call a sacred assembly.^†

¹⁶Gather the people,

consecrate^† the assembly;

bring together the elders,

gather the children,

those nursing at the breast.

Let the bridegroom^† leave his room

and the bride her chamber.

¹⁷Let the priests, who minister before the LORD,

weep between the temple porch and the altar.^†

Let them say, “Spare your people, O LORD.

Do not make your inheritance an object of scorn,^†

a byword among the nations.

Why should they say among the peoples,

‘Where is their God?^† ’ ”

The LORD ’s Answer

¹⁸Then the LORD will be jealous^† for his land

and take pity on his people.

¹⁹The LORD will reply^[7] to them:

“I am sending you grain, new wine and oil,^†

enough to satisfy you fully;

never again will I make you

an object of scorn^† to the nations.

²⁰“I will drive the northern army^† far from you,

pushing it into a parched and barren land,

with its front columns going into the eastern^† sea^[8]

and those in the rear into the western sea.^[9]

And its stench^† will go up;

its smell will rise.”

Surely he has done great things.^[10]

²¹Be not afraid,^† O land;

be glad and rejoice.

Surely the LORD has done great things.^†

²²Be not afraid, O wild animals,

for the open pastures are becoming green.^†

The trees are bearing their fruit;

the fig tree and the vine yield their riches.^†

²³Be glad, O people of Zion,

rejoice^† in the LORD your God,

for he has given you

the autumn rains in righteousness.^[11]

He sends you abundant showers,

both autumn and spring rains,^† as before.

²⁴The threshing floors will be filled with grain;

the vats will overflow^† with new wine^† and oil.

²⁵“I will repay you for the years the locusts have eaten—

the great locust and the young locust,

the other locusts and the locust swarm^[12] —

my great army that I sent among you.

²⁶You will have plenty to eat, until you are full,^†

and you will praise^† the name of the LORD your God,

who has worked wonders^† for you;

never again will my people be shamed.

²⁷Then you will know that I am in Israel,

that I am the LORD^† your God,

and that there is no other;

never again will my people be shamed.

The Day of the LORD

²⁸“And afterward,

I will pour out my Spirit^† on all people.

Your sons and daughters will prophesy,

your old men will dream dreams,

your young men will see visions.

²⁹Even on my servants,^† both men and women,

I will pour out my Spirit in those days.

³⁰I will show wonders in the heavens^†

and on the earth,^†

blood and fire and billows of smoke.

³¹The sun will be turned to darkness^†

and the moon to blood

before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the LORD.^†

³²And everyone who calls

on the name of the LORD will be saved;^†

for on Mount Zion^† and in Jerusalem

there will be deliverance,^†

as the LORD has said,

among the survivors^†

whom the LORD calls.

Joel 3

The Nations Judged

¹“In those days and at that time,

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*

The Greeks and the Old Testament

Joel 3 Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East during the late fourth century B.C. and began a process of “Hellenizing” the region (spreading Greek language and culture). Unfortunately, this has wrongly given some modern interpreters the notion that any sign of a Greek presence in an Old Testament text is evidence that the text was not written until after the time of Alexander. Thus, for example, the book of Daniel is often dated to the second century B.C., partially on the ground that Daniel 3 includes a few Greek words (e.g., sumponia, analogous to the Greek sumphonia, perhaps referring to some wind instrument). However, Greek musicians were famous in the ancient world far earlier than the time of Alexander the Great, and no doubt some of the Greek musical terminology was adopted by other cultures.¹

An interesting case is Joel 3:6, where the prophet castigated the Philistines and Phoenicians for having taken Israelites as slaves and sold them to Greeks, thus removing Jews far from their homeland. Some have taken this to be an indication that the book of Joel is postexilic, but this is not necessarily the case. The Greeks were well known as a seafaring people, and undoubtedly preexilic Israelites had some contact with Greeks. It is significant in the Joel text, however, that Greece is perceived to be far away from the land of Israel. In preexilic times very few Israelites had ever ventured there, and most had never encountered a Greek. Thus they would have perceived Greece to be a remote and far-flung place. However, during the postexilic period, and certainly after Alexander’s time, contact with Greeks was frequent and the Greek language widely spoken. Travel to Greece was also more common during this era.

The perception of Greeks as a faraway people in verse 6, therefore, actually suggests a preexilic date for the book. In addition, in the seventh century B.C. Greece was in the midst of a great economic expansion and needed many slaves.² This, too, fits well with what we see in Joel 3 if the book is dated to the seventh century B.C.³

1. See “When Was Daniel Written?.”

2. See “Greece: From Independent City-states Through Alexander the Great.”

3. See “The Date of the Book of Joel.”

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when I restore the fortunes^† of Judah and Jerusalem,

²I will gather all nations

and bring them down to the Valley of Jehoshaphat.^[13]

There I will enter into judgment^† against them

concerning my inheritance, my people Israel,

for they scattered my people among the nations

and divided up my land.

³They cast lots for my people

and traded boys for prostitutes;

they sold girls for wine^†

that they might drink.

⁴“Now what have you against me, O Tyre and Sidon^† and all you regions of Philistia? Are you repaying me for something I have done? If you are paying me back, I will swiftly and speedily return on your own heads what you have done.^{† 5}For you took my silver and my gold and carried off my finest treasures to your temples.^{† 6}You sold the people of Judah and Jerusalem to the Greeks, that you might send them far from their homeland.

⁷“See, I am going to rouse them out of the places to which you sold them,^† and I will return on your own heads what you have done. ⁸I will sell your sons^† and daughters to the people of Judah,^† and they will sell them to the Sabeans, a nation far away.” The LORD has spoken.

⁹Proclaim this among the nations:

Prepare for war!^†

Rouse the warriors!^†

Let all the fighting men draw near and attack.

¹⁰Beat your plowshares into swords

and your pruning hooks^† into spears.

Let the weakling^† say,

“I am strong!”

¹¹Come quickly, all you nations from every side,

and assemble^† there.

Bring down your warriors,^† O LORD!

¹²“Let the nations be roused;

let them advance into the Valley of Jehoshaphat,

for there I will sit

to judge^† all the nations on every side.

¹³Swing the sickle,

for the harvest^† is ripe.

Come, trample the grapes,

for the winepress^† is full

and the vats overflow—

so great is their wickedness!”

¹⁴Multitudes, multitudes

in the valley of decision!

For the day of the LORD^† is near

in the valley of decision.

¹⁵The sun and moon will be darkened,

and the stars no longer shine.

¹⁶The LORD will roar from Zion

and thunder from Jerusalem;^†

the earth and the sky will tremble.^†

But the LORD will be a refuge for his people,

a stronghold^† for the people of Israel.

Blessings for God’s People

¹⁷“Then you will know that I, the LORD your God,^†

dwell in Zion,^† my holy hill.

Jerusalem will be holy;

never again will foreigners invade her.

¹⁸“In that day the mountains will drip new wine,

and the hills will flow with milk;^†

all the ravines of Judah will run with water.^†

A fountain will flow out of the LORD ’s house^†

and will water the valley of acacias.^{[14] †}

¹⁹But Egypt will be desolate,

Edom a desert waste,

because of violence^† done to the people of Judah,

in whose land they shed innocent blood.

²⁰Judah will be inhabited forever^†

and Jerusalem through all generations.

²¹Their bloodguilt, which I have not pardoned,

I will pardon.^† ”

The LORD dwells in Zion!

AMOS

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The prophet Amos, the book’s author (1:1), described himself as a shepherd and farmer—specifically, a tender of sycamore-fig trees (7:14)—although his strong verbal skills and wide-ranging knowledge negate the suggestion that he was simply an ignorant peasant. His denial that he was a prophet did not signify that he lacked a prophetic calling but indicated that he was not a professional prophet who earned his living by providing kings with the oracles they wanted to hear (7:14–15). Amos’s hometown, Tekoa, was located in the highlands of Judah approximately 11 miles (7 km) south of Jerusalem, although his message was directed primarily to the northern kingdom of Israel. Some scholars believe that parts of Amos are secondary (not written by Amos), but that conclusion is unnecessary (see “The Unity of Amos”).

Amos provided pointers that have assisted scholars with dating his message: He mentioned the names of the kings during whose reigns he preached (Jeroboam II of Israel and Uzziah of Judah), suggesting a date of approximately 760 B.C., as well as the fact that he preached two years prior to an earthquake (1:1); there is also the possible suggestion that an eclipse occurred during his ministry (8:9). Archaeological evidence from Hazor points to a severe earthquake in the mid-eighth century B.C., and an eclipse did take place in 763 (as well as earlier, in 784).

Amos most likely centered his ministry efforts around Bethel in the north (7:10–13), Israel’s primary religious sanctuary, where the upper echelons of the northern kingdom worshiped.

Audience

Although Amos was from Judah, his message was directed primarily to the northern kingdom, suggesting that the Israelites were conscious of their common identity as God’s people despite the political division that had split the nation. It is conceivable that he was specifically called to Jeroboam’s court because his status as a peasant would have been in such contrast to the wealth and professionalism of Samaria (see especially ch. 7).

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Amos ministered during a period in which the dominant empires of the day (Egypt, Babylon and particularly Assyria) were relatively weak and both Israel and Judah were enjoying a period of prosperity and imperial expansion. Amos decried the wealth and arrogance of his time, symbolized by what he called “houses adorned with ivory” (3:15; see “The Samaria Ivories”). This prosperity was misleading, however: In a little over a quarter of a century Samaria, Israel’s capital, would lie in ruins.

Timeline

As You Read

Pay particular attention to the strong social emphasis of this book. In what specific ways are these social themes relevant to any society during a period of prosperity and comfort?

Did You Know?

• “Fortresses” may refer not only to citadels but also to the fortress-like, palatial dwellings of the rich and powerful (1:4).
• In ancient times many people believed that burning the bones of the dead deprived the person’s spirit of the rest that was widely believed to result from decent burial (2:1).
• Since Israel had extended its influence over Damascus by this time, the rich merchants of Samaria may have maintained luxurious houses in Damascus, along with market privileges in that city (3:12).
• The well-fed cattle raised in Bashan were considered the best breed in ancient Canaan (4:1).
• The reference to burning the dead bodies may actually refer to lighting a memorial fire in honor of the dead, as cremation was not generally practiced (6:10).

Themes

Amos’s themes include:

1. Social justice. Amos demonstrated that periods of unusual prosperity can lead to spiritual complacency and ethical laxity (6:1–6). Oppression of the poor (2:6–7a; 5:12; 8:4, 6), injustice in the courts (2:7a; 5:7, 12; 6:12), sexual immorality (2:7b), religious abuses (2:8), violence (3:10), idolatry (5:26), corrupt business practices (8:5)—all told the story: “The times [were] evil” (5:13). Amos taught that true faith is expressed through actions, particularly those that concern social justice.
2. Judgment. Injustice and exploitation of the poor would be punished (2:13–16; 6:8, 14; 8:9–9:10), and those who lived opulently at the expense of others would lose everything they had (3:15–4:3; 5:16–17; 6:4–7). God would expose the hypocrisy and false piety of his people (4:4–5; 5:21–23), but he first called them to turn to him (5:4–6) and “live” (5:6). After judgment God would restore his people (9:11–15).

Outline

I. Introduction (1:1–2)

II. Judgments on the Nations (1:3–2:16)

III. Judgments on God’s People (3:1–5:17)

IV. Announcements of Exile (5:18–6:14)

V. Visions of Amos (7:1–9:10)

VI. Restored Israel’s Hope for the Future (9:11–15)

Amos 1

¹The words of Amos, one of the shepherds of Tekoa^† —what he saw concerning Israel two years before the earthquake,^† when Uzziah^† was king of Judah and Jeroboam^† son of Jehoash^[1] was king of Israel.^†

²He said:

“The LORD roars^† from Zion

and thunders from Jerusalem;^†

the pastures of the shepherds dry up,^[2]

and the top of Carmel^† withers.”^†

Judgment on Israel’s Neighbors

³This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Damascus,^†

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].^†

Because she threshed Gilead

with sledges having iron teeth,

⁴I will send fire^† upon the house of Hazael

that will consume the fortresses^† of Ben-Hadad.^†

⁵I will break down the gate^† of Damascus;

I will destroy the king who is in^[3] the Valley of Aven^[4]

and the one who holds the scepter in Beth Eden.

The people of Aram will go into exile to Kir,^† ”

says the LORD.

⁶This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Gaza,^†

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

Because she took captive whole communities

and sold them to Edom,^†

⁷I will send fire upon the walls of Gaza

that will consume her fortresses.

⁸I will destroy the king^[5] of Ashdod^†

and the one who holds the scepter in Ashkelon.

I will turn my hand^† against Ekron,

till the last of the Philistines^† is dead,”

says the Sovereign LORD.^†

⁹This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Tyre,^†

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

Because she sold whole communities of captives to Edom,

disregarding a treaty of brotherhood,

¹⁰I will send fire upon the walls of Tyre

that will consume her fortresses.^† ”

¹¹This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Edom,^†

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

Because he pursued his brother with a sword,

stifling all compassion,^[6]

because his anger raged continually

and his fury flamed unchecked,^†

¹²I will send fire upon Teman^†

that will consume the fortresses of Bozrah.”

¹³This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Ammon,^†

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

Because he ripped open the pregnant women^† of Gilead

in order to extend his borders,

¹⁴I will set fire to the walls of Rabbah^†

that will consume her fortresses

amid war cries^† on the day of battle,

amid violent winds on a stormy day.

¹⁵Her king^[7] will go into exile,

he and his officials together,”

says the LORD.

Amos 2

¹This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Moab,

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

Because he burned, as if to lime,

the bones of Edom’s king,

²I will send fire upon Moab

that will consume the fortresses of Kerioth.^[8]

Moab will go down in great tumult

amid war cries and the blast of the trumpet.

³I will destroy her ruler^†

and kill all her officials with him,”^†

says the LORD.

⁴This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Judah,^†

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

Because they have rejected the law^† of the LORD

and have not kept his decrees,^†

because they have been led astray^† by false gods,^{[9] †}

the gods^[10] their ancestors followed,^†

⁵I will send fire upon Judah

that will consume the fortresses of Jerusalem.^† ”

Judgment on Israel

⁶This is what the LORD says:

“For three sins of Israel,

even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath].

They sell the righteous for silver,

and the needy for a pair of sandals.^†

⁷They trample on the heads of the poor

as upon the dust of the ground

and deny justice to the oppressed.

Father and son use the same girl

and so profane my holy name.^†

⁸They lie down beside every altar

on garments taken in pledge.^†

In the house of their god

they drink wine^† taken as fines.

⁹“I destroyed the Amorite^† before them,

though he was tall as the cedars

and strong as the oaks.

I destroyed his fruit above

and his roots^† below.

¹⁰“I brought you up out of Egypt,^†

and I led you forty years in the desert^†

to give you the land of the Amorites.^†

¹¹I also raised up prophets^† from among your sons

and Nazirites^† from among your young men.

Is this not true, people of Israel?”

declares the LORD.

¹²“But you made the Nazirites drink wine

and commanded the prophets not to prophesy.^†

¹³“Now then, I will crush you

as a cart crushes when loaded with grain.

¹⁴The swift will not escape,

the strong^† will not muster their strength,

and the warrior will not save his life.^†

¹⁵The archer^† will not stand his ground,

the fleet-footed soldier will not get away,

and the horseman will not save his life.

¹⁶Even the bravest warriors^†

will flee naked on that day,”

declares the LORD.

Amos 3

Witnesses Summoned Against Israel

¹Hear this word the LORD has spoken against you, O people of Israel—against the whole family I brought up out of Egypt:^†

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*

The Samaria Ivories

Amos 3 The reference to “houses adorned with ivory” in Amos 3:15 finds confirmation in the discovery of the Samaria Ivories, a collection of hundreds of pieces of artwork, including over 200 fragments uncovered in the rubbish heap of a building on the city’s acropolis.¹ This “ivory building” is associated with the Israelite king Ahab (c. 874–853 B.C.), who is said to have constructed a palace “inlaid with ivory” in Samaria (1Ki 22:39).² An alabaster jar found with the largest of the ivories and incised with the name of the Egyptian pharaoh Osorkon II (874–850 B.C.) is contemporary with Ahab. There are also other ivories discovered throughout Syria-Palestine and Mesopotamia that date to the same general period and resemble the Samarian artifacts in craftsmanship and style.³

The artistic features of these ivories appear to have originated in Phoenicia,⁴ an area strongly influenced by Egyptian motifs and artwork. Characters from Egyptian mythology often appear in the collection, which also includes ivory plaques incised with Hebrew script—most likely inlays for palace furniture. These plaques could be related to the “beds inlaid with ivory” of which Amos spoke in 6:4.

1. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

2. See “Omri and Samaria” and “Ahab and the Battle of Qarqar.”

3. See “The Nimrud Ivories.”

4. See “Phoenicia.”

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²“You only have I chosen^†

of all the families of the earth;

therefore I will punish you

for all your sins.^† ”

³Do two walk together

unless they have agreed to do so?

⁴Does a lion roar in the thicket

when he has no prey?^†

Does he growl in his den

when he has caught nothing?

⁵Does a bird fall into a trap on the ground

where no snare has been set?

Does a trap spring up from the earth

when there is nothing to catch?

⁶When a trumpet sounds in a city,

do not the people tremble?

When disaster comes to a city,

has not the LORD caused it?^†

⁷Surely the Sovereign LORD does nothing

without revealing his plan^†

to his servants the prophets.^†

⁸The lion has roared—

who will not fear?

The Sovereign LORD has spoken—

who can but prophesy?^†

⁹Proclaim to the fortresses of Ashdod

and to the fortresses of Egypt:

“Assemble yourselves on the mountains of Samaria;^†

see the great unrest within her

and the oppression among her people.”

¹⁰“They do not know how to do right,^† ” declares the LORD,

“who hoard plunder^† and loot in their fortresses.”^†

¹¹Therefore this is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“An enemy will overrun the land;

he will pull down your strongholds

and plunder your fortresses.^† ”

¹²This is what the LORD says:

“As a shepherd saves from the lion’s^† mouth

only two leg bones or a piece of an ear,

so will the Israelites be saved,

those who sit in Samaria

on the edge of their beds

and in Damascus on their couches.^{[11] †} ”

¹³“Hear this and testify^† against the house of Jacob,” declares the Lord, the LORD God Almighty.

¹⁴“On the day I punish Israel for her sins,

I will destroy the altars of Bethel;^†

the horns of the altar will be cut off

and fall to the ground.

¹⁵I will tear down the winter house^†

along with the summer house;^†

the houses adorned with ivory^† will be destroyed

and the mansions will be demolished,”

declares the LORD.

Amos 4

Israel Has Not Returned to God

¹Hear this word, you cows of Bashan^† on Mount Samaria,^†

you women who oppress the poor and crush the needy

and say to your husbands, “Bring us some drinks!^† ”

²The Sovereign LORD has sworn by his holiness:

“The time will surely come

when you will be taken away^† with hooks,

the last of you with fishhooks.

³You will each go straight out

through breaks in the wall,^†

and you will be cast out toward Harmon,^[12] ”

declares the LORD.

⁴“Go to Bethel and sin;

go to Gilgal^† and sin yet more.

Bring your sacrifices every morning,^†

your tithes^† every three years.^{[13] †}

⁵Burn leavened bread^† as a thank offering

and brag about your freewill offerings^† —

boast about them, you Israelites,

for this is what you love to do,”

declares the Sovereign LORD.

⁶“I gave you empty stomachs^[14] in every city

and lack of bread in every town,

yet you have not returned to me,”

declares the LORD.^†

⁷“I also withheld rain from you

when the harvest was still three months away.

I sent rain on one town,

but withheld it from another.^†

One field had rain;

another had none and dried up.

⁸People staggered from town to town for water^†

but did not get enough to drink,

yet you have not returned^† to me,”

declares the LORD.^†

⁹“Many times I struck your gardens and vineyards,

I struck them with blight and mildew.^†

Locusts devoured your fig and olive trees,^†

yet you have not returned^† to me,”

declares the LORD.

¹⁰“I sent plagues^† among you

as I did to Egypt.

I killed your young men with the sword,

along with your captured horses.

I filled your nostrils with the stench of your camps,

yet you have not returned to me,”

declares the LORD.^†

¹¹“I overthrew some of you

as I^[15] overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah.^†

You were like a burning stick snatched from the fire,

yet you have not returned to me,”

declares the LORD.

¹²“Therefore this is what I will do to you, Israel,

and because I will do this to you,

prepare to meet your God, O Israel.”

¹³He who forms the mountains,^†

creates the wind,

and reveals his thoughts^† to man,

he who turns dawn to darkness,

and treads the high places of the earth^† —

the LORD God Almighty is his name.^†

Amos 5

A Lament and Call to Repentance

¹Hear this word, O house of Israel, this lament^† I take up concerning you:

²“Fallen is Virgin^† Israel,

never to rise again,

deserted in her own land,

with no one to lift her up.^† ”

³This is what the Sovereign LORD says:

“The city that marches out a thousand strong for Israel

will have only a hundred left;

the town that marches out a hundred strong

will have only ten left.^† ”

⁴This is what the LORD says to the house of Israel:

“Seek me and live;^†

⁵do not seek Bethel,

do not go to Gilgal,^†

do not journey to Beersheba.^†

For Gilgal will surely go into exile,

and Bethel will be reduced to nothing.^{[16] †} ”

⁶Seek^† the LORD and live,^†

or he will sweep through the house of Joseph like a fire;^†

it will devour,

and Bethel^† will have no one to quench it.

⁷You who turn justice into bitterness^†

and cast righteousness to the ground

⁸(he who made the Pleiades and Orion,^†

who turns blackness into dawn^†

and darkens day into night,^†

who calls for the waters of the sea

and pours them out over the face of the land—

the LORD is his name^† —

⁹he flashes destruction on the stronghold

and brings the fortified city to ruin),^†

¹⁰you hate the one who reproves in court^†

and despise him who tells the truth.^†

¹¹You trample on the poor^†

and force him to give you grain.

Therefore, though you have built stone mansions,^†

you will not live in them;

though you have planted lush vineyards,

you will not drink their wine.^†

¹²For I know how many are your offenses

and how great your sins.

You oppress the righteous and take bribes

and you deprive the poor of justice in the courts.^†

¹³Therefore the prudent man keeps quiet in such times,

for the times are evil.

¹⁴Seek good, not evil,

that you may live.

Then the LORD God Almighty will be with you,

just as you say he is.

¹⁵Hate evil,^† love good;

maintain justice in the courts.

Perhaps the LORD God Almighty will have mercy^†

on the remnant^† of Joseph.

¹⁶Therefore this is what the Lord, the LORD God Almighty, says:

“There will be wailing^† in all the streets

and cries of anguish in every public square.

The farmers^† will be summoned to weep

and the mourners to wail.

¹⁷There will be wailing in all the vineyards,

for I will pass through^† your midst,”

says the LORD.^†

The Day of the LORD

¹⁸Woe to you who long

for the day of the LORD!^†

Why do you long for the day of the LORD?

That day will be darkness,^† not light.^†

¹⁹It will be as though a man fled from a lion

only to meet a bear,

as though he entered his house

and rested his hand on the wall

only to have a snake bite him.^†

²⁰Will not the day of the LORD be darkness, not light—

pitch-dark, without a ray of brightness?^†

²¹“I hate, I despise your religious feasts;^†

I cannot stand your assemblies.^†

²²Even though you bring me burnt offerings and grain offerings,

I will not accept them.

Though you bring choice fellowship offerings,^[17]

I will have no regard for them.^†

²³Away with the noise of your songs!

I will not listen to the music of your harps.^†

²⁴But let justice^† roll on like a river,

righteousness like a never-failing stream!^†

²⁵“Did you bring me sacrifices^† and offerings

forty years^† in the desert, O house of Israel?

²⁶You have lifted up the shrine of your king,

the pedestal of your idols,

the star of your god^[18] —

which you made for yourselves.

²⁷Therefore I will send you into exile beyond Damascus,”

says the LORD, whose name is God Almighty.^†

Amos 6

Woe to the Complacent

¹Woe to you^† who are complacent in Zion,

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*

The Nimrud Ivories

Amos 6 Amos 6:4 spoke of “beds inlaid with ivory” and attested to the availability of ivory in Israel, as well as to the high esteem in which it was held. Indeed, throughout the Near East elephant ivory was treasured as a medium for artwork. A large collection of carved ivories was discovered in the palace area of Nimrud, an Assyrian¹ city on the eastern bank of the Tigris. These ivory carvings were artistic masterpieces in the form of human figures, animals (both real and mythological), plants and abstractions. Many of these carved pieces were originally covered in gold. On the other hand, many of the objects were used for practical purposes. For example, one ivory piece was the handle of a fly-whisk or a fan, and another carving was used as a blinder for a horse.

Examples from the Nimrud Ivories

Preserving Bible Times; © Dr. James C. Martin; permission of The British Museum

In 1961 fragments of an ivory plaque were unearthed at Nimrud. Surprisingly, in light of how far removed this site is from Israel, this plaque had a Hebrew inscription. Because of the broken condition of the find, a complete and certain translation is impossible. Even so, the plaque appears to contain the phrases, “the great king” (evidently referring to the king of Assyria; 2Ki 18:19) and “may Yahweh shatter. ” The plaque dates to around 750 B.C. and was either part of the tribute given to the Assyrians or taken as booty by the Assyrian army after the Assyrians had destroyed Samaria in 722 B.C.¹

1. See “Hoshea, King of Israel, and Shalmaneser V, King of Assyria” and “The Samaria Ivories.”

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and to you who feel secure on Mount Samaria,

you notable men of the foremost nation,

to whom the people of Israel come!^†

²Go to Calneh^† and look at it;

go from there to great Hamath,^†

and then go down to Gath^† in Philistia.

Are they better off than^† your two kingdoms?

Is their land larger than yours?

³You put off the evil day

and bring near a reign of terror.^†

⁴You lie on beds inlaid with ivory

and lounge on your couches.

You dine on choice lambs

and fattened calves.^†

⁵You strum away on your harps^† like David

and improvise on musical instruments.^†

⁶You drink wine^† by the bowlful

and use the finest lotions,

but you do not grieve^† over the ruin of Joseph.

⁷Therefore you will be among the first to go into exile;

your feasting and lounging will end.

The LORD Abhors the Pride of Israel

⁸The Sovereign LORD has sworn by himself^† —the LORD God Almighty declares:

“I abhor^† the pride of Jacob^†

and detest his fortresses;

I will deliver up^† the city

and everything in it.^† ”

⁹If ten^† men are left in one house, they too will die. ¹⁰And if a relative who is to burn the bodies^† comes to carry them out of the house and asks anyone still hiding there, “Is anyone with you?” and he says, “No,” then he will say, “Hush!^† We must not mention the name of the LORD.”

¹¹For the LORD has given the command,

and he will smash the great house^† into pieces

and the small house into bits.^†

¹²Do horses run on the rocky crags?

Does one plow there with oxen?

But you have turned justice into poison^†

and the fruit of righteousness into bitterness^† —

¹³you who rejoice in the conquest of Lo Debar^[19]

and say, “Did we not take Karnaim^[20] by our own strength?^† ”

¹⁴For the LORD God Almighty declares,

“I will stir up a nation^† against you, O house of Israel,

that will oppress you all the way

from Lebo^[21] Hamath^† to the valley of the Arabah.^† ”

Amos 7

Locusts, Fire and a Plumb Line

¹This is what the Sovereign LORD showed me:^† He was preparing swarms of locusts^† after the king’s share had been harvested and just as the second crop was coming up. ²When they had stripped the land clean,^† I cried out, “Sovereign LORD, forgive! How can Jacob survive?^† He is so small!^† ”

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Prophets in the Bible and Pagan Nations

Amos 7 Prophecy was a common feature in the world of the Old Testament. Men and women who were called by God to speak on his behalf were known by a variety of Hebrew terms that may be variously translated as “prophet [prophetess],” “seer,” “visionary” and “man of God.” Since there was no substantial difference among these terms, the Septuagint often translates “prophet,” “seer” and “visionary” with the single Greek word for “prophet.” Early prophets in Israel seem to have been connected to a prophetic group (e.g., “the company of the prophets” who followed Elisha; 2Ki 2:3) while later prophets appear to have been more independent. Archaeological confirmation of prophetic activity in Israel is seen in the Lachish ostracon that speaks of a certain person called the “prophet.”¹

Hebrew text of Amos; Iraq, c. A.D. 1000

© The Schøyen Collection; photography courtesy of Mr. Martin Schøyen

Yet prophecy was not a phenomenon unique to Israel, as the Bible itself attests (cf. “prophets of Baal” and “prophets of Asherah” in 1Ki 18:19). Ancient texts have yielded numerous examples of pagan prophets:

• The archive from the city of Mari on the Middle Euphrates,² dated to the mid-eighteenth century B.C., speaks of a number of men and women who addressed the king on behalf of the gods. Like the Biblical terms for prophets, multiple titles were given to these individuals at Mari, including on one occasion the term nabu, the Akkadian equivalent of the Hebrew navi (“prophet”). While some of the Mari prophets were connected to religious sites as priests or servants of a temple, many appear to have been ordinary people from various walks of life. Ecstatic behavior, seen among Biblical prophets in Samuel’s day (1Sa 19:24) and later in Ezekiel’s (Eze 4:4), was also evident at Mari.

• An ecstatic seer called a “man of god” is attested in the fourteenth century B.C. Hittite Prayer of Mursilis.³

• The eleventh-century B.C. Egyptian story of Wen Amon tells of a page in the court of the king of Byblos⁴ who was seemingly possessed by a god during an offertory ritual, as evidenced by his ecstatic behavior.

• An inscription from the eighth-century B.C. Syrian state of Hamath recounts the story of a man named Zakir praying to Baal for his besieged city and subsequently receiving assurance of divine assistance through seers and other inspired people.

• Late eighth-century B.C. plaster texts from Deir Allah speak of a certain Balaam, who is said to be “a seer of the gods” and who, later in the story, sees a vision from the god El.⁵

As God’s spokesman in 7:14, Amos eschewed any prophetic title, perhaps because of unwanted associations with the term in his day. As seen in so many other parts of Scripture, the words of Amos enforce the reality that God uses everyday people to carry out his will.

1. See “The Lachish Ostraca.”

2. See “Mari.”

3. See “Plague Prayers of Mursilis II.”

4. See “Byblos.”

5. See “Balaam, the Son of Beor.”

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³So the LORD relented.^†

“This will not happen,” the LORD said.^†

⁴This is what the Sovereign LORD showed me: The Sovereign LORD was calling for judgment by fire;^† it dried up the great deep and devoured^† the land. ⁵Then I cried out, “Sovereign LORD, I beg you, stop! How can Jacob survive? He is so small!^† ”

⁶So the LORD relented.^†

“This will not happen either,” the Sovereign LORD said.

⁷This is what he showed me: The Lord was standing by a wall that had been built true to plumb, with a plumb line in his hand. ⁸And the LORD asked me, “What do you see,^† Amos?^† ”

“A plumb line,^† ” I replied.

Then the Lord said, “Look, I am setting a plumb line among my people Israel; I will spare them no longer.^†

⁹“The high places of Isaac will be destroyed

and the sanctuaries^† of Israel will be ruined;

with my sword I will rise against the house of Jeroboam.^† ”

Amos and Amaziah

¹⁰Then Amaziah the priest of Bethel^† sent a message to Jeroboam^† king of Israel: “Amos is raising a conspiracy^† against you in the very heart of Israel. The land cannot bear all his words.^{† 11}For this is what Amos is saying:

“ ‘Jeroboam will die by the sword,

and Israel will surely go into exile,

away from their native land.’ ”

¹²Then Amaziah said to Amos, “Get out, you seer! Go back to the land of Judah. Earn your bread there and do your prophesying there.^{† 13}Don’t prophesy anymore at Bethel, because this is the king’s sanctuary and the temple of the kingdom.^† ”

¹⁴Amos answered Amaziah, “I was neither a prophet^† nor a prophet’s son, but I was a shepherd, and I also took care of sycamore-fig trees. ¹⁵But the LORD took me from tending the flock^† and said to me, ‘Go, prophesy to my people Israel.’^{† 16}Now then, hear the word of the LORD. You say,

“ ‘Do not prophesy against^† Israel,

and stop preaching against the house of Isaac.’

¹⁷“Therefore this is what the LORD says:

“ ‘Your wife will become a prostitute^† in the city,

and your sons and daughters will fall by the sword.

Your land will be measured and divided up,

and you yourself will die in a pagan^[22] country.

And Israel will certainly go into exile,

away from their native land.^† ’ ”

Amos 8

A Basket of Ripe Fruit

¹This is what the Sovereign LORD showed me: a basket of ripe fruit. ²“What do you see,^† Amos?^† ” he asked.

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Weights and Measures

Amos 8 Weights in the ancient world were crafted of either metal or semiprecious stones, often carved in the shapes of ducks, lions or turtles. They had a flat base and were inscribed with their weight standard. The law called for standardized weights and measures (Lev 19:35–36), and yet, of the weights that have been found, very few of the same denomination are identical. It is important to note that ancient weights were never able to achieve the precision of modern standards, due in part to the method of production, as well as to standards that varied at different times and in different regions. Thus, they must be thought of as commonly accepted estimates. Those who knowingly used dishonest weights and balances came under prophetic critique for defrauding God and their fellow human beings (Am 8:5–6; Mic 6:11; Mal 3:8–10).

The talent, the largest standard weight used for gold, silver, iron and bronze (1Ki 10:14; 2Ki 23:33), weighed approximately 75 pounds (34 kg).¹ The mina, .017 of a talent, most likely was incorporated as a postexilic² measure and was made infamous in the judgment of Belshazzar, who was “weighed” by God and found to be deficient (Da 5: 27).² The shekel, derived from the verb “to weigh,” was the primary weight unit of ancient Israel, yet its valuation displays a certain degree of variability. The common shekel was approximately .41 ounces or 11.6 grams, the royal shekel about .46 ounces or 13 grams (2Sa 14:26) and the sanctuary shekel about .35 ounces or 9.9 grams (Lev 5:15). Subdivisions of the shekel include the beka, valued at half a sanctuary shekel (Ex 38:26), and the gerah, valued at .05 of a sanctuary shekel (Ex 30:13).

Since height and length were measured in ancient cultures by laying the forearm or hand upon an object, linear measures were named after the parts of the arm by which they were counted. The cubit, or “forearm,” was the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger and was used to measure height, depth and distance (Jos 3:4; 1Sa 17:4; Zec 5:2). While the Bible records varying cubit standards in the Hebrew system of measurement, the “ordinary cubit” was approximately 17.5 inches (44.5 cm). Other measures in decreasing size were: the span (Ex 39:9), counted as the breadth of an outstretched hand from thumb to little finger and equaling half a cubit; the palm (1Ki 7:26), the width of the base of the hand; and the width of the finger (Jer 52:21).

Capacity measures throughout the ancient Near East bore common names and were essentially similar. The homer, a “donkey load,” was equivalent to a cor, both equaling an average of 158.5 quarts (150 l) and used for cereals such as wheat and barley.³ The ephah, measuring .10 of a homer, was a vessel large enough to hold a person (Zec 5:6–8). An omer, meaning “small bowl,” was equivalent to .10 of an ephah and identified as the daily bread ration (Ex 16:32, 36). The bath³ and hin³ were the two major liquid measures used for water, wine and oil. The bath was the liquid equivalent of the ephah (2Ch 2:10; Isa 5:10), while the hin, named after a measuring vessel, was equal to .1666 of a bath (6.34 qts or 6 l).

1. See “Weights and Measures” in the back of this Bible.

2. See “Nabonidus and Belshazzar.”

3. A different assessment of the cor is reflected in the table of Weights and Measures in the back of this Bible. It is difficult at this time to determine which of the two figures—220 liters or 150 liters—is correct, and the standard may have varied from time to time. Differing assessments also apply to the bath and the hin.

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“A basket of ripe fruit,” I answered.

Then the LORD said to me, “The time is ripe for my people Israel; I will spare them no longer.^†

³“In that day,” declares the Sovereign LORD, “the songs in the temple will turn to wailing.^{[23] †} Many, many bodies—flung everywhere! Silence!^† ”

⁴Hear this, you who trample the needy

and do away with the poor^† of the land,^†

⁵saying,

“When will the New Moon be over

that we may sell grain,

and the Sabbath be ended

that we may market wheat?”—

skimping the measure,

boosting the price

and cheating with dishonest scales,^†

⁶buying the poor with silver

and the needy for a pair of sandals,

selling even the sweepings with the wheat.^†

⁷The LORD has sworn by the Pride of Jacob:^† “I will never forget^† anything they have done.

⁸“Will not the land tremble^† for this,

and all who live in it mourn?

The whole land will rise like the Nile;

it will be stirred up and then sink

like the river of Egypt.^†

⁹“In that day,” declares the Sovereign LORD,

“I will make the sun go down at noon

and darken the earth in broad daylight.^†

¹⁰I will turn your religious feasts into mourning

and all your singing into weeping.

I will make all of you wear sackcloth^†

and shave your heads.

I will make that time like mourning for an only son^†

and the end of it like a bitter day.^†

¹¹ “The days are coming,” declares the Sovereign LORD,

“when I will send a famine through the land—

not a famine of food or a thirst for water,

but a famine of hearing the words of the LORD.^†

¹²Men will stagger from sea to sea

and wander from north to east,

searching for the word of the LORD,

but they will not find it.^†

¹³“In that day

“the lovely young women and strong young men

will faint because of thirst.^†

¹⁴They who swear by the shame^[24] of Samaria,

or say, ‘As surely as your god lives, O Dan,’^†

or, ‘As surely as the god^[25] of Beersheba^† lives’—

they will fall,

never to rise again.^† ”

Amos 9

Israel to Be Destroyed

¹I saw the Lord standing by the altar, and he said:

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The Unity of Amos

Amos 9 Some scholars have argued that the latter part of Amos 9 is stylistically inferior to the rest of the book and that the book of Amos is actually a haphazard collection of writings from various authors that was compiled many years after the time of the prophet (Amos himself lived during the eighth century B.C.). In particular, many scholars believe that Amos did not write 9:11–15. However, this perspective denies the inherent unity that permeates the book. The linguistic and structural elements of Amos create a solid, cohesive work of literature. Indications of the book’s integration are as follows:

• Precise structure allows the work to be divided into logical sections, as outlined below (see also the briefer outline in the introduction):

Amos 1–2 describes judgment on eight nations with the pattern, “For three sins …, even for four …”

3:1–15 has an introduction and three parts; each begins with a lion metaphor (vv. 4, 8, 12).

4:1–13 describes deficits in Israel: The women lacked compassion, the shrines lacked holiness and the land lacked rain and crops.

8:7–9:15 is held together by parallels that not only show this as coherent text but imply that 9:11–15 belongs with the preceding text.

8:7–8: Yahweh swears an oath not to forget Israel’s sins (v. 7); the land will rise [heave] like the Nile (v. 8).

8:9–14: “In that day” (v. 9) there will be darkness and famine for Israel (vv. 10–14).

9:1–10: Yahweh stands on the altar and makes a solemn declaration to pursue Israelites wherever they flee (vv. 1–4; this parallels God’s oath in 8:7) and says that Samaria will rise like the Nile (vv. 5–10; this parallels v. 8:8).

9:11–15: “In that day” (v. 11; this parallels 8:9) there will be deliverance for Israel and abundant harvest (9:13; this parallels the famine in 8:11).

• The book employs inclusion, a literary device whereby the first and last sections (in this case, chs. 1 and 9) share several literary connections. For example,

Amos 1:2 refers to Carmel, which is not mentioned again until 9:3.

Judah, “David’s fallen tent” (v. 11), would be restored and rebuilt. This parallels the mention of “Zion” (Jerusalem) in 1:2.

Other parallels in vocabulary, literary technique and theme between chapter 9 and the rest of the book demonstrate that the text of Amos is indeed unified linguistically and artistically from beginning to end.

AN ALTERNATIVE OUTLINE FOR THE BOOK OF AMOS (see also introduction)

1:3–2:16 Judgment on eight nations (“For three sins …, even for four …”)

1:3–5 Damascus

1:6–8 Gaza

1:9–10 Tyre

1:11–12 Edom

1:13–15 Ammon

2:1–3 Moab

2:4–5 Judah

2:6–16 Israel

3:1–15 The lion roars.

3:1–2 Introduction

3:3–7 Rhetorical question: Will the lion roar when it has no prey?

3:8–11 Answer: The lion has roared, and Israel is the prey of the nations.

3:12–15 Aftermath: Israel will be consumed like a lamb in a lion’s mouth.

4:1–13 All is wrong in Israel.

4:1–3 The women are not compassionate.

4:4–5 The shrines are not holy.

4:6–13 The land is not fruitful.

5:1–6:14 Decadence and destruction

5:1–3 A.^* Lamentation over the house of Israel

5:4–7 B. False religious hopes

5:8–9 C. Yahweh is God over heaven and the stars.

5:10–15 D. The rich oppress the poor and take vineyards for wine.

5:16–17 A. Lamentation in the city and the vineyards

5:18–24 B. False religious hopes

5:25–27 C. Yahweh against the idols, the “star of your god”

6:1–7 D. They recline at feasts and drink wine.

6:8–14 Yahweh swears that Israel will be desolate.

7:1–8:6 Visions of judgment and false religion

7:1–9 A. Visions of destruction and a plumb line

7:10–17 B. A false priest

8:1–3 A. A vision of ripe fruit

8:4–6 B. False Sabbath observance

8:7–9:15 The day of Yahweh

8:7–8 A. Yahweh swears an oath not to forget (7).

B. The land will rise like the Nile (8).

8:9–14 B. “In that day” there will be darkness and famine for Israel.

9:1–10 B. Yahweh stands on the altar and makes a solemn declaration to pursue the Israelites wherever they flee (1–4). Also, Samaria will rise like the Nile (5–10).

9:11–15 B. “In that day” there will be deliverance for Israel and an abundant harvest.

Prepared by Duane A. Garrett

1. See “Famine in the Ancient Near East”].

* Italicized letters demonstrate parallel structure.

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“Strike the tops of the pillars

so that the thresholds shake.

Bring them down on the heads^† of all the people;

those who are left I will kill with the sword.

Not one will get away,

none will escape.

²Though they dig down to the depths of the grave,^{[26] †}

from there my hand will take them.

Though they climb up to the heavens,^†

from there I will bring them down.^†

³Though they hide themselves on the top of Carmel,^†

there I will hunt them down and seize them.^†

Though they hide from me at the bottom of the sea,

there I will command the serpent to bite them.^†

⁴Though they are driven into exile by their enemies,

there I will command the sword^† to slay them.

I will fix my eyes upon them

for evil^† and not for good.^† ”^†

⁵The Lord, the LORD Almighty,

he who touches the earth and it melts,^†

and all who live in it mourn—

the whole land rises like the Nile,

then sinks like the river of Egypt^† —

⁶he who builds his lofty palace^[27] in the heavens

and sets its foundation^[28] on the earth,

who calls for the waters of the sea

and pours them out over the face of the land—

the LORD is his name.^†

⁷“Are not you Israelites

the same to me as the Cushites^[29]? ”^†

declares the LORD.

“Did I not bring Israel up from Egypt,

the Philistines from Caphtor^{[30] †}

and the Arameans from Kir?^†

⁸“Surely the eyes of the Sovereign LORD

are on the sinful kingdom.

I will destroy it

from the face of the earth—

yet I will not totally destroy

the house of Jacob,”

declares the LORD.^†

⁹“For I will give the command,

and I will shake the house of Israel

among all the nations

as grain^† is shaken in a sieve,^†

and not a pebble will reach the ground.

¹⁰All the sinners among my people

will die by the sword,

all those who say,

‘Disaster will not overtake or meet us.’^†

Israel’s Restoration

¹¹“In that day I will restore

David’s fallen tent.

I will repair its broken places,

restore its ruins,

and build it as it used to be,^†

¹²so that they may possess the remnant of Edom^†

and all the nations that bear my name,^{[31] †} ”

declares the LORD, who will do these things.^†

¹³“The days are coming,” declares the LORD,

“when the reaper will be overtaken by the plowman^†

and the planter by the one treading grapes.

New wine will drip from the mountains

and flow from all the hills.^†

¹⁴I will bring back my exiled^[32] people Israel;

they will rebuild the ruined cities^† and live in them.

They will plant vineyards and drink their wine;

they will make gardens and eat their fruit.^†

¹⁵I will plant^† Israel in their own land,

never again to be uprooted

from the land I have given them,”

says the LORD your God.^†

OBADIAH

Author, Place and Date of Writing

We know nothing about Obadiah beyond his name, nor is the place of the book’s composition certain. The name itself (meaning “servant of Yahweh”) was fairly common, and the prophet Obadiah was clearly not the Obadiah of 1 Kings 18:3–16.

Obadiah did not specify that his message came at the time of any specific king or event. On the other hand, Obadiah 11–14 indicates that a major calamity had recently struck Judah and that the Edomites had capitalized on Judah’s troubles to their own advantage. Some scholars have proposed that this event was some preexilic setback that Judah had endured (e.g., 2Ch 21:16–17), but common sense and a broad consensus suggest that the calamity was in fact the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. From the Nabonidus Chronicle, an important Akkadian source for the history of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (now housed in the British Museum), we learn that Edom itself fell in 553 B.C. to Nabonidus of Babylon. This combination of factors suggests that Obadiah was written between 586 and 553 B.C.

Audience

Obadiah was written to the people of Judah about the Edomites (descendants of Esau), condemning them for their treachery and violence toward the people of Judah, as well as for their arrogance and indifference toward God.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Obadiah represents the culmination of prolonged tensions between Israel and Edom. Conflict between these nations dated back to the patriarchal period, when their respective ancestors, the twin brothers Esau and Jacob, had been at odds, and throughout their history the two nations had fought frequently (Nu 20:14–21; 1Sa 14:47; 1Ki 11:14; Isa 34:5). For all that, the people of Judah felt that the hostility shown them by Edom at what was possibly the lowest moment in their history was cruel and unjustified. The fact that God had rejected Esau (Ge 25:23; Mal 1:2–3; Ro 9:13) in no way excused Edom’s disdain for Israel. Obadiah assured his readers that Edom’s callousness and opportunism would not escape judgment, as indeed it did not.

The Old Testament contains other prophecies against Edom (Jer 49:7–22; La 4:21–22; Eze 25:12–14; 35:1–15), but Obadiah is the only book dedicated entirely to this purpose.

Timeline

As You Read

Consider Obadiah’s prophetic statements about the coming deliverance and restoration of God’s people in light of the book of Revelation, which informs believers that, while sometimes it appears that evil has the upper hand, Christ’s certain return will result in the ultimate victory of righteousness.

Did You Know?

• Edom’s arrogance was grounded in its virtually impregnable mountain strongholds (v. 3).
• The Edomites safeguarded their wealth—accumulated from trade—in vaults in the rocks (v. 6).
• Edom, particularly Teman, was known for its wise men. Eliphaz, one of Job’s three friends, was a Temanite (v. 8).

Themes

The book of Obadiah includes the following themes:

1. Judgment for Edom. This briefest of Old Testament books assured God’s people that God would punish those who abused them.
2. Deliverance and restoration for Israel. Obadiah teaches that God is sovereign over all nations. Although the enemies of God’s people may have experienced momentary glimpses of glory, they would ultimately be defeated by God and their lands given to his people (vv. 19–21).

Outline

I. Title and Introduction (1)

II. The Doom of Edom (2–14)

III. Edom in the Day of the Lord (15–21)

Obadiah 1

¹The vision of Obadiah.

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Edom

Obadiah Edom was located south of the Dead Sea and north of the Gulf of Aqaba (see “Map 4”). The region boasts numerous mountains over 5,000 feet (1,524 m) in height, some pasturage and a few oases. Many Edomite dwellings were cut into the faces of these high, craggy mountains and gave rise to Obadiah’s description of the Edomites as people “who live in the clefts of the rocks” and “soar like the eagle” (Ob 3–4). Some such ancient abodes are still visible today.

Edom prospered through its control of the major north-south caravan route, the “King’s Highway,”¹ as well as through the mining of iron and copper. A pre-Edomite Early Bronze² agricultural civilization flourished in this region, organized under seminomadic clan chiefs. Pharaohs were involved in Edom’s copper mines from the fourteenth to the twelfth centuries B.C., and thus the area is mentioned often in Egyptian documents.

As descendants of Esau, the twin brother of the patriarch Jacob, the Edomites were considered “brothers” by Israel (cf. vv. 10–12). Moses unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate passage for the Israelites through the territory of the king of Edom. Saul fought against the Edomites, but David conquered Edom. His general, Joab, killed many adult males during a six-month occupation, although Hadad, a royal heir, escaped to Egypt (1Ki 11:14–22). Edom revolted from under Joram (c. 851 B.C.), but later Amaziah (c. 800 B.C.) captured its capital, Sela, and renamed it Joktheel. Edomites sometimes raided Judah (e.g., 2Ch 20; 28:16–17).

From 734 B.C. until the fall of Jerusalem, Edom was under Assyrian domination.³ Assyrian records mention three Edomite kings as tributaries: Qaus-malaku (732 B.C.), Aiarammu (701 B.C.) and Qaus-gabri (629 B.C.). Edom prospered under Assyrian control, and its population increased considerably. Evidence of Edomite settlement during this period appears at several sites in southern Judah. Obadiah indicates that the Edomites participated in the 586 B.C. destruction of Jerusalem.⁴

During the postexilic period Edom proper was overrun by Arabs until the Nabateans became established there.⁵ Edomites (who were during the postexilic period called Idumeans) established Hebron as their capital.⁶ John Hyrcanus forcibly converted the Idumeans to Judaism in approximately 120 B.C. Antipater, an Idumean, became governor of Judea, and his son Herod ruled the region as king.⁷ After the Roman destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) Idumea and the Idumeans disappeared from history.

1. See “Caravan Trading and Routes in the Ancient Near East.”

2. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

3. See “Assyria From the Neo-Assyrian Period Forward.”

4. See “The Last Days of Jerusalem.”

5. See “Aretas IV of Nabatea and Petra.”

6. See “Hebron.”

7. See “Herod the Great.”

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This is what the Sovereign LORD says about Edom^† —

We have heard a message from the LORD:

An envoy^† was sent to the nations to say,

“Rise, and let us go against her for battle”^† —

²“See, I will make you small among the nations;

you will be utterly despised.

³The pride^† of your heart has deceived you,

you who live in the clefts of the rocks^[1]

and make your home on the heights,

you who say to yourself,

‘Who can bring me down to the ground?’^†

⁴Though you soar like the eagle

and make your nest^† among the stars,

from there I will bring you down,”^†

declares the LORD.^†

⁵“If thieves came to you,

if robbers in the night—

Oh, what a disaster awaits you—

would they not steal only as much as they wanted?

If grape pickers came to you,

would they not leave a few grapes?^†

⁶But how Esau will be ransacked,

his hidden treasures pillaged!

⁷All your allies^† will force you to the border;

your friends will deceive and overpower you;

those who eat your bread^† will set a trap for you,^[2]

but you will not detect it.

⁸“In that day,” declares the LORD,

“will I not destroy^† the wise men of Edom,

men of understanding in the mountains of Esau?

⁹Your warriors, O Teman,^† will be terrified,

and everyone in Esau’s mountains

will be cut down in the slaughter.

¹⁰Because of the violence^† against your brother Jacob,^†

you will be covered with shame;

you will be destroyed forever.^†

¹¹On the day you stood aloof

while strangers carried off his wealth

and foreigners entered his gates

and cast lots^† for Jerusalem,

you were like one of them.

¹²You should not look down on your brother

in the day of his misfortune,

nor rejoice^† over the people of Judah

in the day of their destruction,^†

nor boast so much

in the day of their trouble.^†

¹³You should not march through the gates of my people

in the day of their disaster,

nor look down on them in their calamity^†

in the day of their disaster,

nor seize their wealth

in the day of their disaster.

¹⁴You should not wait at the crossroads

to cut down their fugitives,

nor hand over their survivors

in the day of their trouble.

¹⁵“The day of the LORD is near^†

for all nations.

As you have done, it will be done to you;

your deeds^† will return upon your own head.

¹⁶Just as you drank on my holy hill,

so all the nations will drink^† continually;

they will drink and drink

and be as if they had never been.

¹⁷But on Mount Zion will be deliverance;^†

it will be holy,^†

and the house of Jacob

will possess its inheritance.

¹⁸The house of Jacob will be a fire

and the house of Joseph a flame;

the house of Esau will be stubble,

and they will set it on fire and consume^† it.

There will be no survivors

from the house of Esau.”

The LORD has spoken.

¹⁹People from the Negev will occupy

the mountains of Esau,

and people from the foothills will possess

the land of the Philistines.^†

They will occupy the fields of Ephraim and Samaria,^†

and Benjamin will possess Gilead.

²⁰This company of Israelite exiles who are in Canaan

will possess [the land] as far as Zarephath;^†

the exiles from Jerusalem who are in Sepharad

will possess the towns of the Negev.^†

²¹Deliverers will go up on^[3] Mount Zion

to govern the mountains of Esau.

And the kingdom will be the LORD ’s.^†

JONAH

Author, Place and Date of Writing

The book of Jonah is among the most controversial in the Old Testament, interpreted by various scholars as either history or fiction. If the story is factual, then Jonah either wrote it himself or was the author’s primary source. Almost everything in the book stems from the direct experiences of the prophet, and even details outside of his personal knowledge (e.g., the sailors making a sacrifice to the Lord at 1:16 and the ritual lamentation of the king of Nineveh at 3:6) could have been surmised or learned by him at a later time. If the story is a fictionalized account, its authorship is unknown.

The matter of the date of the book of Jonah is closely related to the question of whether the work is historical or fictional. The events of the book of Jonah, if historical, probably took place around 785–770 B.C. If this is the case, the work was almost certainly written during the eighth century B.C. If it is merely a story, it could have been written at any time after the eighth century, although scholars who believe this story is fiction concur that the work is probably postexilic, written at a time when Nineveh was only a distant memory.

See “The Historicity of the Book of Jonah.”

Audience

Assuming that Jonah’s story is a factual account, the book was addressed to the northern kingdom (Israel) during the reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 B.C.), a time of great territorial and commercial expansion.

Cultural Facts and Highlights

Nineveh’s historical situation during this period may explain the readiness of the king and his people to accept Jonah’s message. Assyrian power was at a particularly low point during the reign of Assur-dan III (773–756 B.C.). Assyria had suffered military reverses, diplomatic setbacks, famine and domestic uprisings. In addition, an eclipse had taken place on June 15, 763 B.C., and this could have been regarded as a terrible omen (there had also been an eclipse in 784 B.C.). With all of this going on, it is not surprising that the Ninevites would have been especially jittery and ready to pay attention to a foreign prophet who suddenly appeared in their city.

Timeline

As You Read

Be attuned to the prophet’s negative attitude as he nevertheless followed through—after a major act of rebellion and a dramatic turnabout—with his God-given mandate. Notice, for instance, his pronouncement to God that he was “angry enough to die” when the vine withered and his shade was gone (4:9). What do these details say about God’s willingness and ability to use human beings, whatever their limitations or petty complaints?

How does the book’s abrupt ending (an unanswered, rhetorical question of God) leave you feeling? Do you sense a need for closure of the human story, or is the divine “last word” sufficient from your perspective?

Did You Know?

• The sailors understood Jonah’s description of God as being characteristic of the highest deity, for in the religions of the ancient Near East the supreme god was usually the master of the seas (1:9)
• The Hebrew for “great fish” and the Greek for “huge fish” in Matthew 12:40 are both general terms for a large sea creature, not necessarily (but possibly) a whale (1:17).
• The Assyrians, instead of numbering their years, named them after certain rulers and powerful men (3:4).

Themes

Jonah’s themes include:

1. God’s sovereignty. God is in control of life, nature and all circumstances (1:4, 9, 15, 17; 2:10; 4:6–8). The God of all peoples, he is concerned about everyone and everything (including the animals) he has created (4:11). Finally, he will bring his all-encompassing plan to completion.
2. God’s compassion and mercy. God loves even the adversaries of his people and will show them mercy when they repent (3:10; 4:2, 11). He demands obedience (1:1–17) but is also the God of second chances.
3. Mission. Jonah foreshadows the New Testament mission to proclaim God’s message to the whole world (1:1–2; 3:1–2), even to those who oppose it (4:11; Mt 5:44). As God’s ambassadors they are to announce this call: “Be reconciled to God” (2Co 5:20), for wickedness brings punishment (Jnh 1–2; 3:4), but “salvation comes from the LORD” (2:9).

Outline

I. Jonah Flees From God (1–2)

A. Jonah’s Commission and Flight (1:1–3)

B. The Storm (1:4–6)

C. Jonah’s Disobedience Exposed (1:7–10)

D. Jonah’s Punishment and Deliverance (1:11–2:1; 2:10)

E. Jonah’s Prayer (2:2–9)

II. Jonah Reluctantly Fulfills His Mission (3–4)

A. Jonah’s Response (3:1–4)

B. The Ninevites’ Response (3:5–9)

C. The Ninevites’ Repentance (3:10–4:4)

D. Jonah’s Deliverance and Rebuke (4:5–11)

Jonah 1

Jonah Flees From the LORD

¹The word of the LORD came to Jonah^† son of Amittai:^{† 2}“Go to the great city of Nineveh^† and preach against it, because its wickedness has come up before me.”

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Joppa

Jonah 1 Joppa (“Map 7”), which means “beautiful,” was located on the Mediterranean coast at Jaffa, just south of modern Tel Aviv. It was the only natural harbor between Acco (“Map 6”) and Egypt. Timber from Lebanon passed through this seaport on its way to Jerusalem for use in the construction of the temples built by Solomon (2Ch 2:16)¹ and Zerubbabel (Ezr 3:7). The prophet Jonah departed from Joppa in an attempt to flee God’s call to go to Nineveh.² The Danites had earlier received this city as part of their tribal allotment (Jos 19:46) but had moved north to Laish because of their inability to gain control of their allotted territory.³

One of the few port cities on the coast of the Holy Land, Joppa was a city that attracted kings from the entire region. It is mentioned frequently in ancient sources, which attest to the wide variety of powers that controlled the city:

• The Egyptian Harris Papyrus describes how the city was taken by Thutmose III (fifteenth century B.C.), who, in a Trojan-horse maneuver, sent the city’s ruler a gift of baskets in which were hidden his soldiers.

• The city is also mentioned in two of the Amarna⁴ Letters (fourteenth century B.C.), which indicate that Joppa was an Egyptian stronghold during the Eighteenth Dynasty.⁵

• Egyptian dominance evidently continued into the Nineteenth Dynasty; stone doorjambs excavated in Joppa were inscribed with the name and titles of Rameses II (thirteenth century B.C.).

• In light of its location on the northern edge of Philistine territory, a Philistine presence is to be expected after the twelfth century B.C., and indeed Philistine pottery from the eleventh century B.C. has been unearthed there.

• The city was evidently under Israelite jurisdiction during the Solomonic period (2Ch 2:16) and perhaps again under the dynasty of Omri, although available sources do not explicitly claim Israelite control during either of these periods.

• The city was also conquered by the Assyrians. Sennacherib (in his “prism stele”) lists Joppa among the cities he captured during his 701 B.C. campaign.⁶

• Joppa remained a prized city during the Persian period. A sarcophagus inscription of Eshmunezer, king of the Phoenician city of Sidon (“Map 7”), reveals that Joppa, through a donation of the Persian king, was subject to Phoenician authority. Eshmunezer claims that the “Lord of Kings” (the Persian ruler) conferred upon him control of Dor and Joppa, “which are in the plain of Sharon,” as a reward for his faithful service.

• The Phoenicians were not always loyal to Persia, however, and in the fourth century B.C. they engaged in a rebellion against Persian rule. Artaxerxes III destroyed Sidon in 358 B.C.,⁷ and Joppa became liberated from Phoenician rule.

• Soon afterward, however, Joppa came under the control of a series of Greek rulers. Two coins of Alexander the Great, who entered this region around 332 B.C., have been uncovered there. The city did enjoy a degree of independence under the Ptolemaic Greek rulers of Egypt.

• Joppa was conquered by the Jewish Hasmonean ruler Simon around 144 B.C. This was a matter of great importance to the Jewish state, as it offered an outlet to the sea. The Hasmonean Alexander Jannaeus struck a large quantity of coins stamped with an anchor on one side to celebrate Jewish control over the city.

• Roman rule began with the conquests of Pompey the Great (64 B.C.). Judea thus lost control of Joppa, but Augustus placed it under the authority of Herod in approximately 30 B.C.⁸

As the port city of Judea, Joppa was important to the New Testament church. It was in Joppa that the apostle Peter raised Tabitha from the dead (Ac 9:36–43), experienced his vision indicating that God would accept the faith of Gentiles and subsequently preached the gospel to Cornelius (Ac 10).

1. See “Solomon’s Temple and Other Ancient Temples.”

2. See “Nineveh.”

3. See “The Migration of the Danites.”

4. See Glossary for definitions of bolded words.

5. See “The Amarna Tablets and the Habiru.”

6. See “The Sennacherib Prism.”

7. See “Sidon.”

8. See “Herod the Great.”

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³But Jonah ran^† away from the LORD and headed for Tarshish. He went down to Joppa,^† where he found a ship bound for that port. After paying the fare, he went aboard and sailed for Tarshish to flee from the LORD.

⁴Then the LORD sent a great wind on the sea, and such a violent storm arose that the ship threatened to break up.^{† 5}All the sailors were afraid and each cried out to his own god. And they threw the cargo into the sea to lighten the ship.^†

But Jonah had gone below deck, where he lay down and fell into a deep sleep. ⁶The captain went to him and said, “How can you sleep? Get up and call^† on your god! Maybe he will take notice of us, and we will not perish.”^†

⁷Then the sailors said to each other, “Come, let us cast lots to find out who is responsible for this calamity.”^† They cast lots and the lot fell on Jonah.

⁸So they asked him, “Tell us, who is responsible for making all this trouble for us? What do you do? Where do you come from? What is your country? From what people are you?”

⁹He answered, “I am a Hebrew and I worship the LORD, the God of heaven,^† who made the sea and the land.^† ”

¹⁰This terrified them and they asked, “What have you done?” (They knew he was running away from the LORD, because he had already told them so.)

¹¹The sea was getting rougher and rougher. So they asked him, “What should we do to you to make the sea calm down for us?”

¹²“Pick me up and throw me into the sea,” he replied, “and it will become calm. I know that it is my fault that this great storm has come upon you.”^†

¹³Instead, the men did their best to row back to land. But they could not, for the sea grew even wilder than before.^{† 14}Then they cried to the LORD, “O LORD, please do not let us die for taking this man’s life. Do not hold us accountable for killing an innocent man,^† for you, O LORD, have done as you pleased.”^{† 15}Then they took Jonah and threw him overboard, and the raging sea grew calm.^{† 16}At this the men greatly feared^† the LORD, and they offered a sacrifice to the LORD and made vows to him.

¹⁷But the LORD provided a great fish to swallow Jonah,^† and Jonah was inside the fish three days and three nights.

Jonah 2

Jonah’s Prayer

¹From inside the fish Jonah prayed to the LORD his God. ²He said:

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Seafaring in the Ancient World

Jonah 2 Seafaring in the ancient Near East extends back well into the third millennium B.C., a period during which Egyptian sources refer to the “Byblos ship” (a term that signified any large, seafaring vessel). Such ships carried the valuable cedars of Lebanon and other prized timber from the northern Levant (Syria-Palestine) to Egypt.¹ During the second millennium B.C. Ugaritic letters also report seafaring trade along coastal Canaan.² A shipwrecked vessel from around 1300 B.C. near Uluburun, Turkey, managed to preserve its cargo of olives, pomegranates, figs, various spices and nuts. Twelfth-century B.C. pictures from Medinet Habu carved into the temple of the Egyptian pharaoh Rameses III depict the naval battle between the Egyptians and the Sea Peoples, a mysterious new emigrant group who brought with them naval technology that revolutionized seafaring in the Near East.

The Phoenicians were especially great naval innovators, building a maritime trading empire that extended west to Carthage and beyond.³ Two eighth-century Phoenician shipwrecked crafts laden with wine amphorae have been located in the Mediterranean, approximately 31 miles (50 km) from Ashkelon (“Map 6”). The Bible also speaks of Phoenician maritime skill in 1 Kings 9:26–28, where Solomon is said to have established a fleet at Ezion Geber, on the shore of the Red Sea, staffed by Phoenician sailors to make the run to Ophir for the gold trade. It is clear that seafaring already boasted a long history by the time of Jonah.

Joppa, on the Mediterranean coast, was one of the major seaports in the region during Jonah’s day. Ships of Tarshish were heavy, seagoing vessels perhaps named for a geographical location or for their metallurgical cargo. Scholars once speculated that ships of this time hugged the coast and did not venture into deeper waters, but this is no longer believed to have been the case; the ship Jonah took was probably capable of going far out to sea. The most likely geographical candidates for Tarshish are Tartessus in southwestern Spain or Tarsus in southeastern Asia Minor ⁴ (“Map 12”). Despite this ambiguity, it is clear that Jonah knew he could flee west from Joppa aboard a ship. Yet he would soon discover that not even these mighty vessels and their advanced Phoenician technology could separate the Lord’s prophet from the God of Israel.

1. See “Cedars of Lebanon.”

2. See “Ugarit/Ras Shamra.”

3. See “Phoenicia.”

4. See “Where Was Tarshish?.”

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“In my distress I called to the LORD,^†

and he answered me.

From the depths of the grave^[1] I called for help,

and you listened to my cry.

³You hurled me into the deep,^†

into the very heart of the seas,

and the currents swirled about me;

all your waves and breakers

swept over me.^†

⁴I said, ‘I have been banished

from your sight;^†

yet I will look again

toward your holy temple.’

⁵The engulfing waters threatened me,^[2]

the deep surrounded me;

seaweed was wrapped around my head.^†

⁶To the roots of the mountains I sank down;

the earth beneath barred me in forever.

But you brought my life up from the pit,

O LORD my God.

⁷“When my life was ebbing away,

I remembered^† you, LORD,

and my prayer^† rose to you,

to your holy temple.^†

⁸“Those who cling to worthless idols^†

forfeit the grace that could be theirs.

⁹But I, with a song of thanksgiving,

will sacrifice^† to you.

What I have vowed^† I will make good.

Salvation^† comes from the LORD.”

¹⁰And the LORD commanded the fish, and it vomited Jonah onto dry land.

Jonah 3

Jonah Goes to Nineveh

¹Then the word of the LORD came to Jonah^† a second time: ²“Go to the great city of Nineveh and proclaim to it the message I give you.”

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The Historicity of the Book of Jonah

Jonah 3 There is no question that Jonah was a historical person; he is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25, where he is said to have predicted the expansion of Israel during the reign of Jeroboam II. The fact that Jonah was cited for having made a prediction of military success suggests that he was one of the more nationalistic and militaristic prophets, perhaps not too different from Zedekiah, whom the prophet Micaiah opposed in 1 Kings 22. This, in itself, however, sheds no light on whether the book of Jonah is a factual, historical account. If it is pure fiction, its author could have used this prophet as a character because he wanted to make a point about divine compassion: God, in showing mercy to the Ninevites, humbled this angry, super-patriotic prophet.

Arguments against reading Jonah as history are as follows:

• Jonah 3:9 is similar to Joel 2:14, suggesting that Jonah was a late work, written long after the lifetime of the historical prophet.

• The story of Jonah’s being swallowed alive by a “great fish” seems too far-fetched to be believable.

• Jonah’s psalm (ch. 2) makes no sense in context. The prophet is depicted as praising God for his salvation while still inside the fish.

• The account lacks evidence of a real understanding of Nineveh and its history. For example, the author greatly exaggerated the city’s size in claiming that it would require three days to cross it on foot (3:3).

• There is no historical record that Nineveh experienced a mass revival or conversion (ch. 3).

It is possible, however, to convincingly address these arguments:

• It is notoriously difficult to prove which Old Testament text is original when two books contain similar wording. There would be no way in this case to determine whether Jonah or Joel was original or whether the authors of both were merely employing common language.

• The story of the great fish is miraculous only in the sense that God supernaturally provided a whale to swallow Jonah. There are three critical issues here:

The great fish may indeed have been a large whale, which would not normally have been found in the eastern Mediterranean, but the provision of the whale so far from its usual habitat is the miraculous part of the account.

The word for “belly” (a term used in some translations, though not in the NIV) in Hebrew is imprecise and does not necessarily mean “stomach.” Jonah may have been in the oral cavity of a large-mouthed whale.

A whale, being a mammal, is a warm-blooded air breather that periodically resurfaces for air. It therefore would have provided Jonah with oxygen, while its body heat would have prevented the prophet from being overcome with hypothermia.

• The psalm of Jonah 2 is intelligible if we reconstruct events as follows: (1) Jonah, cast overboard during a storm and unable to swim, sank immediately (2:6). (2) A whale scooped him up and carried him to the surface, allowing him to breathe. (3) When the whale kept Jonah near the surface, the prophet recognized God’s provision and was able to praise him.

• Jonah 3:3 says literally that Nineveh was a “three-day walk,” a possible reference to walking straight across the middle of the city or around its perimeter. But Jonah was required to walk to every neighborhood and proclaim his message of warning.

• The Ninevites’ repentance by no means indicates that they became worshipers of Yahweh or converted to the Israelites’ religion but suggests that they ritually asked God to spare them. Historically, this was a short-lived event—unlikely to have shown up in the city’s annals.

Those who regard Jonah as postexilic fiction typically view the work as a counter to the nationalistic zeal of Ezra and Nehemiah. The book presents pagans as ready to repent (chs. 1 and 3) and portrays the Israelite prophet as disobedient, angry and vengeful. There is no doubt that the book of Jonah makes the point that God is compassionate to all people and cares about the Gentiles just as he does about Israel. It is unnecessary, however, to take it to be a postexilic work or a critique of Ezra and Nehemiah. If, as suggested above, Jonah was a nationalistic prophet along the lines of Zedekiah in 1 Kings 22, the events he experienced and the book itself were a corrective to this misguided zeal. God is, as Jonah himself confessed, the maker both of the sea and of the dry land (Jnh 1:9), and he does not play favorites in the manner Jonah would have liked.

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