2:11 Little is narrated in the book of Exodus regarding the early period of the life of Moses. Stephen in his address to the Sanhedrin (Ac 7:22) asserted that Moses was not only instructed in the science and learning of the Egyptians but also was endowed with oratorical ability and distinctive leadership qualities. The court of Egypt provided educational facilities for royal heirs or tributary princes from city-states of the Syro-Palestinian territory subject to the Egyptian rulers. Consequently Moses may have had classmates from as far north as the Euphrates River in his educational experiences in the Egyptian court.

2:14 While the Hebrew word for “judge” could also refer to a deliverer (see Ac 7:35), it was often used for “ruler” in the Old Testament (e.g., Ge 18:25) and in ancient Canaan.

2:15 The Midianites were named after one of Abraham’s younger sons by his wife Keturah (see Ge 25:2). See also “Midian.”

3:1 As shepherd of his father-in-law’s flocks, Moses gained firsthand geographical knowledge of the territory surrounding the Gulf of Aqabah. Little did he realize that through this area he would one day lead the great nation of Israel!

4:25–26 Circumcision was practiced for various reasons among many peoples of the ancient Near East. See the note on Genesis 17:10. Originally the father performed the rite of circumcision, but in exceptional cases a woman could do so. (see “Circumcision in the Ancient World.”)

5:1 The Israelites had to leave Egypt in order to sacrifice because the Egyptians found their sacrifices “detestable” (8:26).

7:1 In Egypt, the pharaoh was considered divine. So by calling Moses “God,” the Lord was beating Pharaoh at his own game. Moses was “God” to Pharaoh in that God was acting through him, and Moses would be the one through whom God would bring salvation to Israel.

7:11 Through his or her use of magic the wonder-worker possesses a formula that causes a predicted result. The alleged supernatural power is controlled by the performer. In miracles of God, on the other hand, the results depend wholly upon the divine will; the one who works the miracle is simply an agent for the Lord.
According to tradition, two of the magicians who opposed Moses were named Jannes and Jambres (see 2Ti 3:8; Jannes is also mentioned in the Dead Sea Scrolls). See “The Egyptian Priests and Their Snakes.”

7:14–24 When the Nile is at flood stage in June, its water turns red from soil brought down from Ethiopia. The water is still fit to drink, and the fish do not die. When the river is at its lowest, in May, the water is sometimes red and unfit to drink, and fish do die. The Egyptians had to dig wells, into which the river water would filter through sand. Evidently God directed Moses to lift up his rod at precisely the right time. Once the time was disclosed the Egyptian magicians were able to do likewise.

7:20–21 The Nile’s life-giving water was the source of Egypt’s greatness as a civilization, and the Egyptians worshiped it. An attack on the Nile was nothing less than an attack on Egypt and its gods.

7:24 The sandy soil near the riverbank filtered the water (see the note on vv. 14–24). Literal blood would not have been filtered by sand.

8:1–15 When the annual flood waters recede, frogs spawn in the marshes and invade the dry ground. God apparently directed Moses to lift up his rod at such a time. This sign the Egyptian magicians also claimed to produce (see again the note on 7:14–24).

8:16–19 The precise insect intended here is uncertain. So many biting, stinging pests abound in Egypt that people might not have been discriminating in naming them. The magicians failed, by their own admission, to reproduce this plague.

8:20–31 Moses’ staff is no longer mentioned. Swarms of flies enveloped Egypt in unusual density to feed on the dead frogs. Once again, God directed Moses as to the time. The magicians no longer competed with Moses, and now there was a differentiation between Goshen and the rest of Egypt. Pharaoh tentatively offered to let the people go to sacrifice to their God, but only in the land of Egypt (v. 25). Moses protested that their sacrifice would involve an animal the Egyptians thought it improper to sacrifice and insisted that they must travel a three days’ journey into the wilderness.

9:1–11 The plague on cattle was announced with a set time for its occurrence, and there is no record of its removal. Presumably it wore itself out. The Israelite cattle were spared, as evidence of God’s favor and power.

9:9 The precise nature of the “festering boils” has provoked much speculation and two alternative explanations: (1) People and livestock were infected with virtually the same disease, called smallpox in humans and cowpox in cattle, the germ of cowpox being originally utilized for vaccination against smallpox. (2) The “terrible plague” (v. 3) was anthrax in animals, later transmitted to people as malignant pustule (anthrax). Untreated, anthrax is a fatal, infectious disease, chiefly of cattle and sheep, characterized by the formulation of hard lumps and ulcers and symptoms of collapse. In humans, without modern therapy, it is often fatal.

9:13–35 Hail (which rarely occurs in Egypt) descended in unusual violence. Egyptians who feared the word of the Lord brought their cattle in out of the coming storm. Those who did not do so lost them all to the violent hail. The hand of God directed its local incidence. The season must have been January or February.

9:23–24 Hailstorms, though rare, sometimes take place in the Near East in the spring and summer and do considerable damage to crops, even harming property and endangering life. Plagues of hail are mentioned here and in Joshua 10:11. The prophets spoke of hail as a means of punishing the wicked (Isa 28:2; Eze 38:22; Rev 8:7; 11:19).

9:29 Archaeologists have found statues of men praying with hands upraised at several ancient sites in the Middle East.

9:32 Grains of spelt, a member of the grass family, have been discovered in ancient Egyptian tombs. Although spelt is inferior to wheat, it grows well in poorer, drier soil.

10:4 In March or April swarms of migratory locusts were carried in by the prevailing east winds (see v. 13). At this phase (see “Locusts in the Ancient Near East”) locusts are immature and at their most voracious stage. As is true of susceptible areas today, locust plagues were greatly feared in ancient times. They became a symbol of divine judgment (see Joel 1:4–7; 2:1–11; Am 7:1–3).

10:21–23 A sandstorm, accentuated by the dust-bowl condition of the land and borne on the west wind that drove off the locusts, may well have brought a tawny, choking darkness. The plague of darkness was almost certainly a challenge against Ra (sometimes spelled Re), an Egyptian sun god. This would have been a direct confrontation against Pharaoh, since Egyptian kings were referred to as sons of Ra.
Some suggest that the ninth plague was meant to demonstrate Yahweh’s superiority over Ra (or Re), the sun god (12:21–23). It is interesting that Joseph, after having been made food administrator of the land of Egypt, married the daughter of the priest of On of the cult of Ra (Ge 41:45).

11:1–12:30 Even if these deaths were due to bubonic plague, as many suspect, the incidence on the firstborn alone remains unexplained. Bubonic plague is said to afflict the strongest individuals, but this again does not explain why only the firstborn died.

12:2 The precise geographical and chronological details of this period have been difficult to determine, but new information from vast amounts of fragmentary archaeological and inscriptional evidence has recently been discovered. Hittite cuneiform documents are similar in content to the ancient covenant formula governing Israel’s “contract” with God at Mount Sinai. The Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 B.C.) was a time of major social migrations. The harsh control of the Egyptians over the Semites in the eastern Nile delta is illustrated by a system of brick-making quotas imposed on the labor force, often the landless, low-class “Apiru” (see the note on Ge 14:13). Numerous Canaanite towns were violently destroyed. New populations, including the “Sea Peoples,” made their presence felt in Anatolia, Egypt, Canaan, Transjordan and elsewhere in the eastern Mediterranean.

12:14–20 Yeast (“leaven” in some translations) was excluded from the Passover (12:14–20; 23:15; 34:18; Dt 16:2–4) because of Israel’s haste in leaving Egypt (Ex 12:11, 29; Dt 16:3). However, the Passover as a type of Christ (see note on yeast at Ex 29:2), who was wholly free of corruption, must also be taken into account here (cf. 1Co 5:7–8).

13:9 Phylacteries (also called “signs,” “reminders” or “frontlets”) are small, black, cube-shaped leather boxes that Orthodox and other conservative Jewish males aged thirteen years of age and older often wear on their arms/hands and foreheads during weekday morning prayers. The purpose of phylacteries was (and still is) to remind the Israelites/Jewish people of God’s deliverance and of their duty to remain faithful to his commands.
Mentioned in three Biblical passages (see also Dt 6:4–9; 11:13–21), phylacteries contain parchments with these same Biblical passages written on them. Phylacteries before and during Jesus’ time often included the Ten Commandments as well.
Head-phylacteries are divided into four compartments, each holding a separate parchment. The oldest discovered head-phylactery was found at Qumran (see “Biblical Interpretation at Qumran and Among the Early Rabbis”). Arm-phylacteries have no partitions; a single parchment includes all three Biblical passages.
It is unclear whether or not the Exodus and Deuteronomy texts were meant to be taken literally, since the commands about binding found in Proverbs 6:20–21 and 7:1–3 are not considered to be literal.

13:19 Embalming was a process of Egyptian origin intended to preserve a body from decay (see the note on Ge 50:2–3). The only clear instances of it in the Bible are of Jacob and Joseph. Joseph had ordered his slaves, the physicians, to embalm his father (Ge 50:2–3), a process that required 40 days, and later Joseph himself had been embalmed (Ge 50:26). The purpose of the Egyptians in embalming was to preserve the body for the use of the soul in a future life. The purpose of the Hebrews, however, was to preserve the bodies of Jacob and Joseph for the long journey to their resting place with Abraham (Ge 50:13). In the case of Joseph, centuries elapsed before burial in the ancestral tomb (Ex 13:19; Jos 24:32).

14:19 The Hebrew word shekînâh (“dwelling of God”), though not occurring in the Bible, is employed by some Jews and by Christians to describe the visible presence of the Lord. It is alluded to in such places as Isaiah 60:2 by the phrase “his glory” and in Romans 9:4 by “the divine glory.” Moses called this the “pillar of cloud.” Its first appearance occurred for a twofold purpose when Israel was being led by Moses out of Egypt: It hid the Israelites from the pursuing Egyptians and lighted the way at night for Israel (13:21; 14:19–20). To the Egyptians it was a cloud of darkness, but to Israel a cloud of light. It later covered Sinai when God spoke with Moses (24:15–18), filled the tabernacle (40:34–35), guided Israel (40:36–38) and filled Solomon’s temple (2Ch 7:1), and it was frequently seen in connection with Christ’s ministry in the New Testament (Mt 17:5; Ac 1:9).

15:13 A theocracy may be defined as a government in which God himself is the ruler. In one sense every ancient Near Eastern nation was a theocracy in that in each one the king was regarded either as a god (e.g., Egypt) or as the chosen representative of a god (most Mesopotamian states). See “The Ancient Near Eastern King.” On the other hand, the one true theocracy in history was the Biblical state of Israel. The theocratic ideal of Israel was a loose confederation with no central authority and thus no possibility of oppressive monarchial rule—a typical trait of “theocratic” states. Faith in God, pilgrimages to the central shrine (see “Israelite Shrines and Worship Before the Temple of Solomon”) and loyalty to the covenant were to be the unifying factors for the nation of Israel. This was the situation during the judges period, but the ideal was perverted by the apostasy of the people. The confederation proving to have been a failure, Samuel acceded to their demand, “Now appoint a king to lead us, such as all the other nations have” (1Sa 8:5).

15:20–21 A woman who exercised the prophetic gift in ancient Israel or in the early church was referred to as a prophetess. In general she would possess the charismatic gifts and powers characterizing the prophets themselves. There are at least five women bearing this designation in the Old Testament: Miriam (15:20), Deborah (Jdg 4:4), Huldah (2Ki 22:14), Noadiah (Ne 6:14) and the unnamed wife of Isaiah, who bore him children to whom he gave prophetic names (Isa 8:3). In the New Testament there was Anna (Lk 2:36), and Philip the evangelist is said to have had four unmarried daughters who prophesied (Ac 21:8–9). After Pentecost the differentiation between sexes regarding prophetic gifts was eliminated (Ac 2:17; cf. Joel 2:28).
Dancing was usually performed by women, with one leading. In this instance, as well as on other occasions, a form of antiphonal (responsive) singing was used, and the dancing usually took place out of doors.

16:4 The Hebrew word mân means “question”; prefixed to hu the question would be What is it? On the other hand, the word may be an adaptation of the Egyptian mennu, or food. Josephus and other ancient writers attributed the name to the question, Is it food? Precisely what manna was has puzzled naturalists for ages. It came at night, resembling hoarfrost and dropping with the dew (Nu 11:9), and it may have collected in dewdrops (Ex 16:4). It was white, flavorful and resembled the seed of the coriander, a plant of the eastern Mediterranean area that was both tasty and nourishing (v. 31). That it came by miraculous means is shown by its nature, its time of coming and its preservation over the Sabbath (vv 10–26; Dt 8:3). Being seed-like in form, it had to be ground (Nu 11:7–8) in order to be eaten. As soon as other food became available the provision of manna ceased.
No known substance meets the description of this food. A tamarisk plant that grows along the route of the Hebrews from Sinai exudes a sweet liquid that collects at night on twigs and falls to the ground. After sunrise it disappears unless it is protected. But this plant produces the food for only a brief period each year. Other naturalists would identify manna with a peculiar, mossy plant that at maturity is round and eaten with honey. But neither is it available for the entire year.
Asaph called manna “grain of heaven” (Ps 78:24; some translations use “corn”), and it is also called “bread of heaven” (Ps 105:40). Other Hebrew writers referred to it as “angels’ bread” (2Es 2:1; WS 16:20—both Apocryphal books). The apostle John called it spiritual food—a hidden agent for spiritual sustenance for the risen saints (Rev 2:17).

16:13 The quail is a small, migratory game bird that exists in some 130 species. It lives at ground level in pasture, scrubland, arable crops, etc. Able to fly short distances at a comparatively rapid speed, the quail has some similarity to the partridge but is somewhat smaller, reaching a length of about 7 inches (18 cm). Like the partridge, the quail is a dust-bather, and it shares a similar diet of fruit, leaves and insects.
In Bible times quail were seen in large flocks, traveling most often over short distances. The birds’ abundance as food for the Israelites occurred as large numbers of the Coturnix quail fell exhausted to the ground following their long flight from Africa, where they had spent the winter (16:13; Ps 105:40). The profusion of the birds is graphically described in Numbers 11:31. The flesh of the quail is delicious, as are its eggs.

16:16 An omer held about two quarts (2 l).

16:21–30 The Bible makes no expressed mention of the Sabbath prior to this passage. In the Desert of Sin, before the Israelites had reached Mount Sinai, God gave them manna, a double supply being provided on the sixth day of the week in order that the seventh day might be consecrated as a day of rest from labor (v. 23). Shortly afterward, the Ten Commandments were given by the Lord at Sinai (20:1–17; 34:1–5). The fourth commandment enjoined Israel to observe the seventh day as a holy day on which no work was to be done by people or animals. It is clear that the Lord intended the day to be a blessing to people, both physically and spiritually. See “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee.”

16:31 The word “wafers” refers to thin cakes. In this particular verse the emphasis is on the thinness, but elsewhere the reference is to the process of beating that rendered the cakes (or bread) thin (29:2; Lev 2:4; 7:12; 8:26; Nu 6:15, 19).

17:8 The Amalekites were a tribal people living in the Negev and in the Sinai peninsula (see “The Amalekites”).

17:14 Scrolls were long strips of leather or papyrus on which scribes wrote in columns (see Jer 36:23), sometimes on both sides (see Eze 2:10; Rev 5:1). Some Egyptian scrolls were over 100 feet (30.5 m) long; Biblical scrolls, however, rarely exceeded 30 feet (9 m) in length, as in the case of a book like Isaiah (see Lk 4:17). Reading a scroll involved unrolling it with one hand while rolling it up again with the other (see Isa 34:4; Eze 2:10). To protect its contents, a scroll was rolled up and often sealed (see Isa 29:11; Da 12:4; Rev 5:1–2, 5, 9). The book form used today replaced the scroll shortly after the time of Christ. See “Scrolls, Seals and Codices.”

19:2 See “The Location of Mount Sinai.”

20:1–21 Judaism refers to the religious system held by the Jews. Its teachings come from the Old Testament, especially from the Law of Moses as found in Exodus 20 through Deuteronomy, but also from the traditions of the elders (Mk 7:3–13; see the note on Mt 15:2), such as are now found in the Talmud. The principal elements of Judaism include circumcision, a strict monotheism, an abhorrence of idolatry, and Sabbath-keeping.
The Old Testament is distinctly a religion of law, with creed, cult and conduct prescribed in detail by God. Its writers praised the Torah (God’s law or instructions, as set forth in the Pentateuch; cf. Ps 119:97); the revealed instruction came to God’s elect nation as a gift of grace, invested with divine authority and sanction. The Torah is revered because it embodies the will and wisdom of the Creator. Expressing God’s own nature, it demands of the creature only what the Creator’s holiness requires for fellowship with himself. The climax of Torah is the Decalogue, the Ten Commandments or the Code of the Ten Words, received by Moses on Mount Sinai. It is the special gift of God’s grace given to his people, not to bring them into bondage but precisely because they have been brought out of bondage. All of its precepts, with the exception of Sabbath-keeping, are repeated in the New Testament. Hence it is the distillation of religion and morality—simply phrased, remarkably comprehensive and universally valid. Mount Sinai was the scene of an epochal event in human history, surpassed only by Mount Calvary.

20:1–17 “Words” (v. 1) was the technical term for covenant stipulations in the ancient Near East (e.g., among the Hittites; see also 24:3, 8; 34:28). The Hebrew term for Ten Commandments means literally “Ten Words.” Decalogue, a word of Greek origin often used as a synonym for the Ten Commandments, carries an identical meaning.

20:4 In Israel, probably because of this commandment against representational art, there were no great contributions to the arts of painting or sculpting. The major architectural work in Israel—the temple—was notable, yet even that was constructed with some help from Phoenician craftsmen (see “Ancient Craftsmanship” and “The Building Activity of Solomon”). References to dance in the Old Testament are limited and afford no information on form or content. The development of music in Israel, on the other hand, is noteworthy (see “Ancient Musical Instruments”); to judge from the titles we may assume that many of the psalms were sung and accompanied by musical instruments. Literature was the most thoroughly developed art form in Israel, reaching a level unsurpassed in all of antiquity (see “Ancient Israelite Poets and Singers”).

20:6 In the treaty language of the ancient Near East, the “love” owed to the great king was a conventional term for total allegiance and implicit trust expressing itself in obedient service.

20:8–11 For information concerning the Sabbath, see “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee.” See also the note on 16:21–30.

20:24–25 The excavation of ruins of a small Iron Age (tenth, or possibly eleventh, century B.C.) Israelite temple at Arad (in the southern region of modern-day Palestine) has uncovered an altar with the same dimensions as those of the altar in the tabernacle (see 27:1). In addition, many ancient altars of undressed stones (from various periods) have been found in the region. See “Ancient Altars.”

20:26 The oldest stepped altar discovered in modern-day Palestine is located at Megiddo and dates between 3000 and 2500 B.C. Men who ascended to such altars would unavoidably expose their nakedness in the presence of God. Although Aaron and his descendants served at stepped altars (see Lev 9:22; Eze 43:17), they were instructed to wear linen undergarments (see Ex 28:42–43; Lev 6:10; 16:3–4; Eze 44:17–18). See also “Ancient Altars.”

21:15–17 Death was the prescribed punishment for the following sins: striking or even cursing a parent (vv. 15–17), blasphemy (Lev 24:14, 16, 23), Sabbath-breaking (Nu 15:32–36), witchcraft (Ex 22:18), adultery (Lev 20:10), rape (Dt 22:25), incestuous or unnatural relations (Lev 20:11, 14, 16), kidnapping (Ex 21:16) and idolatry (Lev 20:2).

22:16–31 This passage demonstrates the close association between “secular,” or social, concerns and matters of proper worship. For ancient Israel all of life was rooted in worship, and the quality of people’s worship was demonstrated in part by their conduct toward others. See “The Hittite Laws.”

22:19 Acts of bestiality performed by pagan gods and demigods (mythical beings with less power than a god but more than a man) are described in the ancient myths and epics of Babylon and Canaan.

24:6–8 Sprinkling of blood, water and oil formed a vital component of the act of sacrifice. In this account of the formation of the covenant between the Lord and Israel, half the blood was sprinkled on the altar and the rest on the people. When Aaron and his sons were consecrated, some blood was sprinkled on the altar and some on Aaron and his sons and on their garments. In the various offerings blood was always sprinkled. Sprinkling was sometimes done in handfuls, sometimes with the finger and sometimes with a sprinkler—a bunch of hyssop fastened to a cedar rod.

24:15–18 Regarding God’s shekînâh glory (his visible Presence), see the note on 14:19.

25:4 Blue, purple and scarlet were royal colors. Blue and purple dyes were derived from various shellfish (primarily the murex) that swarm in the waters of the northeast Mediterranean. The dyeing industry was so important for the local economy that the promised land was known as Canaan (“land of purple”) and later called Phoenicia (same meaning) by the Greeks. Scarlet dye was derived from the eggs and carcasses of the worm coccus ilicis, which attaches itself to the leaves of the holly plant.
The term “fine linen” refers to an exceptionally high quality cloth that was often used by Egyptian royalty. It was made from thread spun from the fibers of flax straw. Excellent examples of unusually white, tightly woven linen have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. Some are so finely woven that they cannot be distinguished from silk without the use of a magnifying glass.
Goat hair, obtained from long-haired goats, was a coarse, black (cf. SS 1:5; 6:5) material often used to weave cloth for durable tents.

25:10–22 The word for “ark” is the same as that used of the coffin (mummy case) of Joseph (Ge 50:26). The ark of the covenant was to be constructed of acacia wood, which is darker and harder than oak and is avoided by wood-eating insects. It is common in the semi-arid conditions of the Sinai peninsula.
The ark of the covenant (or testimony) compares with the roughly contemporary shrine and funerary furniture of King Tutankhamun (c. 1350 B.C.), which, along with the Nimrud and Samaria ivories from a later period, reflects the conventional way of depicting extreme reverence in the ancient Near East—with facing winged guardians shielding a sacred place. See “The Tabernacle and the Ark.”

25:18–20 The precise appearance of the cherubim is a matter of some uncertainty, but in the Old Testament they were generally represented as winged creatures having feet and hands. Some ivory panels unearthed at Samaria depict a composite figure having a human face, a four-legged animal body and two elaborate, conspicuous wings.
Similar carvings of winged sphinxes adorned the armrests of royal thrones in many parts of the ancient Near East (see “Angels and Guardian Spirits in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”). In the Old Testament the cherubim were symbolic attendants that guarded the “throne” of the Lord’s earthly kingdom (see 1Sa 4:4; 2Sa 6:2; 2Ki 19:15; Ps 99:1). It was from the cover of the ark (God’s symbolic throne) that the Lord gave directions to Moses (see Ex 25:22; Nu 7:89). The ark’s presence in the later Jerusalem temple designated Jerusalem as God’s earthly, royal city (see Ps 9:11; 18:10).

25:23 The table of the Bread of the Presence was taken from Herod’s temple after the Roman conquest of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. It is depicted on the Arch of Titus as one of the items the Romans carried back to Rome. See the photograph of the Arch of Titus.

25:37 The ancient lamp was a small clay saucer with a spout on its rim. The top of a wick protruded from the spout, and oil contained in the saucer fed the wick. The priests were to tend the lamps, which were to burn all night in the tabernacle, and the people were to supply the oil. Seven-spouted lamps from the time of Moses have been found, and examples of a metal pedestal topped by a ledge designed to carry a lamp have been discovered in the ruins of Beth Shan and Megiddo. The classic representation of the shape of the tabernacle lampstand comes from the time of Herod the Great and may be seen on the Arch of Titus in Rome (see the note on v. 23).

26:1–37 A few desert shrines have been unearthed in the region most commonly proposed as Sinai (see “The Route of the Exodus” articles), notably at Serabit el-Khadem and at Timnah in the Negev, all showing marked Egyptian influence. Specific cultural antecedents to portable shrines carried on poles and covered with thin sheets of gold have been discovered in ancient Egypt from as early as the Old Kingdom period (2700–2160 B.C.), but these were especially prominent in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties (1570–1180). The best examples come from the fabulous tomb of Tutankhamun (c. 1350). Comparisons of construction details in the text of chapters 25–40, with the frames, shrines, poles, sheathing, draped fabric covers, gilt rosettes and winged protective figures from the shrine of Tutankhamun, are instructive. This period, the Late Bronze Age, is commonly cited as the era of Moses and the exodus (see “The Date of the Exodus”).
Such tent-shrines were by no means otherwise unknown in the ancient world. An early writer (c. 700 B.C.) spoke of a primitive Phoenician structure that was apparently placed on a cart and pulled by oxen. In pre-Islamic times the qubbah, a miniature red-leather tent with a dome-shaped top, was used for carrying the idols and cultic objects of a tribe. Some qubbahs were large enough to erect on the ground, while others were mounted on the backs of camels. Such tents were credited with the power of guiding the tribe in its journeys, and in time of war they were particularly valuable for the degree of protection they afforded.
The qubbah possessed an innate sanctity that was only slightly inferior to that of the sacred cultic objects it housed. It was used as a rallying point, a place of worship and a locale for the giving of oracles. Since the majority of tents in antiquity were dark in color, the fact that the sacred shrine was a conspicuous red (cf. 25:5) indicates a religious tradition that reaches back to remote antiquity.

26:1 See “Ancient Craftsmanship” and the note on 25:4.

26:14 The information furnished in Exodus makes it difficult to determine whether the tabernacle proper had a flat, somewhat sagging drapery roof or one that was tent-like in shape with a ridgepole and a sloping roof. Present-day models of the tabernacle vary in their interpretation of this question. Historically speaking, if the influence of the desert tent was predominant, there may well have been some peak or apex to the structure. If, however, the tabernacle had anything in common with the design of contemporary Phoenician shrines, it probably had a flat roof.

27:1 The size of the altar of burnt offering, 7.5 feet (2.3 m) square by 4.5 feet (1.3 m) high, matches that of altars discovered at Arad and Beersheba from the period of the Israelite monarchy (see “Arad”).

28:30 The Urim and Thummim were sacred lots used in times of crisis to determine God’s will. See “The Urim and Thummim.”

29:2 Yeast (“leaven” in some translations) was rigorously excluded from meal offerings in the Sinaitic legislation (29:2, 23, 32; Lev 2:1–16; 6:14–23; 7:9–10; 8:2, 26, 31; 10:12; Nu 15:1–9, 17–21; 18:9; cf Ex 23:18; 34:15). It was originally eliminated from the bread of the Passover meal because the Israelites had to prepare it in haste in order to be ready for the exodus (Ex 12). In the course of time, because of its frequent exclusion from sacrifices, yeast came to represent corruption. Still, yeast was permitted in certain offerings (23:15–16; 34:22–23; Lev 2:11; 7:13–14; 23:17–18; Nu 15:20). See also the note on Exodus 12:14–20.

29:20 In Biblical times people were said to speak to each other’s ears; instead of listening they “inclined their ears.” When they prayed, God in turn “bowed down his ear” to hear them. The ear had a significant part in some Jewish ceremonies. It was sanctified by blood in the consecration of Aaron and his sons to the priesthood (29:20; Lev 8:24) and at the cleansing of a leper (Lev 14:14).

30:9 Incense, an aromatic substance made of gums and spices to be burned, especially in religious worship, was compounded according to a prescription of gum resin, onycha, galbanum and pure frankincense in equal proportions, tempered with salt (vv. 34–35). It was not to be mixed for ordinary purposes (see also Lev 10:1–7), and incense not properly compounded was rejected (Ex 30:9). See “Incense.”

30:34–38 The recipe for the incense was to be prepared by a skilled perfumer. This mixture was designed specifically and solely for the altar of incense in the Holy Place (cf. 30:7–9 and the note on v. 9), but such fragrances were important to ancient peoples—particularly for burials.

31:18 Ancient Near Eastern practice called for one copy of a covenant document to be given to each party. The “two tablets” referred to in this verse were therefore duplicates of the covenant document, not two sections of the Ten Commandments. Since Israel’s copy was to be placed in the presence of God (according to custom), both covenant tablets (God’s and Israel’s) were left inside the ark (see 25:21).

32:1–6 The ancients saw in an idol an earthly representation of a god—not the god itself. It was widely thought that calves or bulls functioned as pedestals for the gods. The Israelites likely viewed the calf as the place above which God was enthroned, thus ensuring his presence with them.

32:4 The idol was either constructed of gold plating over a carved wooden calf or crudely cast in solid gold and then shaped with a tool, later to be melted down in the fire. The calf was probably similar to representations of the Egyptian bull-god Apis, a symbol of fertility and strength in Egypt. Its manufacture was a flagrant violation of the second commandment (20:4–5). See “The Golden Calf.”

32:7 The Hebrew verb translated “indulge in revelry” often has sexual connotations. In ancient times immoral orgies frequently accompanied pagan worship.

32:15 Ancient tablets were often inscribed on both sides.

32:19 The sexes never intermingled in Israelite dancing, except where pagan influences crept in. Dances were usually performed by women, with one leading, as in the case of Miriam (15:20–21).
See the note about anger on Genesis 27:45.

38:1–7 The worlds of Biblical study and archaeology come together with respect to altars. The Israelites’ altar of burnt offering from the tabernacle has not been found, but others like it have been unearthed. An altar located in Arad not only has horns but is also five cubits square, like the one described here (see the note on 27:1). The presence of horned altars in antiquity is thus well established, suggesting the authenticity of this one. See “Ancient Altars” and “The Horned Altar”, as well as the notes on 20:24–25, 20:26 and 27:1.

38:8 Mirrored glass was unknown in ancient times, but highly polished bronze provided adequate reflection.

38:9 Ancient Egypt was known as the center for trading linen. It came in many grades and textures, as evidenced by the different Hebrew words for this cloth (see the note on 25:4). God did not ask the Israelites to use materials that would require traveling long distances or become a hardship for them to acquire. Instead, he instructed them to donate materials for his tabernacle from the items they had received as bounty when leaving Egypt (12:35–36).

40:34–38 Regarding God’s shekînâh glory (his visible Presence), see the note on 14:19.

1:1–17 The distinguishing mark of the burnt offering was that it was wholly consumed on the altar, while in other animal sacrifices only the fat portions were burned. The purpose of the burnt offering was propitiation or atonement, but with this idea was united another: the entire consecration of the worshiper to the Lord. Because no part of the animal was left for human consumption, the term “whole burnt offerings” was used (Ps 51:19). The burnt offering was the normal sacrifice of the Israelite in proper covenant relationship with God—the only sacrifice regularly appointed for the sanctuary service. It was offered every day, in the morning and again in the evening. On ordinary days a yearling lamb was sacrificed, while on the Sabbath two lambs were offered both in the morning and in the evening (Nu 28:9–10). Other special feast days called for a larger number of animals. There were also burnt offerings when a Nazirite either fulfilled his vow or defiled himself (Nu 6), at the consecration of priests (Ex 29:15), at the cleansing of lepers (Lev 14:9), at the purification of women (12:6) and in response to other ceremonial uncleanness (15:15, 30). This was the only kind of offering in which a non-Israelite was permitted to participate (17:8; 22:18, 25).

1:2 The practice of sacrificing animals was not peculiar to Israel. Neighboring nations also had elaborate sacrificial systems (see “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East”).

1:3 Anyone could offer special burnt offerings to express devotion to God. The whole sacrifice was to be burned up, including the head, legs, fat and inner organs (v. 9).

1:4 The people laid their hands on their offering as a symbol of (1) the animal’s becoming their substitute and (2) transferring their sins to the sin-bearer.

2:1–16 Grain offerings (vv. 1–16; 6:14–18) were gifts of fine flour; unleavened bread, cakes or wafers; or toasted ears of grain, always with salt and, except in the sin offering (see note on 4:1–35), with olive oil (2:1, 4, 13–14; 5:11). They were sometimes accompanied by frankincense. Only a portion was consumed by fire on the altar; the rest was kept by the priests, who ate it in a holy place (6:16; 10:12–13). The grain offering accompanied the other offerings, except for the sin offering, on all important occasions (7:11ff.; Nu 15). It always followed the morning and evening burnt offerings. The idea behind the grain offering seems to have been that since people would not ordinarily eat meals consisting only of flesh, it would be wrong to offer only flesh to God.

2:11 For a discussion of the significance of the exclusion of yeast/leaven, see the note on Exodus 29:2.
Some suggest that honey was forbidden on the altar because of its use in Canaanite cultic practices.

2:13 Salt was often costly but was an important part of the diet in ancient times. Perhaps this is why it was used as a covenant sign and was required for sacrifices. See the note on Numbers 18:19.

3:1–17 These offerings were called fellowship offerings because they were given by those who were at peace with God in order to express their gratitude, obligation and/or fellowship with him. They were not commanded for any set time except for Pentecost (23:20) and were presented spontaneously as prompted by the feelings of the worshiper (19:5).
The ritual was the same as for the sin offering (see the note on 4:1–35), except that the blood was wholly poured on the altar, as in the guilt offering and the burnt offering. The fat was burned; the breast and thigh were retained by the priests for their own consumption; and the rest of the flesh was eaten at the sanctuary by the sacrificer and his friends/family (7:15–16, 30–34; Dt 12:1, 17–18). A meat and drink offering always accompanied this sacrifice. This meal denoted the fellowship that existed between the worshiper and God and was a symbol and pledge of friendship and peace with him.
There were three kinds of fellowship offerings: praise offerings, votive offerings and freewill offerings. For all three classes oxen, sheep and goats of either gender could be provided (Lev 3:1, 6, 12). The animals had to be without blemish, except for the freewill offerings, where animals with an unusually short or long limb were permitted (22:23). Fellowship offerings were also given upon occasions of great public solemnity or rejoicing.

3:11 Other ancient cultures viewed sacrifices as “food to the idols” (see Eze 16:20; cf. Ps 50:9–13), but Israel’s offerings—though sometimes called “food” metaphorically (Lev 21:6, 8, 17, 21; 22:25)—were viewed as gifts to God that he would receive with delight (though not consume).

4:1–35 Sin offerings were given to cover sins unconsciously or unintentionally committed; sins committed intentionally, but with mitigating circumstances (5:2–3; 12:6–8); certain kinds of ceremonial defilements (5:2–3; 12:6–8); and sins deliberately committed but afterward voluntarily confessed. For conscious and deliberate violations of the law no atonement was possible, with some exceptions, for which provision was made in the guilt offerings. Sin offerings were made for the whole congregation on all the feast days and especially on the annual Day of Atonement (see “The Day of Atonement”). With the exception of these important national occasions, the sin offerings were presented only for special circumstances that demanded expiation of sin.

4:31 The subcutaneous layer of fat around the animal’s kidneys and other viscera, like the blood, was forbidden by the Mosaic Law to be used for food but was burned as an offering to the Lord, for a sweet aroma to him. This had to be done on the very day the animal was killed, apparently to remove the temptation to eat it (Ex 23:18). The purpose of this law was to teach the Israelites that their best belonged to God. Long before the Mosaic Law had been given, Abel had brought the fat of the firstborn of his flock to the Lord, and we read that God had looked with favor upon Abel and his offering (Ge 4:4).

5:14–6:7 The guilt offering was a special kind of sin offering for transgressions for which restitution or other legal satisfaction could be made. When the rights of God or other people had been violated, the wrong had to be righted, the broken law honored and the sin expiated by a guilt offering. The offering, which was always a lamb, with one exception (14:12), was given after the required satisfaction had been made. The ritual was the same as for the sin offering, except that the blood was not sprinkled but poured over the surface of the altar. The main purpose of this sacrifice was to make expiation for dues withheld from God, such as neglect to pay at the proper time what was due to the sanctuary; and from other people, such as robbery, failure to return a deposit, swearing falsely regarding anything lost or seduction of a betrothed slave girl. The sin offering of a lamb made atonement to God. Restitution, along with an additional one-fifth, made reparation to the other individual(s) involved.

7:15 All meat had to be eaten promptly. One reason may have been that in Canaan meat spoiled quickly and thus became ceremonially impure (v. 18) and was then no longer perfect (1:3).

8:33 Consecration (“ordination” in the NIV) may be defined as an act by which a person or thing is dedicated to the service and worship of God. In the KJV translation the word “consecrate” translates several Hebrew and Greek words of differing meanings. One of these, the Hebrew millç’ yadh (lit., “to fill the hands”), is a peculiar idiom normally used for the installation of a priest into his office or of the installation offerings placed into his hands (Ex 29:9, 29; Lev 8:33).

9:1–22 For information on sacrifices, see “Sacrifices and Offerings in the Bible and the Ancient Near East” and “Ancient Altars.”

10:1–7 See the note on incense at Exodus 30:9.

10:6 Tearing one’s clothing was a sign of deep distress and grief (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”).

10:9 Although the word asceticism is not used in the Bible, the concept is found frequently. In the sense of self-discipline, asceticism normally occurs in the Old Testament in connection with particular circumstances such as repentance (1Sa 7:6) or religious regulations (Lev 10:9; Nu 6:1–8). In the New Testament, however, it affects the whole lifestyle, calling for renunciation of everything that hinders discipleship (Mt 19:21–22; Mk 10:29–30). Self-control is listed as a fruit of the Spirit (Gal 5:23) and is demanded of a contestant (1Co 9:25), of church elders (Tit 1:8) and of Christians in general (2Pe 1:6), who are not to let the good things of this world rob them of the best things.

11:7 Pigs may have been considered “unclean” for a variety of reasons. See “Clean and Unclean Foods in the Bible and Ancient Near East.”

11:20 Although insects have six legs, people in ancient times may not have counted as ordinary legs the two large hind legs used for jumping.

11:36 The use of waterproof plaster for lining cisterns dug into the ground was an important factor in helping the Israelites to settle the dry areas of Canaan after the conquest (see “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World”).

11:44 Holiness is regarded in the Bible as God’s central ethical character. Basic ethical principles are revealed by the will of God and derived from and based upon his character. “Be holy, because I am holy” (v. 45) is his mandate.

12:2 The uncleanness came from the bleeding (vv. 4–5, 7), not from the birth. It is unclear why the period of uncleanness after the birth of a baby boy (40 days) was half that for a girl (80 days).

13:1–46 The familiar but incorrect translation “leprosy” (in most versions, but not in the NIV) for the scaly skin disease referred to here arose from confusion regarding translation of a Greek word in the Septuagint (early Greek translation of the OT). Lepra is not leprosy (Hansen’s disease).

13:2 Since it is unlikely that ancient people would have understood the concept of contagion, the rendering “infectious skin disease” is questionable; the Hebrew should probably be translated simply “skin disease.” Such diseases were visible defects that could function as symbols of defilement—as could mildew (cf. vv. 47–59). See “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World.”

14:1–57 The division found in the Old Testament between clean and unclean was fundamental to the Hebrew/Israelite religion. The Lord was to be served and worshiped by a clean, pure and chaste people. They were to be physically clean (Ex 19:10ff.; 30:18–21), ritually and ceremonially clean (having offered the right sacrifices and been through the correct ceremonies (e.g., chs. 14–15) and morally clean in heart. David later prayed, “Cleanse me with hyssop, and I will be clean; wash me, and I will be whiter than snow” (Ps 51:7). See “Ritual Purity in Israel and the Ancient Near East.”

14:6 See the related note on 16:8.

15:2 The “bodily discharge” probably refers to either diarrhea or urethral discharge (various kinds of infections). The contamination of anything “under” a man (v. 10) indicates that the discharge had to do with the buttocks or genitals.

15:16 Normal sexual activity and a woman’s menstruation required no sacrifices but only a washing and a minimal period of uncleanness.

16:8 “Scapegoat,” a term that occurs in verses 8, 10 and 26, has been interpreted variously. It is used to refer to the second of two goats for which lots were cast on the annual Day of Atonement. The first was sacrificed as a sin offering (v. 9), but the second goat, the scapegoat (v. 26), had the people’s sins transferred to it by prayer and the laying on of hands before being taken into the wilderness. The Hebrew term translated “scapegoat” is thought to be related to an Arabic word meaning “remove.” Thus it is often translated “removal.” The actual meaning of the term and its use in the context of Leviticus 16 are uncertain.
Some authorities regard this word to be the name of a solitary place to which the goat was taken, although this seems unlikely. The KJV translators regarded the term as a qualifying word for goat (i.e., the goat that removed the guilt of the people). Some scholars see in the word the name of a personal being—a demon of the wilderness or a fallen angel who seduced people to evil (as in the Book of Enoch), or as an epithet applied to the devil (see “Goat-Demons and Desert Satyrs”).
A parallel to the scapegoat may be seen in Scripture. In the ritual for a recovered leper, a living bird was released in the country to carry away the evil, after which the leper was declared clean (14:6). In the Babylonian New Year’s Day festival a similar rite was practiced, in which a slain sheep was taken and thrown into the river, after which its bearers were regarded as unclean (cf. 16:26). Certainly the general idea of the scapegoat is clear: The sin of guilty Israel had been removed and “forgotten” by God.

16:26 See the note at verse 8.

16:29–34 Theologically and spiritually, the Day of Atonement is the center of Leviticus, “the book of holiness.” The divinely inspired commentary on chapter 16 is found in Hebrews 9:1–10:25. Israel had two beginnings for each year, almost exactly six months apart. In the first month on the fourteenth day the people ate the Passover as a memorial of the events leading to the exodus from Egypt. Half a year later, in the seventh month on the tenth day (Lev 16:29), the priest made atonement for them. The Jews now celebrate their New Year’s Day (Rosh Hashanah) on the first day of the seventh month (September) and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur, properly yom hakkippurim) on the tenth day of the same month. See “The Day of Atonement” and “The Jewish Calendar.”

17:7 See “Goat-Demons and Desert Satyrs.”

18:19–30 Not surprisingly, many Middle Assyrian laws gave men greater rights than women. The Biblical commands demonstrate greater equality between the sexes and greater respect for human life and moral purity. See “The Middle Assyrian Laws” and “The Hittite Laws.”

18:20 Due regard for one’s neighbor is expressed in the great Old Testament and New Testament precept “Love your neighbor as yourself” (19:18: Mt 10:30–37). The parable of the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:30–37) was given in answer to the question, “And who is my neighbor?” (Lk 10:29).

18:21 The detestable practice of sacrificing children to Molech, the god of the Ammonites, was common in Phoenicia and its surrounding countries. See “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East.”

18:22 See “Homosexuality in the Ancient World.”

19:27–28 The ancient Hebrews placed a much greater emphasis on external symbolic acts than do modern Western people, and people in the Near East today still carry on this respect for symbolic actions. Ceremonies for expressing grief at the death of a relative or on some other unhappy occasion are referred to frequently in the Bible (see “Sackcloth and Ashes: Rituals of Lamentation”). Persons raised in the modern West do well to exercise caution against viewing these public expressions as hypocritical; they were a natural and valid manifestation of grief in that culture.
The Old Testament, however, contains warnings against pagan mourning rites (vv. 27–28; Dt 14:1–2). Israelite priests were not allowed to take part in any such funeral ceremonies (Lev 21:1–4, 10–11). In particular, self-laceration and tattooing were pagan practices associated with death and various fertility cults. See “Tattoos and Self-Laceration in Ancient Religion.”

19:27 A beard for Asiatics was a badge of manly dignity, in contrast to the Egyptians, who usually shaved both the head and the face. As a sign of mourning, however, it was the custom for a man to pluck out his beard or to cut if off. The Israelites were forbidden to shave off the corners of their beards, probably because that act was regarded as a sign of paganism (v. 27). To force a man to cut off his beard was to inflict upon him a shameful disgrace (2Sa 10:4–5). See “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World.”

19:29 Legal measures were in force concerning prostitutes. Parents were not to force their daughters into the practice (21:7, 14), priests were not to marry harlots (19:29) and the wages of prostitution were not to be brought into the temple to pay a vow (Dt 23:18).

19:32 Old age is referred to in the Bible as the reward of filial obedience according to the commandment in Exodus 20:12. The Mosaic legislation spelled out the respect to be shown to the aged (Lev 19:32). Along this vein, younger men were trained to wait to express themselves on a subject until their elders had spoken (Job 32:4).

19:35 In ancient times cheating in business transactions by falsification of standards was common practice (see Dt 25:13–16; Pr 11:1; 16:11; 20:10, 23); there was no bureau of weights and measures. Israel’s prophets condemned such deceit (Am 8:5; Mic 6:10–11). See the notes on Proverbs 11:1 and 16:11; see also “Banking and Money in the Ancient World” and “Weights and Measures.”

23:3 The feast of the weekly Sabbath stood at the head of the sacred seasons. The holy meetings by which the Sabbath was distinguished were quite local. Families and other small groups assembled under the guidance of Levites or elders and engaged in common acts of devotion, the forms and manner of which were not prescribed. Little is known of where or how the people met before the captivity; afterward they assembled in synagogues and were led in worship by teachers learned in the Law.

23:10 In acknowledgment of the fact that all the products of the land came from God, and to demonstrate thankfulness for his goodness, Israelites brought as an offering a portion of their fruits that ripened first. These were looked upon as a pledge of the coming harvest. Such an offering was made both on behalf of the nation (vv. 10, 17) and by individuals (Ex 23:19; Dt 26:1–11). These firstfruits went for the support of the priesthood.

23:13 Drink offerings were not independent offerings under the law but were made only in connection with the grain offering that accompanied all burnt offerings and all fellowship offerings that were Nazirite, votive or freewill (Nu 6:17; 15:1–2). Drink offerings did not accompany sin or guilt offerings. These offerings consisted of wine, which was poured out on the altar, probably on the flesh of the sacrifice.

23:15–22 See “Pentecost.”

23:22 Grain crops were reaped with sickles, after which the cut stalks were laid in bunches that were carried to the threshing floor (see “The Threshing Floor”). Some laws governed these simple harvest operations. The corners of the fields were not to be reaped, and the scatterings of the cut grain were not to be picked up. The part of the crop thus left was for the use of the poor (v. 22). The owner of a field was required each year to present the firstfruits of his crop as an offering to God before he could take any of it for his own use (vv. 10, 14; see the note on v. 10). Beyond this, stalks of grain that had grown up without having been sown were not to be harvested (25:5). With regard to a new orchard or vineyard the fruit was not to be gathered for three years, and the fourth year’s crop had to be given entirely to the Lord. So the owner had to wait until the fifth year to reap any of the fruit for himself (19:23–25).

24:8 The bread, signifying that God sustained his people, was eaten by the priests (v. 9).

24:20 The phrase “eye for eye, tooth for tooth” represents a statement of principle: The penalty was to fit the crime, not to exceed it. A similar law of retaliation is found in the Code of Hammurabi (an ancient Babylonian law code; see “Hammurabi”), but it also seems not to have been literally applied. Jesus objected to an extremist use of this principle to excuse private vengeance (see Mt 5:38–42). On the subject of equality of punishment, see also the note on Deuteronomy 19:15–21.

25:1–55 For information concerning the sabbath year and the Year of Jubilee, see “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee.”

25:29–30 The chief feature distinguishing a city from a village was that it had a wall. Walls 20 and 30 feet (6 to 9 m) thick were not unusual. See “The Israelite Town and Home.”

25:44–46 For commentary concerning slavery, see “Slavery and Labor Law in the Ancient Near East.”

27:1–34 This final chapter concerns promises made to the Lord in kind: servants, animals, houses or lands. But provision was made for the option of giving money instead of the animal or item, in which case the addition of a fifth of its value was usually required.

1:1 The book of Numbers is called “In the Wilderness” by Jews. The Hebrew title is more meaningful than the English, as the book picks up the account of the wilderness wandering after the Israelites’ arrival at Sinai (Ex 19) and records their Bedouin-like travels through the 40 years of wandering.

1:2–46 The name Numbers comes from the Greek translation, which gives a misleading impression of one of the features of the book. Both at the beginning (vv. 2–46) and near the end (26:2–51) of the book, the number of the Israelites is given. The procedure sounds familiar to us: We call it a census. But Israel was not merely interested in vital statistics. This was a count of the fighting forces; indeed, it probably involved an actual mustering and organizing of the army. For this reason the women, children and Levites were not included. The numbering occurs twice because the army was called up twice for battle—first at the abortive attempt to invade the land at Kadesh Barnea (see “Kadesh Barnea”) and second at the end of the 40 years of wandering just before the conquest of Canaan.

1:2 God commanded the Israelites to take a military census (lit., “lift the head”) of men twenty years old or older who could serve as soldiers. This was preliminary to conscription and organization of an army able to exert maximum force to conquer Canaan. God directed the Israelite army to be organized by family units, so that each soldier would train and fight alongside his relatives. A casualty would not simply be a fellow private, sergeant or lieutenant, but a brother, cousin or uncle!

2:1–34 If the Israelite men were to be organized into an army, their camp would be a military camp. The tribes were to be arranged in a square like the Egyptian war camp of Pharaoh Rameses II (thirteenth century B.C.). While the similarity is striking, however, so is a crucial difference: The center of the Israelite war camp was occupied by God’s sanctuary, not the tent of Pharaoh, a human god-king.

3:1–37 The top echelon of the Levites was occupied by Aaron and his sons, who alone were priests in the restricted sense of serving at the tabernacle. The priests belonged to the family of Kohath. The middle echelon included all the other Kohathites who were not of Aaron’s family. To them were given certain privileges of carrying the most sacred parts of the tabernacle (vv. 27–32; 4:4–5; 7:9). The bottom level comprised all members of the families of Gershon and Merari, to whom lesser duties were prescribed (3:21–26, 33–37).

3:10 The Mosaic legislation made a sharp distinction between the priests and the non-priests or ordinary Levites: (1) The priests had to belong to Aaron’s family, while the Levites belonged to the larger family of Levi. (2) Priests were consecrated (Ex 29:1–37; Lev 8), while Levites were purified (Nu 8:5–22). (3) Levites were considered a gift to Aaron and his sons (3:5–13; 8:19; 18:1–7). (4) The fundamental difference consisted of this: Only the priest had the right to enter the sanctuary (Ex 28:1; 29:9; Nu 3:10, 38; 4:15, 19–20; 18:1–7; 25:10–13). See note on Korah’s rebellion at 16:1–50.

3:47 The “sanctuary shekel” was a unit of weight, not a coin, since coinage was not invented until the seventh century B.C. The standard weights used at the tabernacle may have varied slightly from those used in the marketplace. See “Weights and Measures” and “Coins and Numismatics.”

5:1–4 See “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World.”

5:11–28 Water of Jealousy (a phrase not mentioned in the NIV) was the name given to the holy water used to determine the guilt or innocence of a wife accused by her husband of unfaithfulness. The accuser brought his wife and made an offering, after which dust from the tabernacle floor was mixed with holy water, which the woman drank. If she were guilty, the curse pronounced would come true for her. If not, she would be cleared of guilt.

5:21–22 The language regarding the woman’s thigh wasting away and abdomen swelling speaks figuratively of an inability to conceive—or of miscarriage (see the NIV text notes on vv. 21, 22, 27). For a woman in the ancient Near East to be denied the ability to bear children was a personal loss of inestimable proportions. Since it was solely in the bearing of children that a woman’s worth was realized, this was a grievous punishment indeed.
In clear cases of adultery, the penalty for both the man and the woman was death (Lev 20:10). But to protect innocent women from false accusation by a jealous husband within a male-dominated court system, God removed their fates from human jurisdiction.

6:1–21 A Nazirite was an Israelite who consecrated himself or herself and took a vow of separation and self-imposed abstinence for the purpose of some special service. The question of whether the concept of the Nazirite was indigenous to Israel has often been asked. It would appear that the practice of separation for religious purposes is very ancient and is shared by a number of peoples. In Israel, however, it assumed unique proportions. Its regulatory laws are laid down in verses 1–21. There were two different types of Naziritism, the temporary and the perpetual, of which the first was far more common. In fact, we know of only three of the latter class: Samson, Samuel and John the Baptist.
The reasons for taking a Nazirite vow were numerous. Such a vow might be assumed by a parent before the birth of a child; by an individual in some sort of distress or trouble; or by a woman suspected by her husband of unfaithfulness in their marriage relationship until the suspicion could be removed. Women and slaves could take vows only if sanctioned by their husbands or masters.
The minimum period of time for a Nazirite vow was 30 days. During the Maccabean days (see “The Intertestamental Period”) a number of Jews became Nazirites as a matter of protest against the Hellenistic practices and demands of Antiochus Epiphanes.

6:22–27 See “The Ketef Hinnom Amulets.”

8:1–26 See “Hittite Instructions for Priests.”

8:16 The appointment of Aaron and his sons as priests (Ex 28–29) had preceded the events at Sinai (Ex 32) that had led to the appointment of the tribe of Levi to officiate before the Lord—and to do so instead of the firstborn (Nu 8:16). It appears that the Lord had intended that a priestly people would exercise their priesthood through their firstborn sons under the rule of the house of Aaron but that this became, through the failure of the people, the Aaronic-Levitical system familiar throughout the Old Testament period. Yet in the background the vision of the priest-people remained, waiting to become the “priesthood of all believers” under the one and only New Testament Priest, the Lord Jesus Christ (see 1Pe 2:5, 9).

9:3 Traditional Jewish practice regards twilight as the end of one day and the beginning of the next.

10:1–10 Trumpets—long, straight, slender metal tubes with flared ends—were blown for order and discipline. See “Trumpets in the Ancient World.”

11:1 See the note about anger on Genesis 27:45.

11:10 See again the note on anger at Genesis 27:45.

11:31–32 Large numbers of quail migrate each year across the Sinai Peninsula from Africa on their way to Europe and Asia. Since these birds have heavy bodies and do not fly well, they partly depend on prevailing winds to assist their flight and become exhausted by long journeys. During the 1900s Arabs living in northern Sinai used nets to catch between one and two million low-flying quail.

12:1 Cush was the first son of Ham, the father of the southernmost peoples known to the Hebrews, living in the southern Nile valley. If Moses’ “Cushite wife” refers to Zipporah, the term is a reference to her Midianite ancestry. See “Midian.”

12:10 See “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World.”

13:2 The use of spies was a common practice in the ancient Near East, as it is today.

13:22 The Anakites were men of great stature; their physical size brought fear to the people. They were related to the Nephilim, giants known for their great strength (see “Who Were the Nephilim?”).

13:29 See “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament.”

15:1–21:11 This section records repeated unfaithfulness on the part of the people. Apparently during much of the 40 years, according to Amos 5:25–26 and Joshua 5:2ff., they wandered far away from God, and even their national unity may have lapsed temporarily. The 40 years are treated here very briefly.

16:1–50 The rebellion of Korah, a Kohathite, illustrated in the way it was subdued, the seriousness of attempting to enter the priesthood without the necessary prerequisites. God’s choice of Aaron was further confirmed by the budding of his rod (17:1–11; Heb 9:4).

18:12 Oil, wine and grain were the staples of Israelite diet (see “Food and Agriculture”). God’s people were to give the finest of their produce to the Lord. These items became the special foods of the priests and their families.

18:19 Since salt is also a necessary part of the daily diet, and salt was always used in sacrifices to the Lord (Lev 2:13), it was not long before people saw a connection between salt and covenant making. To “eat salt with” a person meant to share his or her hospitality. When covenants were made, they were usually confirmed with sacrificial meals, at which salt was always present. Numbers 18:19 specified that offerings were to be “an everlasting covenant of salt before the LORD.”

19:1–10 The ritual of the red heifer transferred impurity from the individual to the heifer. See “The Red Heifer.”

20:1 The prophet Micah would later refer to Miriam, along with her brothers, as a leader whom the Lord had provided to bring Israel out of Egyptian bondage (Mic 6:4).

20:14 The people of Edom were descended from Esau, the brother of Jacob (see Ge 36:1). See “Edom.”

20:17 The King’s Highway was the major north-south trade route in Transjordan, extending from Arabia to Damascus.

20:22–29 Other than its proximity to the border of Edom (v. 23), the location of Mount Hor remains uncertain.

21:1 See “Arad.”

21:11 The material from this point through the end of the book is studied by scholars with special interest because this section appears to use a very early type of Hebrew.

21:13 The Arnon River, the traditional northern boundary of the Moabites and the southern boundary of the Amorites, runs from east to west into the midpoint of the Dead Sea.

21:14 The Book of the Wars of the LORD is mentioned only here in the Old Testament. Though not known to be in existence today, it was probably an ancient collection of songs of war in praise of God. Compare the Book of Jashar (Jos 10:13; 2Sa 1:18).

21:16 The quest for water posed a constant problem during the desert wanderings.

21:21–24 Sihon, an Amorite king, became prominent in history chiefly because of his opposition to the Israelites on their journey. His capital in the land east of the Jordan River was Heshbon (see “The Kingdoms of Sihon and Og”). Prior to Israel’s journey, the Amorites under his leadership had driven out the Moabites from this section of land and had taken over this territory. God permitted Sihon to dispossess the Moabites, but when he led his attack against Israel he was killed and his forces scattered (vv. 21–24; Dt 1:4, 20, 24–30). Sihon’s capital was taken and the territory given to Israel. When the Moabites later came and demanded that Israel return this land (Jdg 11:12–13), Jephthah reminded them that Sihon had seized this property but that God had given it to Israel. Neither they nor the Ammonites had any intrinsic right to it.

21:25 Ancient farmers did not own their own farms. At the end of a day’s work they retired to a nearby village or city. Smaller villages sought the protection of nearby cities—accounting for the expression, frequently appended to the name of a city, “and all its surrounding settlements” (cf. 32:42). In return for the protection offered against nomadic attacks, the cities received payment in services and produce. Sometimes a city was protected by a feudal lord around or near whose fortress it had been built. Often it depended entirely upon the strength of its walls and the bravery of its men. See “The Israelite Town and Home.”

21:27–30 This third ancient poem in chapter 21 was an Amorite taunt song about this nation’s earlier victory over Moab (v. 29). Perhaps the song of Heshbon was also preserved in “the Book of the Wars of the LORD” (v. 14).

22:5 Balak tried to oppose God’s people through pagan divination because he believed there was no military way to successfully withstand Israel (vv. 6–7). Balaam was a diviner with an international reputation, one of whose nonbiblical prophecies, dating to approximately 700 B.C., is preserved in an Aramaic text from Deir Alla in the Jordan Valley. See “Balaam, the Son of Beor.”

22:21 While Balaam is said here to have “saddled” his donkey, donkeys were not actually ridden with saddles. Instead, a donkey carrying a heavy burden was fitted with a thick cushion on its back to relieve the pressure. The verb habhash, “to bind on,” was used of preparing a donkey for riding (see also Ge 22:3; Jdg 19:10; 2Sa 16:1; 17:23; 19:26; 1Ki 2:40; 2Ki 4:24).

23:1 The number seven (signifying completeness) was held in high regard among Semitic peoples in general, and the many animals would have provided abundant liver and organ materials for the diviner from the east. See “Akkadian Divination.”

23:22 The wild ox (aurochs or oryx) was a traditional image of power in the ancient Near East (see also 24:8).

24:17 The “sons of Sheth” may have been the early inhabitants of Moab (see “Moab”). Ancient Egyptian documents refer to them as the Shutu people.

25:1 The Israelites’ engagement in the fertility rites of Baal not only involved them in the evil of sexual immorality but was also a breach of their covenant with the Lord. See “Baal and the Fertility Cults.”

27:1–11 The law held that only sons had the right to inherit, and the firstborn son was to receive a double share of the family estate (Dt 21:15–17). The daughters of Zelophehad, a man who had no sons, were concerned about their rights of inheritance and the preservation of their father’s name in the land (v. 4). See “Inheritance in the Ancient Near East.”

27:7–8 The solution for Zelophehad’s daughters would elevate their status to that of property owners, but this was only to bridge the gap in the male line for the sake of their father’s honor. They did not need to inherit property for their own survival and prosperity, since they would be supported by the families into which they would marry (cf. ch. 36).

27:21 See “The Urim and Thummim.”

30:3–15 The main concern of this chapter was not the binding nature of vows and oaths taken by men but the tension that could have arisen if dependent women had bound themselves by obligations to God that conflicted with the will of their fathers or husbands—to whom they were legally subordinate if they were either still living with their parents or married. The vows and obligations of widowed or divorced women, who were independent, were binding like those of men. God waived his right to receive fulfillment of a dependent woman’s vow in favor of preserving something highly valuable to him: harmony in the home.

33:3–49 The numerous stopovers (significantly 40 between Rameses and the plains of Moab) of Israel’s desert experience are listed here. Unfortunately, most of the sites were desert encampments, not cities with lasting archaeological records, so they are difficult to locate. Many of them (e.g., in vv. 19–29) are not otherwise recorded in Exodus or Numbers. Interestingly, some other place-names that do occur elsewhere (e.g., Taberah, 11:3) are missing here. See “The Route of the Exodus: The Arabian Route Theory” and “The Itinerary in Numbers.”

35:12 For a discussion of the role of the go’el (here translated “avenger”), see the note at Deuteronomy 19:15–21.

35:19 From the days of Noah the Biblical penalty for murder had been death (Ge 9:6). Throughout Old Testament times the ancient Semitic custom of the avenger of blood was followed: A murdered man’s nearest relative (the go’el) had the duty to pursue the murderer and kill him (see “The Kinsman-Redeener”). Since in the practice of avenging blood in this fashion men failed to distinguish between murder and manslaughter, and vicious blood feuds would frequently arise, the Mosaic Law provided for cities of refuge (ch. 35) to which a person pursued by an avenger of blood could flee (see “Cities of Refuge”). He would be admitted and tried; if judged guilty of murder, he would be turned over to the avenger, but if declared innocent he would be afforded protection in this city from the avenger. It appears likely that the advent of the monarchy began a trend away from the ancient go’el custom; we find the king putting one murderer to death (1Ki 2:34) and pardoning another (2Sa 14:6–8).
In a murder trial the collaborative testimony of at least two persons was necessary for conviction (Nu 35:30; Dt 17:6). The right of asylum was not granted a murderer. Instead, he was dragged away even from the horns of the altar (Ex 21:14; 1Ki 2:28–34). Nor could a ransom be accepted for a murderer (Nu 35:21).

36:1–12 Zelophehad, a Manassite who died in the wilderness, left five daughters but no sons. In the division of the land they begged for a share in the inheritance (27:1–11). This the Lord granted, and when their tribesmen feared that their property might be alienated from the tribe by marriage (36:1–12), God commanded that they should marry only within their tribe. This became a general law among Israelite heiresses. See “Inheritance in the Ancient Near East.”

1:1 The English title for this book is unfortunate, as it is based on the Septuagint’s mistranslation of the phrase “a copy of this law” (17:18) as deuteronomion touto, “this second law.” The Jewish name debârîm, “words,” derives from the opening expression, “These are the words Moses spoke” (1:1). This title is well-suited because it focuses attention on a clue to the peculiar literary character of the book; the treaties imposed by ancient imperial lords on their vassals began with such an expression. Deuteronomy is the text or “words” of a suzerainty covenant made by the Lord of heaven through the mediatorship of Moses with the servant people Israel beyond the Jordan.

1:7 The Negev is the dry wasteland stretching southward from Beersheba. See “The Negev: Its Climate and Features.”

1:13 The office of judge was elective. In time judges were chosen primarily from among the Levites, although this was never a necessity. Judges were held in high regard, and the law profession continued to develop among the Hebrews, its members being called “lawyers,” “scribes” or “doctors of the law” (Lk 2:46 KJV; the NIV renders this “teachers”).

2:1–23 The Lord instructed Moses not to engage the Edomites, Moabites and Ammonites in battle as Israel passed through or near their territories. These nations were ancient relatives of Israel—Edom through Jacob’s brother, Esau; Moab and Ammon through the two sons of Abraham’s nephew Lot. God had given the descendants of Esau and Lot their territory, just as he was giving the Israelites the land of Canaan.

2:8 The “Arabah road” ran from the head of the Gulf of Aqaba northward and to the east of Moab.

2:24–37 God’s prohibition against Israel’s disturbing the Edomites, Moabites or Ammonites did not extend to the Amorites. In this instance God allowed the Israelites to take plunder. Later he would, in certain situations, demand total destruction (cf. the stories of Achan in Jos 7 and Saul in 1Sa 15; see also “Herem Holy War”). We know from other Old Testament sources that such destruction was generally the result of long-delayed judgment. The detestable idolatrous practices of these hostile peoples included religious prostitution and human sacrifice—sometimes even of their own children (see “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East”).

3:1 Bashan, located east of the Sea of Galilee, was known for its rich pastureland, sleek cattle and magnificent oak trees.

3:5 Primitive locks used to fasten city gates consisted simply of heavy beams of wood, the ends of which were dropped into slots cut into the masonry of the gate (see Ne 3:3–15; cf. 1Sa 23:7).

3:9 The name Sirion for Mount Hermon has also been found in a Canaanite document contemporary with Moses. Another name, Senir, appears in Assyrian sources.

3:11 This “bed” may have been a sarcophagus (coffin). Such sarcophagi have been unearthed in Bashan, and the Hebrew words for “bed” and “iron” may reflect this. If this was an actual bed, it was probably made of wood but with certain iron fixtures, as were the “iron chariots” (see note at Jos 17:16).
Renamed Philadelphia in New Testament times, Rabbah was the capital of ancient Ammon (Am 1:13–14; see “Rabbah”). We know the site today as Amman, the capital of Jordan.

4:9 The home was the first and most effective agency for religious training. The varied commands in Deuteronomy to teach children clearly imply domestic education (v. 9; 6:7–9; 11:19; 32:46).

4:11 See “The Location of Mount Sinai.”

4:19 In the Old Testament there is no word for religion. Fear (Ps 2:11; Pr 1:7) and worship (Dt 4:19; 29:26; Ps 5:7; 29:2) of God refer primarily to attitudes of the mind and to acts of adoration—not to rituals.

4:31 In ancient times parties to a covenant were expected to confirm their commitments by invoking self-maledictory (cursing) oaths (see the note on Ge 15:17).

5:12–15 See “Sabbath, Sabbath Year and the Jubilee.”

5:26 In this verse it is made clear that when covenants were renewed the former obligations were repeated and brought up to date. Thus chapters 5–11 review the Decalogue with its primary obligation of fidelity to Yahweh, while chapters 12–26 in considerable measure renew the stipulations of the Book of the Covenant (De 21–33) and other Sinaitic legislation, adapting where necessary to the new conditions awaiting Israel in Canaan. In chapters 27–30 directions were first given for the future and final act in this covenant renewal to be conducted by Joshua in Canaan (ch. 27). Moses then pronounced the blessings and curses as reasons for Israel’s immediate ratification of the covenant, but also as a prophecy of Israel’s future down to its ultimate exile and restoration (chs. 28–30). In chapters 31–34 preparations were made for the continuity of leadership through the succession of Joshua and for the continuing confrontation of Israel with the way of the covenant by periodic reading of the covenant document, which was to be deposited in the sanctuary, as well as by a prophetic song of covenant witness (chs. 31–32). The book ends with the final blessings and the death of Moses (chs. 33–34).

6:4–9 Known as the Shema, Hebrew for “Hear,” this has become the Jewish confession of faith, still today recited daily by pious Jews (see Mt 22:37–38; Mk 12:29–30; Lk 10:27).

6:8–9 Many Jews take these verses literally and tie phylacteries to their foreheads and left arms (see the note on Ex 13:9). Some also attach mezuzot (small wooden or metal containers in which passages of Scripture are placed) to the doorframes of their houses.

6:11 Wells were dug into impermeable rock or built with rock and then coated with a thick layer of lime plaster, which prevented seepage. See “Wells, Cisterns and Aqueducts in the Ancient World.”

7:1 See “Anatolia and the Hittites” and “Lesser Known Peoples of the Old Testament.”

8:9 Iron is mined in the mountains of southern Lebanon, as well as in the regions east of the Sea of Galilee and south of the Dead Sea. Both copper and iron were plentiful in the part of the Arabah south of the Dead Sea. Some of the copper mines in that region date to the time of Solomon and earlier. Some bronze objects found in Zarethan, a center for bronze works in Solomon’s time (1Ki 7:45–46), precede the Solomonic period, and today there are copper works at Timnah in the Negev.

10:1–11 The order of events recorded here does not match the initial, longer account in Exodus 34–37. The report here implies that Moses himself made the chest (or ark) before climbing Mount Sinai the second time and that he personally placed the tablets in it immediately after having descended the mountain. Yet we know from Exodus 37:1–9 that the ark was built by Bezalel after Moses’ return, during the course of tabernacle construction. It is not unusual in the Old Testament for events to be reported out of chronological order—or for a leader to be credited with doing something actually accomplished by someone else.

11:10–12 Irrigation channels dug by foot and/or fed by devices powered by foot brought the water of the Nile to the gardens in Egypt, in contrast to the rains that watered Canaan (v. 11). The contrast between Egypt and the area today known as Palestine in rainfall is brought out in verses 10–12. The summer is extremely dry in Israel, and the rainy seasons come in the fall (the “former rains”) through the spring (the “latter rains”). Virtually no rain falls between about May 1 and October 15: “The winter is past; the rains are over and gone” (SS 2:11). Still today, many people sleep on the roofs of their houses during the summer to escape the oppressive heat and to enjoy the cooling night breezes. The greatest amount of rain falls between November and February, tapering off until the coming of summer and beginning again the next autumn. The withholding of rain at its regular season, particularly in the springtime, was regarded as a most severe punishment (Dt 28:23–24; 1Ki 17:1–16; 18:18).

11:13–21 See the note on Exodus 13:9.

11:20 See the note on 6:8–9.

11:30 The “great trees of Moreh” are a landmark near Mounts Ebal and Gerizim. Sacred oaks have been known in Palestine from the earliest times. Probably believed by the Canaanites to have been the abode of ancestral spirits, they were thought to have oracular powers and may have been tended by priests, as are cedars of Lebanon today. See “Trees of Ancient Israel.”

12:31 See “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East.”

14:1–2 See “Tattoos and Self-Laceration in Ancient Religion.” See also the note on Leviticus 19:27–28 for a discussion of mourning in the ancient Near East, as well as prohibitions against priests participating in pagan mourning rituals.
Natural baldness is seldom mentioned in the Bible, but it was believed to result from either hard work (Eze 29:18) or disease (Isa 3:17, 24). Baldness produced by shaving the head, however, is frequently referred to, often as a mark of mourning for the dead (Lev 21:5; Isa 15:2; 22:12; Mic 1:16). Shaving the head as a sacrifice to a deity was customary for pagans in the land, and the Israelites were strictly forbidden to follow this practice (Lev 21:5; Dt 14:1). The custom among neighboring nations of shaving all but a small patch in the center of the head was also prohibited (Lev 19:27; 21:5). See “Beards and Hairstyles in the Biblical World:.

14:22–23 Just when and where the idea arose of making the tenth the rate of paying tribute to rulers and of offering gifts as a religious duty cannot be determined. History reveals that it existed in Babylon in ancient times, as well as in Persia, Egypt and even China. It is quite certain that Abraham knew of it when he migrated from Ur (Ge 14:17–20).
It was a long time, however, before definite legal requirements were set on tithing, so customs regarding its payment varied. At first the tither was entitled to share his tithe with the Levites (Dt 14:22–23). After the Levitical code had been completed, however, tithes belonged exclusively to the Levities (Nu 18:21). Later on, if a Hebrew lived too far from the temple to make it practicable for him to take his tithes (in the form of animals) there, he was permitted to sell his livestock and to use the money gained to purchase substitutes at the tabernacle/temple (Dt 14:24–26). This eventually led to abuses by priests (Mt 21:12–13; Mk 11:15–17). Tithed animals were shared with the Levities (Dt 14:19–20).

15:12–17 See “Slavery and Labor Law in the Ancient Near East.”

15:18 According to this translation, a Hebrew servant had to work twice as many years as required in the Code of Hammurabi (see “Hammurabi”) for release from debt. Other ancient legal texts, however, support “equivalent to” as a possible translation of the phrase “twice as much as.”

16:21 The chosen symbol of the fertility cult of Asherah was the trunk of a tree. This explains the prohibition against the planting of trees near the altar of the Lord (v. 21; Jdg 6:25, 28, 31). See “The Kuntillet Ajrûd Inscriptions: The Lord’s Asherah?” and “Trees of Ancient Israel.”

17:2–5 The Israelites were not to worship sun, moon or stars, either as physical entities or as representations of pagan deities. In Old Testament theology the sun, moon and stars, along with other natural elements—like mountains and seas—showcased God’s glory, as they do today. But they were not to be made into physical or idolatrous representations of God (Ps 8:3; 19:1–6; 148:3–6; Jer 10:10–13; see also Ro 1:20).

17:6 For a discussion of the legal provisions with regard to murder in ancient Israel, see the note on Numbers 35:19.

17:8–13 No provision was made in the Old Testament for reconsideration from a lower to a higher court of a case already tried. Exodus 18:26 shows, however, that Moses provided for lower and higher courts: In Deuteronomy 17:8–13 provision was made for a lower court under certain conditions to seek instructions as to procedure from a higher court.

17:12 Contempt of court—whether by a judge who for whatever reason did not want to exact the stipulated punishment or by a regular citizen—was a capital offense. The priest or judge deciding matters of law between people was seen as “ministering there to the LORD.” Contempt of court was serious because the individual was in effect demonstrating contempt for God.

17:18 Writing a copy of the law for himself would be a sign of submission on the part of Israel’s future king to the Lord as his King; this copy was then to be used as a guide for the king’s rule in obedience to his heavenly Suzerain. This was already a familiar procedure to the Israelites, as it was a requirement for vassal kings under the suzerainty treaties among the Hittites and others both before and during this period (see “Deuteronomy and the Covenant Treaty Form” and the note on 31:9).

18:10–18 These verses represent the Bible’s classic passage on the subject of divination, of which there were various modes: (1) reading omens; (2) interpreting dreams, both involuntary dreams and those induced by what is called “incubation” (sleeping in some sacred place where the god was said to reveal his secrets to the sleeper); (3) the use of the lot; (4) hydromancy or foretelling the future from the appearance of water; (5) astrology or the determination of the supposed influence of the heavenly bodies on the destiny of a person or nation; (6) rhabdomancy or the use of the divining rod (Hos 4:12; Eze 8:17); (7) hepatoscopy or divination by an examination of the liver of an animal; (8) necromancy or consultation of the dead; and (9) the sacrifice of children by burning. See “Human Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East”, “Akkadian Divination”, “Ancient Necromancy”, “Dream Oracles in the Ancient World” and “Oracles of the Ancient World.”
In warning his people against Canaanite superstition (Dt 18:10–13), Moses made no reference to astrology or to any other sort of fortune-telling by means of the stars. Although this practice later found its way into what is now western Palestine, it was essentially a Babylonian or Mesopotamian study.

19:14 Agriculture was the background for all of the legislation of Israel. At the time of the conquest every family probably received a parcel of land, marked off by stones that could not be lawfully removed (see also 27:17; Hos 5:10). Fertilizing was almost unknown; in order to maintain the soil’s natural fertility the law required that farms, vineyards and olive orchards were to lie fallow during every seventh year (Ex 23:10). Terracing was necessary to make use of soil on the hillsides. Irrigation was not required, since there was usually sufficient rainfall at optimal times of the agricultural year (see the note on Dt 11:10–12).

19:15–21 Genesis 9:6 states the Biblical law of equity: The taking of a life by murder required the taking of the life of the murderer. The Old Testament recognized in this connection both the function of the courts (e.g., Ex 24:12) and the rights of the victim’s family. The next of kin was permitted to exact the death penalty. The word that is questionably translated “avenger” (e.g., Nu 35:12) is properly “next of kin” or “redeemer” (go’el). Not only in capital cases but in all the vicissitudes of life the go’el was at hand to take upon himself whatever need might be oppressing his close relative. See “The Kinsman-Redeemer.”

19:20 Old Testament law was dominated by the concept of equality: an exact equivalence between crime and punishment. It expressed this in characteristically vigorous terms—as in this verse (cf. Ex 21:23–24; Lev 24:20). It is helpful to note that these passages all refer to punishments imposed by courts of law and are not rules for private conduct. In the case of murder, where life was to be taken for life, the next of kin took up the dreadful duty, carefully circumscribed in his actions by the clear Old Testament distinction between capital murder and accidental manslaughter and by limitation of vengeance to the murderer only (Dt 24:16).

20:1–4 Every phase of Israel’s life, including the nation’s warfare, was bound up with God. War therefore had religious significance (see “Herem, Holy War”). It was customary for priests to accompany Israel’s armies into battle. In addition, campaigns were begun and engagements entered into with sacrificial rites (1Sa 7:8–10; 13:9) and after consulting the Lord (Jdg 20:18ff.; 1Sa 14:37; 23:2; 28:6; 30:8). Prophets were sometimes asked for guidance before a campaign (1Ki 22:5; 2Ki 3:11).

20:5–8 Military officers spelled out to potential inductees ways in which they might be excused from service. Only the ready and willing were wanted for battle. If a man did not fit any of the other specific categories of exemption, the last—“Is any man afraid or fainthearted?” (v. 8)—would have relieved him of duty if he so desired.

21:10–14 These verses relate to the marriage of an Israelite man to an unmarried woman captured in warfare “at a distance” from Canaan (see 20:10–15). Because of the distance, the woman would not be under the ban of total destruction (see 20:16–18), and the couple would be subject to all rules pertaining to Israelite marriage. Cleansing rites (cf. Lev 14:8; Nu 8:7; 2Sa 19:24) would initiate the woman into the family, but she was to be given one month to mourn her parents. Because he had already engaged in intercourse with her, if the husband became displeased he was to let her go free rather than keep her as a slave. Although this passage might seem shocking, these rules were humane considering how ancient women and girls were generally treated during or after warfare. See “Slavery and Labor Law in the Ancient Near East.”

21:13 The list of a man’s possessions included his wife, servants, slaves, goods and animals (Ex 20:17; Dt 5:21). Even the phrase “to marry a woman” derived from one that means “to become the master of a wife” (see also 24:1). Although she would address her husband in subservient terms, the status of the wife was higher than that of the rest of the household.
The primary responsibility of the mother was to produce children, preferably sons. A large number of sons, who were to become workers from an early age, ensured the future economic prosperity and security of the family. Women typically nursed children for several years; some authorities suggest that weaning took place around age three, but ancient statuary depicts children apparently as old as five or six standing to nurse from their mothers.

21:15–17 Numerous Old Testament family dysfunctions can be traced directly back to polygamy. While not officially approved in ancient Biblical times, the practice was allowed. See “Inheritance in the Ancient Near East.”
From time immemorial a man’s firstborn son has been given privileges above those of his younger sons. This is illustrated today by the order of succession to the throne (e.g., in Britain). Among the Israelites God had a special claim on the firstborn, at least from the time of the Exodus, when he destroyed the firstborn of Egypt and claimed those of Israel by right of redemption (Ex 13:2, 12–16). The birthright included a double portion of the inheritance. In Israel God later set apart the tribe of Levi instead of the firstborn for the privilege of priesthood (Ex 13:1–2; 24:5). (Note Nu 3:38–51, where the Levites were about the same in number as the firstborn of Israel).
In terms of the conditions of inheritance, the firstborn son possessed the birthright (the right to a double portion of the father’s possessions), and to him belonged the duty of maintaining the females of the family. The other sons received equal shares. If there were no sons, the property went to the daughters (Nu 27:8), on the condition that they not marry outside their own tribe (Nu 36:6ff.).
(see “The Rights of the Firstborn” and “Inheritance in the Ancient Near East”). Parallels to this practice come from Nuzi, Larsa in the Old Babylonian period and Assyria in the Middle Assyrian period. To receive a double portion of an estate was equivalent to succession (see 2Ki 2:9).

21:21 The punishment of being stoned to death was intended to purge the evil from among the people (13:5; 17:7, 12). Fear of this fate was expected to restrain such rebellion, which was strictly forbidden by the fifth commandment (5:16; see Ex 20:12; cf. Ex 21:15).

22:5 This rule was probably intended to prohibit such perversions as transvestism and homosexuality.

22:6 Mosaic Law forbade a person who found a bird’s nest with the mother and her brood in it from harming the mother bird. Semitic people in general viewed with extreme disfavor anyone who willfully disturbed a bird in the nest. Isaiah compared the despoiling of Israel by the Assyrians to the robbing of a bird’s nest (Isa 10:14), and Jesus contrasted birds having nests with his own lack of a home (Mt 8:20; Lk 9:58).

22:8 Houses in the ancient Near East had flat roofs with outside staircases. The roof was a convenient place for relaxation and privacy and a good location to catch the cool evening breeze. Sometimes a small room was built on the roof. See “The Israelite Town and Home.”

22:17 The “proof” of virginity was probably a bloodstained bed sheet or garment, resulting from the new wife’s first experience of intercourse. Though not infallible, such items were widely accepted in the ancient Near East as indications of prior virginity.

23:2 The ambiguous language “born of a forbidden marriage” probably refers to a child of incest, not to an illegitimate child.

23:9–14 “Cleanliness is next to godliness” is not an Old Testament quote, as some think, but the concept does have a Biblical basis. For the ancient Israelites, holiness was indeed identified with hygiene. Only the ritually clean person could approach the Lord in worship (Ex 19:10–11; 30:18–21; Jos 3:5; Ps 51:7, 10).

23:20 Foreign merchants who came into Israel for financial advantage could be charged interest, but interest-bearing loans to fellow Israelites were prohibited (Ex 22:25). See “Banking and Money in the Ancient World.”

24:1–4 Divorce in the books of Moses (here and in Lev 21:7, 14; 22:13; Nu 30:9) was a fact of life—permitted under some circumstances but regulated. Its basis could not be frivolous or trivial. The phrase “something indecent” (Dt 24:1) possibly refers to an infraction less than adultery, which was punishable by death (22:22–27; cf. Lev 20:10). Childlessness was considered just cause for divorce.
The bill of divorce could be a simple repudiation, such as “She is not my wife, and I am not her husband” (Hos 2:2). Although either party could begin the divorce proceedings, it was considered a Gentile custom for the wife to do so (Mk 10:11–12). Because of the strength of the family unit, divorce was in actual fact uncommon among the Hebrews.

24:8 See “Skin Diseases in the Ancient World.”

24:13 In the East, in ancient times as now, the very poor slept on the ground, their outer garments serving as both mattress and blanket. The law, therefore, did not allow such a garment to be kept in pledge after sunset, in order to prevent the man from being without covering (v. 13).

24:16 Regarding murder/manslaughter, see the note on 19:21.
To prevent the work of the “avenger” (see also the note on 19:15–21) from becoming a family vendetta, Old Testament law appointed cities of refuge to which an individual guilty of manslaughter could flee for safety and where the avenger was not permitted to enter (see “Cities of Refuge”). Also, the Old Testament insisted that children could not be punished for their parent’s crime or vice versa.

24:19 For a discussion of sheaves and threshing, see the note on Ruth 2:7. See also “The Threshing Floor” and “Food and Agriculture.”

25:2–3 Scourging by lashing was a common form of punishment in ancient times. The Israelite (and later Jewish) law authorized it for certain religious offenses.

25:4 Mosaic Law forbade the muzzling of oxen when they were treading out the grain (threshing). This was a simple, humane command, in accordance with the kindly spirit of much of the law. Paul made an interesting use of this injunction in 1 Corinthians 9:9 and 1 Timothy 5:18, where he quoted the command in support of his thesis: “The worker deserves his wages.”
For a discussion of the threshing floor, see the note on Ruth 3:4–7. See also “The Threshing Floor.”

25:19 See “The Amalekites.”

26:5 “Wandering Aramean” is a reference to Jacob, who had wandered from southern Canaan to Haran and back (Ge 27–35) and had later migrated to Egypt (Ge 46:3–7). See “Canaan” and “Haran.”

27:1–30:20 For a breakdown of chapters 5–34, see the note on 5:26.

27:1–8 Upon entering Canaan, the Israelites were to set up on Mount Ebal inscribed stones and an altar (see “Joshua’s Altar on Mount Ebal”). Writing laws on stones (or even on mountainsides) was common practice in the ancient Near East. Large writing stones, some 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, from before Moses’ time have been found. This altar would not replace the tabernacle altar but was for use on special occasions.

27:17 Regarding the removal of boundary stones, see the note on 19:14.

28:9–10 When a person gave his own name to another, it signified the joining of the two in very close unity, as when God gave his name to Israel. See “Naming of Children.”

28:23–24 See the note on 11:10–12 for a discussion of annual rainfall in the region.

30:19–20 Throughout the book of Deuteronomy, the Israelites were confronted with the demands of God’s governmental omnipotence, redemptive grace and consuming jealousy. They were to show their consecration to the Lord by obeying his mandate to establish his kingdom in his land. That involved conquering the land, by which divine judgment would be visited on those who worshiped alien gods in God’s land, and also establishing a community of mutual caring in common service to the Lord within the promised land. This covenant calling was not an unconditional license to national privilege and prosperity. By the covenant oath Israel came under both the curses and the blessings that were to be meted out according to God’s righteous judgment. The covenant relationship called for responsible decision making.

31:1–34:12 For a breakdown of chapters 5–34, see the note on 5:26.

31:9 Since ancient treaties required that a copy of the treaty be placed before the gods at the religious centers of the nations involved, Israel placed this one in the ark of the covenant (see 33:9).

33:8 See “The Urim and Thummim.”

33:13–16 Under the Lord’s blessing, Joseph’s land in the central part of Canaan was to be unusually fertile and productive.

33:18–19 Although Zebulun’s territory was landlocked by the tribes of Asher and Manasseh, the descendants of Zebulun were within 10 miles (16 km) of the Mediterranean Sea and acquired wealth in maritime trade.

2:1 Jericho (“moon city”), also called the “City of Palms”, was the primary focus of the spies. A fortified city, it was located just five miles (eight km) west of the Jordan River and had springs that made it an oasis. Archaeological excavations of Jericho reveal continuous occupation to this point back to at least 7000 B.C.

2:2 The Amarna letters of the fourteenth century B.C. (see “The Amarna Tablets and the Habiru”) verify that the major cities of Canaan were in reality small kingdoms, each ruled by a local king.

2:15 Rahab’s house was located within the fortifications of Jericho (see “Rahab’s House”).

2:22 The high, rugged hills of the Holy Land’s central mountain ridge lay directly west of ancient Jericho. Their honeycombed caves made the concealment and escape of the two spies relatively easy.

3:10–11 Two fundamental questions needed to be addressed: (1) Was the God of Israel or the god on whom the Canaanites depended (Baal, who was believed to reign as king among the gods because he had triumphed over the sea god) the true and mighty God? By opening the way through the flooded Jordan, the Lord would show both Israel and the Canaanites that he is Lord over the waters. (2) Did the Lord of the Israelites have a rightful claim to the land? By passing safely through the Jordan at the head of his army, God demonstrated the validity of his claim.
In the ancient Near East a judicial verdict of the gods was commonly obtained by compelling an accused person to submit to a trial-by-water ordeal. Usually this involved casting the accused individual into a river (if the person drowned, the gods had found him or her guilty; if not, the gods had acquitted the individual). In Israel, however, another form of water ordeal was practiced (see Nu 5:16–28). It is significant that the Lord would enter the Jordan first and then remain there until his whole army had crossed safely over. His claim to the land was thereby vindicated before the eyes of all who heard about it. And it was his claim, not Israel’s; she accompanied him through the Jordan as his army, “baptized” into his service.

3:15–16 The grain harvest took place in April and May, so it was springtime. The Jordan was at flood stage due to the spring rains and the melting of snow on Mount Hermon. Earthquakes in the region of Adam have occurred several times in recorded history, resulting in a damming of the Jordan. The most recent occurrence was the quake of 1927, at which time an embankment on the western side of the river collapsed, completely blocking the waters for over 21 hours. (see “Crossing the Jordan.”)

4:1–9 Stone monuments were a common means in the Old Testament of inviting future generations to remember—and participate in—the great acts God had accomplished for his people (Ge 28:18–22; 31:45–46; Jos 24:26–27; 1Sa 7:12).

5:2 Metal knives were available, but flint made a more efficient surgical tool, as modern demonstrations have shown. For information on the discovery of flint at the site of Gilgal, see “The Camp at Gilgal.”

5:3–8 No uncircumcised males had been allowed to participate in the original Passover meal (Ex 12:48–49). Circumcision was practiced by other nations (e.g., as a puberty rite), but not for covenantal reasons (see the note on Ge 17:10). Of course, only males could be circumcised, but Israelites of both genders and all ages were included in the covenant community and celebrated Passover (Ex 12:3–4, 24–27).

5:13–15 The appearance of “the commander of the army of the LORD” (v. 14) served not only as a dramatic sentence on Jericho but also as a visible confirmation of Joshua’s divine call, similar to the appearance of the angel of the Lord to Moses at the burning bush (Ex 3:2–6).

5:15 Removing one’s sandals was a sign of respect and humility in the ancient Near East (cf. Ex 3:5, where God instructed Moses to remove his sandals at the site of the burning bush). This practice is still followed by Muslims before entering a mosque.