Clothing and Jewelry.”
26:17 For “lament,” see the note on 19:1.
26:19 “Ocean depths” refers to the primeval, chaotic mass—the “deep” of Genesis 1:2. Tyre’s collapse into the sea is described in almost cosmic terms.
26:20 These are references to the shadowy underworld (see the note on Ps 6:5; see also “Sheol, Hades, Gehenna, the Abyss and Tartarus: Images of Hell”).
27:2 For “lament,” see the note on 19:1.
27:4–11 The Phoenicians, confined to their coastal strip with the timber resources of the Lebanon range in their hinterland, were prompted by geography to exploit the sea and became, in the process, the great navigators of the ancient world—hence the symbolic vessel with ivory-inlaid decks and embroidered purple sails of Ezekiel’s metaphor in his denunciation of Tyre. See “Phoenicia” and “Seafaring in the Ancient World.”
27:5 Mount Hermon (“Senir”) marks the southern edge of the Anti-Lebanon range. A line drawn from Damascus to Tyre will pass through Mount Hermon at its middle point and will practially coincide with the northern boundary of Palestine. The ridge of Hermon is about 20 miles (33 km) long. It has three peaks, two of them rising over 9,000 feet (2,743 m). Hermon has had several names: the ancient Amorites called it “Shenir” or “Senir” (Dt 3:9; cf. Ps 29:6; Eze 27:5, where it is identified as a source of fir trees for Tyre); the Sidonians called it “Sirion” (Dt 3:9, although Ps 29:6 would separate the two); and the Arabs referred to it as “Jebel-esh-Sheikh” or “Mountain of the Old Man,” perhaps because of its white head but more likely on account of its dignity. Here Ezekiel called it “Senir” and identified it as a source of fir trees for Tyre.
27:6 For “Bashan,” see the note on 39:18.
Cyprus (Hebrew, Kittim) was originally the name of a town in today’s southern Cyprus, then colonized by Phoenicia (see “Phoenicia”).
27:7 Elishah was not only a city on the eastern side of Cyprus but also the oldest name for Cyprus.
27:8 Sidon was a harbor city 25 miles (40 km) north of Tyre (see “Sidon”).
Arvad was a Phoenician island-city off the Mediterranean coast north of Sidon.
27:9 Gebal refers to Byblos (see “Byblos”), an important ancient city on the coast between Sidon and Arvad.
27:10 For “Lydia” and “Put,” see the note on Jeremiah 46:9.
27:11 For “Arvad,” see the note on verse 8. “Helech” is Cilicia, the mountainous region in southeastern Asia Minor. “Gammad” is either northern Asia Minor or a coastal town near Arvad.
27:12 See “Where Was Tarshish?.”
27:13 Tubal and Meshech were peoples and territories in Asia Minor (see the note on Isa 66:19).
27:14 Beth Togarmah was located in eastern Asia Minor, modern Armenia. Asia Minor was known for its horses.
27:15 Rhodes, a large island off the southwestern coast of Asia Minor, served as the gateway to the Aegean islands and was an early major trading center (see Ac 21:1).
27:16 See “Syria/Aram.”
27:17 Minnith was an Ammonite town, apparently famous for its wheat.
“Balm,” referring to gum or oil from one of several plants, was a product of Gilead (see the note on Jer 8:22).
27:18 See “Damascus.” Helbon was a town north of Damascus, still in existence and still a wine-making center. Zahar is modern Sahra, an area northwest of Damascus where the grazing of livestock is still common today.
27:19 Uzal may be a reference to Yemen or to the area between Haran and the Tigris.
Cassia (similar to the cinnamon tree) and calamus (see the note on SS 4:14) are aromatic spices.
27:20 For “Dedan,” see the note on 25:13.
27:21 “Arabia” and “Kedar” (see the notes on Isa 21:16 and Jer 49:28) refer in general to the nomadic tribes from Aram to the Arabian Desert.
27:22 See “Sheba.” Raamah was a city in southern Arabia.
27:23 Haran was a city east of Carchemish, in modern eastern Turkey (see “Haran”). In ancient times it was a center for trade, as well as for the worship of the moon god, Sin. The locations of Canneh (often identified with Calneh) and Kilmad are uncertain; both were presumably in Mesopotamia. Eden was a district south of Haran. For “Sheba,” see the article. “Asshur” can mean the city, the country (Assyria) or the people (Assyrians). The city, south of Nineveh, probably gave its name to the country.
27:25 See “Where Was Tarshish?.”
27:26 For “east wind,” see the note on 17:10.
27:30–31 These actions were all signs of mourning (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).
28:2 The “ruler of Tyre” may refer to the city of Tyre as a ruler or to Ethbaal II, Tyre’s king (see v. 12)—not to be confused with Ethbaal I (see 1Ki 16:31).
28:3 For “Daniel,” see the note on 14:14.
28:7 “Foreigners” is a reference to the Babylonians.
28:8 The “pit” is a metaphor for the grave (see the note on Ps 6:5).
28:10 The term “uncircumcised” is used here in the sense of barbarian or uncouth. The Phoenicians (see “Phoenicia”), like the Israelites, Arabs and Egyptians, practiced circumcision.
28:12 For “lament,” see the note on 19:1.
28:13 Ezekiel used imagery of the creation and the fall as he pictured the king as a fully clothed priest, ordained (v. 14) to guard God’s holy place. The nine stones were among the twelve worn by the priest (Ex 28:17–20; see “Precious Stones of the Biblical World”).
28:14 The account in Genesis 3 has cherubim (plural) stationed at the border of the garden after the expulsion of Adam and Eve.
For the phrase “holy mount of God,” see “Zaphon, Olympus, Sinai and Zion: The Mountain of God.”
28:26 Houses and vineyards were representative of the basic necessities of the good life (see “The Israelite Town and Home”).
29:1 The date was January 7, 587 B.C.
29:2 “Pharaoh” refers to Hophra (see “Hophra, King of Egypt”).
29:3 The “great monster” is probably the crocodile (see the note on Ps 74:13–15).
Egypt’s “streams” include the Nile delta and Egypt’s many irrigation canals.
29:5 Being left as “food to the beasts” would have been particularly frustrating to the pharaoh in terms of his glorified hopes for an afterlife, as symbolized by the pyramids and expressed in the Egyptian “Book of the Dead.”
29:6 Hophra had been a “staff of reed” in that he had sent troops to aid Zedekiah when Nebuchadnezzar had invaded Judah in 588 B.C. This action had resulted in Nebuchadnezzar’s temporarily lifting the siege of Jerusalem in order to deal with the Egyptian threat (Jer 37:5, 11). But the relief for Judah was short-lived; Nebuchadnezzar quickly drove off the Egyptians and returned to capture Jerusalem.
29:8 The “sword” is Nebuchadnezzar (see the note on 21:3).
29:10 Migdol was probably a city in northern Egypt and Aswan a town in southern Egypt. “From Migdol to Aswan” (see 30:6) probably indicated all of Egypt, just as “from Dan to Beersheba” signified all of Israel (see, e.g., Jdg 20:1 and its note).
29:11 “Forty years” was sometimes used symbolically to signify a long and difficult period.
29:14 For “Upper Egypt,” see the note on Isaiah 11:11.
29:17 The date was April 26, 571 B.C.