AMARANTH: See GREENS.
AZUKI BEANS: These small red beans, rather like miniature kidney beans, are from the plant Vigna angularis and are sold in East Asian groceries and health food stores. They can be cooked, like other beans, for savory dishes, but are most often used in China to make sweet bean paste, a filling for pastries.
BARLEY: Barley (Hordeum vulgare), one of the earliest cultivated grains, originated somewhere in the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers area. Barley can tolerate dry heat and cold and drought, and it is relatively salt-resistant. It is a staple crop in desert areas of western Asia, in western Europe, and in Tibet, where several varieties are grown. The whole grains, often referred to as barley berries in North America, can be milled to make barley flour. The berries, like the flour, can be found at many health food stores. In Tibet, barley is usually roasted in hot sand, then ground into a fine flour-like powder called tsampa (see Tsampa, page 180).
BEAN SPROUTS: Many seeds will sprout if kept moist and warm. Legumes such as soybeans and mung beans are widely used in their sprouted form. Sprouting makes the hard seeds more tender and sweeter. The sprouts have less protein, fat, and carbohydrate than the beans and more B vitamins and vitamin C. They can also be cooked more quickly. In this book, both mung bean (Phaseolus aureus) sprouts and soybean (Glycine maximus) sprouts are called for. To sprout mung beans or soybeans, use about ¼ cup organic beans, wash well with water, place in a wide-mouthed 2-quart jar, and cover with a damp paper towel or damp cotton cloth. Rinse with water twice a day. The seeds will start sprouting in three to four days and will be ready to eat, or cook and eat, on the fifth day. You will get about 10 times the volume of beans you started with: ¼ cup beans yields a generous 2½ cups sprouts. Mung bean sprouts are the most commonly available, found in the produce sections of most grocery stores, and they are usually referred to simply as bean sprouts. They are a pale almost-white and 2 to 3 inches long, with a small seedpod at one end. When fresh, they are crisp-tender. They should always be thoroughly washed before using. They can be stir-fried or simply blanched in boiling water for a moment to soften them before being dressed (see Index for recipes). Soybean sprouts are more robust and longer, often 4 inches long; they are available in Asian grocery stores and specialty produce markets. (Photograph on page 92.)
BEAN THREADS: See CELLOPHANE NOODLES under NOODLES.
BROKEN RICE: See RICE.
CELERY SEEDS: The seeds of the celery plant (Apium graveolens), greenish and aromatically celery-tasting, with an edge of bitterness, are available in supermarket spice sections and in South Asian groceries (usually under the name radhuni). They are used in some Tibetan dishes. See also CHINESE CELERY, CELERY LEAVES.
CELLOPHANE NOODLES: See NOODLES.
CELTUCE: A species of lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. augustana), sometimes called Chinese stem lettuce or asparagus lettuce, celtuce originated in China and was introduced to Europe and the United States. (In Tibet it is known as osun.) It has a fat pale green stem like a long thick broccoli-like stalk, about a foot long, with a tuft of tender lettuce leaves on top. We have only seen greenleaf celtuce but have read that there are also white and purple-leafed varieties. It grows as a winter crop in warm areas of China, and in temperate climates it grows like leaf lettuce, for harvest in the fall. Celtuce seeds are available in North America but it is rarely sold here as a vegetable. If you do find some or grow your own, prepare it as you would kohlrabi or broccoli stalks: peel the stem, then thinly slice it and stir-fry it. The top leaves can be cooked as greens or eaten as a salad green.
CHICKPEAS: Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) are large round legumes, like outsized green peas; in North America they are widely known by their Spanish name, garbanzo. They grow in pods and when fresh are a strong green color. They’re most widely available (in supermarkets as well as health food stores and South Asian groceries) in dried form, when they are an off white to pale yellowish beige. Like other legumes, they can be sprouted, as we saw in the Yi and Hani markets in southern Yunnan (see Hani Soy Sprout Salad, page 73).
CHILES: Chiles originated in Central and South America and were taken to Europe and Asia and Africa during the era of European exploration and colonial expansion. In some regions, they displaced the traditional local heat-giving ingredients, such as ginger and black pepper; in others, they supplemented them. Most chiles are the fruit of an annual bush, Capsicum annuum, but they vary widely in color, shape, and degree of chile heat. Even within a single variety, there may be wide variation in the amount of chile heat. One well-traveled chile, the bird chile, is the fruit of a perennial, Capsicum frutescens. Chiles are rich in vitamin C and seem to have antibacterial properties. They can bring not only warmth but also distinctive flavor to a dish. The “heat” in a chile is a measure of the amount of capsaicin in the fruit. The membranes and the seeds tend to have a higher level of capsaicin than the flesh. After handling chiles, be sure to wash all surfaces, knives, and your hands thoroughly; wear gloves if you have sensitive skin. Avoid rubbing your eyes.
BANANA CHILE: Mild, about 8 inches long and 3 inches across at the top, and tapering to a soft point, banana chiles have only mild to medium chile heat (though this can vary). They are a pale green to pale yellow color. Hungarian wax chiles or cubanelles, both in the pale yellow, long, wide chile category, can be substituted.
BIRD CHILE: Unlike other chiles, which are the fruit of an annual, Capsicum annuum, bird chiles are the fruit of a perennial, Capsicum frutescens. They are small, from ½ inch to 2 inches long, narrow, and sharply pointed with an intense chile heat. They are sold green, a solid medium dark green, or brilliant red, the color they turn when completely ripe. They are sometimes referred to as Thai chiles.
CAYENNE CHILES: Cayennes are the workhorse chiles of India and the Subcontinent and common in many parts of the Caribbean as well as in Southeast Asia. They are green when immature and then ripen to a brilliant red. Cayennes are elegant looking, long and narrow and smooth; they are from 5 to 8 inches long and under 1 inch across at the top, tapering to a narrow point. They have medium heat. Cayennes are used fresh or pickled. The chiles we have seen laid out to dry and most of those that we have eaten in Yunnan and Guizhou are cayenne chiles or very like cayennes. A second chile we saw there was more rounded, with a slightly sweet flavor and milder heat, like the Spanish pimentón. (Photograph on page 16.)
CAYENNE PEPPER: Cayenne pepper (sometimes known as cayenne powder) is made of dried red cayenne chiles that have been ground to a powder. A rich reddish brown, it is generally intensely chile-hot. Cayenne peppers vary, so proceed with caution when you buy a new batch. Store as you would any other ground spice, well sealed in a glass jar away from light and heat.
CHILE BEAN PASTE/CHILE BEAN SAUCE: A very versatile seasoning paste, widely available in Chinese grocery stores (in small bottles; we look for Lee Kum Kee brand), and used as a flavoring in many dishes from Sichuan, as well as in some Miao and Dong dishes—and elsewhere, we’re sure. The basic flavors are chiles, Sichuan pepper, salt, and garlic, in a base of cooked mashed soybeans, with no sweetness. The paste gives some heat, but not an overwhelming amount. It is added to hot oil or hot cooking liquid as a seasoning and flavor base. Store, once opened, well sealed in the refrigerator.
CHILE OIL: Chinese and Southeast Asian grocery stores sell chile oil, made with dried red chile flakes in oil, usually cottonseed oil. We suggest that you make your own chile oil; see recipe, page 29. It takes little time, tastes far better than commercial versions, and keeps well in the refrigerator. It is used to give heat and flavor both as a table condiment and as an ingredient in cooked dishes.
CHILE PASTE: Made of dried red chiles ground and cooked in oil, usually with additional flavorings such as garlic and salt and sometimes other spices (star anise, for example), chile paste is sold in Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries and is a useful pantry staple. As with chile oil, you can easily make your own (Guizhou Chile Paste, page 35), with better oil than is usually used in manufactured pastes (where cottonseed oil is common). Fresh chile paste (see Bright Red Chile Paste, page 18) is made from fresh chiles and seasonings, with no cooking.
DRIED RED CHILES: Autumn is harvesttime for chiles, as for many other crops, and it’s thus the time when large woven mats are spread with fresh chiles and laid in the sun to dry. They’re a beautiful sight in many villages in Guizhou, Guanxi, and Yunnan. Dried red chiles keep well and can be used instead of fresh chiles to give heat to cooked dishes. Look for dried red chiles from Thailand or India. Once you find a brand you like, stick to it, so you know the heat and can adjust for it; like most other products of the vegetable kingdom, dried red chiles vary in heat and flavor.
Spices for sale in Lhasa: chile flakes and (on the left) star anise.
CHINESE CABBAGE: See NAPA CABBAGE.
CHINESE CELERY, CELERY LEAVES: Chinese celery is also known as leaf celery, as opposed to pale-stemmed leaf-stalk celery, the more common form of celery in the West; both are varieties of Apium graveolens. Chinese celery is a more intense green in color, with tough, fibrous green stems and tender leaves that look like enlarged coriander leaves at first glance (see photo, page 221). It is pungently aromatic and strong tasting. Celery leaves are chopped and used as an herb in parts of China and Southeast Asia. The whole plant can also be used as a vegetable, in soups or in stir-fries, though its stems are tough and stringy and must be finely chopped; lovage is a good substitute for the leaves. See also CELERY SEEDS.
CHINKIANG VINEGAR: See VINEGAR.
CHINESE RED DATES: Also known as jujubes, Chinese dates are the fruit of a small tree (Zizyphus jujuba) that has been cultivated for millennia in China. When fully ripe, the fruit is a dark orange-red, the size and shape of a date, with a large stone inside. The skin is edible. When relatively fresh, the fruit is plump and smooth looking, with firm flesh; when it is more dried out, the skin is wrinkled looking and the flesh softer. The fruit has a mild sweet taste, and it is used cooked, not raw, as a flavoring in tea or soups or stews (see Eight-Flavor Tea, page 328; and Black Rice Congee, page 167). In traditional Chinese medicine, jujubes are used as an energy tonic; they are believed to be good for circulation, the spleen, and the skin, and are considered to be warming.
Duck at the market in Chong’an, Guizhou.
CHIVES, CHINESE CHIVES: Chives are all members of the onion family, Allium. In North America, the most common chives are fine green, hollow, round stems that grow in bunches, Allium schoenoprasum. Perennials that grow well in cool moist well-drained soil, they have a tender texture and strong oniony taste and aroma. They are sold in small bunches and used as a fresh herb. In Asian groceries, you are more likely to find flat green leaves, not as tender as regular chives, sold in fairly large bunches; these are Chinese chives, Allium tuberosum, sometimes referred to as garlic chives. Sometimes they are sold as chive flowers: flower buds on long stems. The leaves and bulbs may be cooked and eaten as a vegetable; the leaves can also be used fresh in place of regular chives, if finely minced (see photo, page 43).
COOKING OILS AND FATS: For stir-frying and deep-frying, we almost always use cold-pressed Chinese peanut oil. We buy it in large cans; it also comes in plastic bottles. It has a good clean taste and is more stable at high temperatures than other oils. You can substitute canola oil if you wish, or if you have people in your life who are allergic to peanuts; canola oil is less stable at high temperatures. The other cooking fat that is widely used in China is rendered fat, rendered pork fat (lard) in Yunnan and Guizhou and Sichuan, and rendered lamb or goat fat in Xinjiang and other predominantly Muslim areas.
To render your own fat, start with good clean fat, preferably from organically or naturally raised animals. Trim fat off the meat whenever you buy it, then store, well wrapped, in the freezer until you have accumulated a pound or more. (If you buy pork belly, for example, it comes with a thick edge of fat that you can trim off easily before using the meat.) When ready to proceed, chop the fat into ½-inch cubes or smaller pieces and place in a wok or heavy skillet over medium heat. Use a spatula to move the pieces around until they start to give off a little liquid fat. Once they do, raise the heat a little to speed up the melting process and continue to move the pieces around to prevent scorching. After 10 to 15 minutes, all the fat will have melted, leaving small cracklings. Use a mesh skimmer or slotted spoon to scoop up the cracklings and drain them on a paper towel. (Use like croutons in salads or as a topping for rice, lightly tossed with a little salt if you wish.) Remove the melted fat from the heat and let cool for several minutes, then pour into a clean, dry glass jar. (If you wish, you can strain it through cheesecloth to remove any debris.) Let cool, then cover tightly and store in the refrigerator. Half a pound of chopped fat yields about ½ cup rendered lard or lamb fat.
CORIANDER: The coriander plant (Coriandrum sativum) is a temperate-climate annual that also grows well in the subtropics. It yields an herb (its tender leaves and stems) and a spice (its seeds). Coriander leaves, also known by their Mexican name cilantro, are used as an herb and a garnish in many of the cuisines beyond the Great Wall. Sometimes, instead, Chinese celery leaves are used, especially with meat dishes. Coriander seeds, round and pale and about ⅛ inch in diameter, are used, ground, as a spice by some cooks in Tibet. As with all spices, dry-roasting them before grinding them brings out their flavor. Bunches of fresh coriander are now available in most produce sections; coriander seeds are sold in the spice sections of grocery stores.
DAIKON: See RADISHES.
DEEP-FRYING: A method of cooking that is really very easy if you are set up for it, but that many home chefs avoid. The food cooks immersed in hot oil, and because oil can be brought to a much higher temperature than water, it can be a very quick way of cooking both savory and sweet foods. The essentials are a large stable pot, either a large wok or a wide pot about 4 inches deep (or a deep-fryer); a slotted spoon or a mesh skimmer for lifting food out of the oil and letting excess oil drain off it; and peanut oil, lard, or another oil that is stable at high temperatures. (We like having a good strong ventilation fan.) You may also want a thermometer, but we suggest you use “the chopstick test”: The oil should be at about 350°F. To test, hold a wooden chopstick vertically in the oil with the end touching the bottom of the wok or pot. If bubbles rise up the side of the stick, the oil is hot enough. The oil should not smoke; if it does, turn down the heat a little and wait a minute before testing again for temperature and cooking. Individual recipes give detailed instructions for deep-frying. Just remember that the oil needs to stay hot, so do not add too many items at once.
DRIED SHRIMP: Sold in clear cellophane packages in Chinese and Southeast Asian stores, dried shrimp are used to add depth of flavor to a number of dishes. Look for bright-colored shrimp, and choose smaller ones over larger ones. Once you open a package, seal very tightly (to keep the pungent odor from wafting out) and store in the refrigerator.
EGGPLANT: While the most familiar eggplant to North Americans is large with a dark black-purple skin, egg plants (Solanum melongena) come in many different shapes, sizes, and colors. In China, the most common varieties are long, slender, and pale or medium purple. This type of eggplant, often referred to as Asian eggplant, Japanese eggplant, or Chinese eggplant, is now sold in well-stocked produce sections as well as in Asian markets. It does not need salting and rinsing, as some large Mediterranean eggplants do, to wash away bitterness. Just slice it or chop it, without peeling it, and use as directed. Eggplant can be grilled or roasted or used in stir-fries and simmered or braised dishes.
FAGARA: See SICHUAN PEPPER.
GARAM MASALA: Literally “hot flavor powder” in Hindi, garam masala is made of roasted spices ground to a powder. It’s widely sold in South Asian groceries, as well as in gourmet markets. Use as a last-minute flavoring, to give a hint of cinnamon, cumin, and coriander.
Yi woman in Yuanyang, Yunnan.
GARLIC: In the last few years, China has begun exporting large quantities of garlic to other countries in Asia, such as Thailand, as well as to North America. The low price seems to have pushed many North American garlic growers out of the market. We encourage you to buy local garlic whenever possible.
GARLIC CHIVES: See CHIVES, CHINESE CHIVES.
GINGER: A rhizome, ginger (Zingiber officinale) can be grown in tropical to temperate climates. It is available in most supermarkets. It has a pale yellowish tan outer skin and crisp yellowish flesh that can be fibrous and tough in mature ginger. Buy ginger that is firm to the touch; the finer and smoother the skin, the fresher the ginger. Young ginger, very fine-skinned ginger with pinkish knobs on it, is available only at some times of the year (usually June to August). It is the most tender of all.
To use, peel off the outer skin with a knife or peeler. To mince, cut into slices, then stack the slices a few at a time, cut into sticks and then cut crosswise into small pieces. To cut into matchsticks, slice lengthwise, stack the slices, and cut lengthwise into narrow batons. Store ginger in the refrigerator, loosely covered in plastic. As it ages, ginger becomes softer and the skin wrinkles, while the flesh becomes fibrous. (Photograph on page 17.)
GLUTINOUS RICE, GLUTINOUS RICE FLOUR: See RICE.
GOAT MEAT: We enjoyed getting more familiar with goat meat while working on this book. Goat meat is sold at many kosher butchers, in Caribbean groceries, and at South Asian groceries, especially at halal butchers. We were told by a butcher that regulations require that the tail be left on sheep and goat carcasses so that they can be told apart: goats have narrow tails, sheep tails are wider. In North America, goat is generally much less expensive than lamb and yet it has a very similar good flavor.
GOAT’S MILK, GOAT’S MILK YOGURT, GOAT CHEESE: Goat’s milk is increasingly available in large grocery stores and in health food stores, as is goat’s milk yogurt. The protein structure of goat’s milk means that stabilizers or thickeners must be added to get a thick creamy texture in the yogurt. Goat cheese, particularly aged goat cheese, is very like the aged or dried cheese that is used in Tibetan cheese-filled breads and cheese momos.
GOJI: See WOLFBERRIES.
GREENS: Leafy green vegetables have an important place in most central Chinese cuisines and in many of the cuisines beyond the Great Wall. Of the numerous greens used in China, an increasing number are becoming available in markets and produce sections in North America. We’ve listed the ones that we refer to in this book below, but if you come across an unfamiliar Asian green, do try it. The easiest “first try” approach is to wash it well, drop it into a pot of boiling salted water, and cook until just tender, then drain and dress with rice vinegar, soy sauce, and a dash of roasted sesame oil. Or, instead, you could substitute it in one of the recipes that calls for greens. See also NAPA CABBAGE and CELTUCE.
AMARANTH GREENS: These attractive greens have become more available here recently. They may be bright green or else pink-red with green. The stems of all but the youngest plants are quite tough, so trim off the tougher stems and then wash and chop up the remaining tender stems and the leaves. Use in stir-fries or soups, or simply parboil and dress for a salad. (Photograph on page 241.)
BOK CHOI: Sometimes spelled bok choy, this is perhaps the most common Chinese green. There are actually several varieties and they are sold in several sizes. Regular bok choi has white stems and dark green leaves. Shanghai bok choi is a medium matte green color all over. The vegetable has wide, tender, flat stalks with long rounded leaves, growing from a short stem to create a loose green head; both stems and leaves are eaten. Baby bok choi are about 3 inches long; regular bok choi may be a foot long. To use, cut lengthwise in half and place in a bowl of water to rinse well. Lift out, drain and use as is, or chop. See also TAIWAN BOK CHOI. (Photograph on page 259.)
MUSTARD GREENS, PICKLED MUSTARD GREENS: Mustard greens are leafy greens in the Brassica family. They are sold in Asian grocery stores and in produce markets. Most versions available in North America look a little like a loose head of lettuce, with bright or dull green leaves attached at the bottom of the stems to make a loose head. They have a pleasing touch of bitterness and a suggestion of mustard in their cabbage-family flavor. They are best used in soups or in stir-fries with pork. Pickled mustard greens, a useful addition to the pantry, are a dull khaki green in color. They are sold in Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries, usually in clear plastic packages, and are often labeled sour mustard greens. They consist of a wedge of a head of greens, a thick piece of stem with attached leaves. The mustard is parboiled, then soaked in a brine of just salt and water, so flavors are simple and clean. To use, turn out into a bowl, with the brine, then lift out a piece, rinse in fresh water if you wish, and chop off the amount you want. Use in stir-fries to give a tart or sour note. Or finely chop and set out as a condiment or topping (see the congee recipes on pages 167 and 173, for example). Store leftover pickled greens in their brine in a sealed nonreactive container in the refrigerator (as you would other pickles) and use as needed; they keep well.
PEA TENDRILS/PEA SHOOTS: The growing tips of the vines that produce sugar snap peas or green peas are widely used as a vegetable in Southeast Asia and in parts of China. Tender, with a mildly sweet flavor, they are a real favorite in our house. They’re now sold in most Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries, as well as in many specialty produce markets. Two main versions of pea tendrils are available in North American markets, both of them delicious. The more traditional kind have strong twining stems and tender tips; each stalk is about a foot long. These are sold loose, by weight, or in large bags. They must be chopped into shorter lengths before being used in stir-fries, or parboiled and dressed, or added to soups. The smaller, finer version, tender stems with fine leaves, is sold in small clear plastic bags and is best prepared as a very quick stirfry, on its own, simply flavored with garlic and salt. (Photograph on page 66.)
TAIWAN BOK CHOI: This is the name given to a green that is almost like a small, more tender romaine lettuce, with long, flat, medium-green leaves growing from a short stem. It is relatively new to us; we like its tender texture and delicate flavor.
HOG PLUM: A sour green fruit that is very occasionally available in Asian produce markets in North America, hog plums (Selaeocarpus madopetalus) are oval and usually 2½ to 3 inches long. The fruit has a large pit, thin dull-green skin, and crisp or hard flesh. It is used in Southeast Asian cooking, including Dai cooking, to give a sour note in savory dishes. Its name in Dai and in Thai is makawk. We find that tomatillos are the best substitute.
JINJIANG (BLACK RICE) VINEGAR: See VINEGAR.
JUJUBES: See CHINESE RED DATES.
KELP: See KOMBU.
KOMBU/KONBU: Kombu is the Japanese name for dried kelp. The plant it comes from is a seaweed, Laminaria, that grows in large fronds in the ocean. It is sold in dried rectangular sheets about 3 by 5 inches. To use, soak in lukewarm water until softened. Kombu can be eaten uncooked, or chopped and stir-fried, or used to deepen the flavor of soups or other dishes. It is a natural source of MSG. Known in Mandarin as hai dai, kombu is sold in East Asian groceries and in many health food stores.
LAMB, LAMB FAT: Lamb is the meat of young sheep; the meat of older sheep, usually referred to as mutton, is not called for here. You can substitute goat meat for lamb in any of these recipes, if you wish, as people seem to do in the regions beyond the Great Wall. In Central Asia, from Xinjiang to Afghanistan, the preferred variety of sheep is fat-tailed sheep. The animals have large, heavy tails, which is where they store extra fat, presumably an adaptation that has enabled them to survive in unpredictable and harsh environments. Small cubes of lamb fat are often included in kebabs and in meat-filled breads to enrich them. Until recently, when vegetable oils became more easily available in Central Asia, dairy and meat fats were the only ones available, especially for nomadic peoples, and there’s still a preference for animal fat over vegetable oils. See also COOKING OILS AND FATS.
LARD: See COOKING OILS AND FATS.
MAKAWK: See HOG PLUM.
MATCHSTICK CUT: To cut ginger or carrots into matchsticks, first peel and then slice lengthwise or on a long diagonal, to give a large surface area. Stack several slices and cut into narrow matchsticks.
MEAT: Though many meats unfamiliar to North Americans are eaten beyond the Great Wall, in this book we call for only those meats that are readily available and acceptable to most people in North America. This means that we have omitted dishes that involve dog meat or camel or horse meat. Dog meat, from a special variety of dog bred for the purpose, is eaten in some parts of southern China, by the Miao and Ge people as well as by the Han. Camel is a staple meat (and a treat) for Uighurs, some Mongols, and others who live in arid areas and raise camels. (In specialty Uighur restaurants in Shanghai and Beijing, you will see menus offering braised camel’s foot and other unfamiliar delicacies.) Similarly, horses have long been a staple for some Mongols and Kazakhs and for Tuvans. The horses provide milk and then meat for nomads and seminomads living in the western part of Inner Mongolia and for Tuvans in the northern tip of Xinjiang.
MILLET: Millet is actually the name of a family of grains in the genus Panicum. Millets can be grown in dry, hot areas and so are important traditional food crops in desert regions—for example, in parts of Inner Mongolia and in Rajasthan in India, as well as in sub-Saharan Africa. The millet eaten in parts of Europe and northern China, Panicum miliaceum, also known as common millet, has small round pale yellow grains. It’s called xiao mi, or small rice, in Mandarin. Most health food stores sell whole millet. To use, place in a sieve and rinse well under cold running water before cooking. Millet cooks best in plenty of water; once cooled, it solidifies into a mass; to reheat, add a little water and stir.
MINORITY PEOPLES: “Minority peoples” is the English translation of the Mandarin term used by the Beijing government to describe all the non-Han peoples within the People’s Republic of China. At the moment, there are fifty-five recognized minority peoples. (Both anthropologists and some of the peoples themselves would argue about some of the categories; for example, in some cases, smaller groups have been lumped into a larger one, without distinction. For a complete list of the government’s approved minority peoples, go to www.china.org.cn/e-china/population. Thirteen of the non-Han peoples living in China are discussed in more detail in this book: Tibetans, Mongols, Uighurs, Dong, Kazakhs, Miao, Hui, Dai, Tuvans, Kirghiz, Yi, Hani, and Tajiks. Several others are mentioned or appear in photographs: Bai, Lisu, Ge, Zhuang, and Manchu.
MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE/MSG: A white powder that is added to cooked dishes by many cooks in China, both in central China and beyond the Great Wall, to deepen or bring out the flavor of the dish. On its own it tastes not of salt, as you might expect, but meaty, the flavor known in Japanese as umame. In Tibet it’s known as vechin, a version of its name in other parts of China, vetsin. If you want to try using it, use roughly in the same quantity as you use salt in the dish. See also KOMBU/KONDU.
MUNG BEAN THREADS: See CELLOPHANE NOODLES, under NOODLES.
MUSHROOMS: Gathered wild mushrooms are widely used in Tibetan cooking and wherever they are available in other places beyond the Great Wall. Dried mushrooms and fungus are a staple of Chinese cooking, practical in difficult climates because they can be transported and stored easily. Dried shiitake mushrooms are widely available in Chinese groceries and health food markets, sold in clear cellophane bags. The best are those with a cracked pattern on the caps. The mushrooms must be soaked in warm water until they soften, then can be used in simmered dishes and in stir-fries; the mushroom soaking water is usually added to the dish (or saved for a soup stock) so no flavor is lost. Dried tree ears, sometimes called wood ears, and dried cloud ears are a dried fungus, Auricularia. They are used in stir-fries, mostly for their texture. Tree ears are dark, almost black, lightweight, and crumpled looking; cloud ears are paler. Both are available in Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries. They keep indefinitely if well sealed in plastic. To use, soak in warm water for 15 minutes or so, then drain, trim off and discard any tough bits, and thinly slice the smooth, slightly gelatinous fungus. They have little flavor but add a pleasing soft crunch. You may also come across presliced tree ears or cloud ears; we find they don’t have as good a texture as the whole ones, but they can be substituted if necessary.(Photograph on page 65.)
NAPA CABBAGE (BRASSICA RAPA, SUBSPECIES PEKINENSIS): Also known as Chinese cabbage, Tientsin or Shantung cabbage, or celery cabbage, Napa cabbage is a large long cabbage with tightly wrapped crisp flat white stems topped with pale yellow-green leafy edges. In Mandarin it is bai cai (prounced “bai tsai”), meaning white vegetable. It has a slight mustard flavor. It can be cut crosswise into slivers or separated into leaves and chopped; both techniques are used in this book. The cabbage can be eaten raw or blanched, as salad, but it is often stir-fried or simmered or braised. It is the main ingredient in the most common form of kimchee, the Korean chile-hot pickled condiment. In many parts of China it is also pickled by simple brining: it is usually sun-dried for a few days, then placed in a heavy crock, layered leaf by leaf with salt, and weighted down. Once the leaves soften and ferment, they keep well, a useful food and source of flavor for the long winter months. (Photograph on page 95.)
A woman and her daughter, grilling in Yuanyang, Yunnan.
NOODLES: Check the Index for a listing of recipes for handmade wheat flour noodles and rice noodles. Many other noodles are sold, fresh or dried, in Chinese and Southeast Asian grocery stores; we list here the ones we mention in this book.
CELLOPHANE NOODLES/BEAN THREADS:A commercial product made from processed dried mung beans, also known as Lungkow green bean threads or bean vermicelli, these noodles are an extremely handy and long-keeping pantry staple. Cellophane noodles are sold in 500-gram (1-pound) cellophane packages and in 100-gram packages in East Asian grocery stores and well-stocked supermarkets. The thin translucent-white strands, which look like shiny string, are very tough when dried and are best cut with sharp kitchen scissors. The larger packages may be divided into four bundles, each tied with white string, or the noodles may be in just one large tangle. To divide a bundle, pull it apart and snip with scissors to separate a section of noodles. They must be soaked in hot water for 10 to 20 minutes before being cut into lengths and cooked. Once soaked, they are tender but still firm, so they keep their shape even when simmered in soup or after they are tossed with a dressing or sauce. (Photograph on page 56.)
FRESH RICE NOODLES: Fresh rice noodles are sold in Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries in larger cities. They come cut or in folded wide sheets, in which case they are usually labeled sa-ho noodles, and they can be cut into strips. They should be rinsed in warm water before being stir-fried or added to soup. They require little cooking.
RICE STICKS: Rice sticks are noodles made of a paste of soaked ground rice and water, cut into either narrow or wide noodles, and dried. They are brittle when dried and must be softened in lukewarm water for about 15 minutes before they are stir-fried or added to soups or simmered dishes. Rice sticks can be found in Chinese and Southeast Asian grocery stores, usually in 500-gram (1-pound) packages (allow about 1 pound dried noodles for 3 to 4 people). They keep indefinitely in the pantry if well sealed in plastic. (Photograph on page 56.)
NUTMEG, MACE: The seed of the fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans) is the source of two spices: nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is the seed itself, about 1 inch long and shaped like an elongated sphere; mace is the net-like outer covering (the aril) of the seed. When added in small amounts, both spices give a warm, aromatic flavor to both sweet and savory dishes. You can buy ground nutmeg, but it’s better to buy whole nutmeg and to grate it when you need it.
OIL: See COOKING OILS AND FATS.
PEANUT OIL: See COOKING OILS AND FATS.
PEPPER: Black and white pepper are the dried fruits of a tall climbing vine (Piper nigrum) that thrives in tropical climates. For black pepper, the peppercorns are picked unripe, then placed in the sun to dry and to ferment. For white pepper, the ripened fruits are soaked and the outer layer is stripped off before the peppercorns are dried. Black pepper has a more aromatic flavor; white pepper is sharper in taste. See also SICHUAN PEPPER.
PICKLED MUSTARD GREENS: See MUSTARD GREENS under GREENS.
POMEGRANATE: An ancient fruit that grows on a small tree, Punica granatum, the pomegranate may be red or yellow or a blend of the two, and it may be sweet or sour. Inside the tough leathery skin are nested groups of white seeds covered in soft pink-red pulp. The seeds can be eaten raw as a refreshing fruit or pressed for juice, sweet (which has some tartness to it) or sour. If the sour juice is cooked down and concentrated, the result is pomegranate molasses. Both the juice and the molasses are used as souring agents in meat cookery across Central Asia, as well as in the Caucasus and Turkey. Lime or lemon juice or unsweetened cranberry juice can be used as a substitute. Pomegranates are in season from late September until about February. They are cultivated from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Caucasus, across central Asia, and south through Iran and Afghanistan into northern India.
QUINCE: The fruit of the tree Cydonia oblonga, and related to apples and pears, quinces are large, yellow, and oddly lumpy looking. They are available in fall. They are hard and sour when raw, but with a sweet fragrance. When cooked, they are still tart, but pleasing, and their flesh turns pink. They are used in Turkish and Persian cooking, and in Central Asia, to add a tart-sweet note to meat dishes and pulaos.
RADISHES: Radishes that are very like the European radish—small and rounded, with a cherry red or pink exterior and bright white crisp interior—are grown across Central Asia, including in Xinjiang, where they are used raw in salads. In Tibet we’ve seen pink-tinted radishes, and we have been told that the traditional radishes were pink but have now largely been displaced by varieties of white radish, Raphanus sativus spp. Daikon (the Japanese name) or white radishes are a useful vegetable beyond the Great Wall, for they are hardy and can be grown in very cold climates. They are relied upon in Tibet and parts of Yunnan as a pickled vegetable (see Tenzin’s Quick-Pickled Radish Threads, page 25). They are also used in soups and stir-fries. Daikon radishes may be white or pale green, and they vary in size, from about 6 inches long to over a foot; usually they are about 1½ to 2 inches wide at the top with a stubby pointed tip and sometimes a little green still at the leaf end. Buy firm, smooth-skinned radishes and choose smaller ones over larger. Store in the refrigerator. You may see these labeled or referred to as white turnip in Chinese groceries; when they are sold pickled, the label will often read “white turnip pickle” or “preserved turnip.” Daikon are hotter tasting in the summer and milder and sweeter in the winter.
A Uighur woman working at her outdoor kitchen, Kashgar oasis, Xinjiang.
RICE: Most of the daily rice in the milder-climate areas beyond the Great Wall (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guanxi, and parts of Sichuan) is locally grown. These local rices aren’t exported, so we suggest that you look for a white rice that you enjoy (our household favorites are Thai jasmine and American-grown Japanese-style rice) and adopt it as your staple rice. We list here the rices mentioned in the book as well as others that you may want to try as an accompaniment to dishes from beyond the Great Wall.
BHUTANESE RED RICE: This attractive partially polished rice from Bhutan has been available in North America for more than ten years. It has medium rounded grains, takes about 10 minutes longer to cook than white Mediterranean rices, and has an agreeable nutty flavor. Use it for hearty dishes such as lamb or goat pulao.
BLACK STICKY/GLUTINOUS RICE: Though black sticky rice grows in Vietnam and Bali as well as in Thailand and southern China, we have seen only black rice grown in Thailand for sale in North America. Black rice is unpolished rice that has a black bran rather than the more common pale brown bran. Inside the bran is a white grain of glutinous (sticky) rice. Because of the bran, when cooked, black sticky rice does not cling to itself. It is often cooked in a blend with polished rice, and the black in the bran stains the polished rice a beautiful purple color. Like other sticky rices, black rice has a slightly sweet flavor; it is also very aromatic when it is cooking. Also see CHINESE BLACK RICE.
BROKEN RICE: Rice brokens are the broken grains that result from rice milling. Rice is graded in part according to the proportion of broken grams: the fewer there are, the higher the grade. Consequently, brokens are gathered and sold separately. During cooking they release their starch, making a smoother stickier texture, ideal, for example, for rice pudding (see Tibetan Rice Pudding, page 339). Broken rice is widely available in Asian markets.
CHINESE BLACK RICE: Sold in North America under the name Forbidden Rice, Chinese black rice, unlike black sticky rice, is not a glutinous rice. It grows in northeast China and is a brown rice (unpolished rice). It can be served as plain rice to accompany a meal; like all brown rices, it takes a little longer to cook than white rice, 35 minutes, and needs more water: 3H cups water to 2 cups rice.
GLUTINOUS RICE: See STICKY RICE, below.
JASMINE RICE: An aromatic medium- to long-grain rice from Thailand, jasmine rice is now readily available in North America; American-grown jasmine rice is also widely sold. The cooked rice is tender, with a slightly clinging texture (see Basic Rice, page 166).
MEDITERRANEAN RICES: These short- and medium-grain rices, rounder than jasmine or basmati, can absorb large amounts of liquid. They are ideal for risotto, paella, and pulaos because they absorb the flavors of the broth they are cooked in. Look for baldo or arborio or one of the Spanish rices such as Valencia for making the pulaos in this book. You can also try using Bhutanese red rice, for it too absorbs flavor and stands up well to being stirred while it is cooking.
STICKY RICE, GLUTINOUS RICE: Sticky rice is a variety of rice. It is called sticky rice, or glutinous rice or sweet rice, because the grains stick together when cooked and it also has a slightly sweet taste. (It contains no gluten: the word “glutinous” refers to its sticky qualities.) It has a very low percentage of amylose and a high percentage of amylopectin, the two basic starches in all rices. (Basmati, in contrast, has high amylose and low amylopectin, so it absorbs a lot of water and cooks to a drier texture, the opposite of sticky rice.) Because sticky rice absorbs very little water when cooking, it is usually prepared by soaking it in water, then steaming it over boiling water (see page 162).
Sticky rice is a staple for many of the minority peoples who live in southern Yunnan, Guizhou, and western Guanxi. The rice grown and eaten there is medium-grain and very like the sticky rice grown and eaten in Laos and Thailand. Thai sticky rice (labeled sweet rice or glutinous rice or gao nep) is available in most Southeast Asian and Chinese groceries. Japanese sweet rice is quite different in taste and texture, being short-grain and sweeter tasting.
RICE FLOUR, GLUTINOUS RICE FLOUR: Rice flours are made by grinding polished white rice to a powder. They are available in large supermarkets and in Asian groceries. Regular rice flour, also known as rice starch, is used in shortbread to make it more tender and as a thickening, as well as for making rice noodles. Glutinous rice flour, made from sticky rice (see rice), is used for some pastries. Because it is high in amylopectin, it makes a very smooth soft dough. The two kinds of rice flour are not interchangeable, so read the package carefully.
RICE VINEGAR: See VINEGAR.
RICE WINE: See SHAOXING WINE.
ROCK SUGAR: This quite refined sugar comes in large pale golden crystal-shaped lumps, usually sold in cardboard boxes. It has a pleasant taste of fruit to it, different from the blandness of regular white sugar. We call for it in Eight-Flavor Tea (page 328), and in Onion and Pomegranate Salad (page 89), though white sugar can be substituted. Look for it in Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries.
SALT: Most salt consumed beyond the Great Wall is gathered from salt lakes or salt springs. We use kosher salt or (nontraditional) sea salt.
SEAWEED: See KOMBU/KONBU.
SESAME OIL, SESAME PASTE, SESAME SEEDS: Sesame is a bush (Sesamum indicum) that is native to the Indian Subcontinent. It produces seeds that are very high in oil. There are two kinds of sesame oil, roasted and nonroasted. Only roasted sesame oil, sometimes referred to as Asian sesame oil, is called for in this book. It is made from sesame seeds that are roasted before being ground for their oil. The oil is a warm brown in color and aromatic, with a smell and taste of the roasted seeds. It is usually used in small quantities, as a flavoring added at the end of cooking or as a topping. The most widely available brand is Kadoya, from Japan, but there are also good Chinese sesame oils sold in Chinese groceries. Recently we’ve discovered a delicious seame oil made from black sesame seeds. Nonroasted sesame oil, almost clear in color, is used as a cooking oil in parts of India; it stands up relatively well to high temperatures. It is not part of the pantry beyond the Great Wall. Because of their high oil content, sesame seeds should be stored in the refrigerator tightly sealed. Always taste the seeds before using them: they should taste slightly sweet. If there is a bitter edge, their oil has gone rancid and they should be discarded. Sesame seeds have an outer hull that may be warmish beige or black in color. The seeds we’ve seen used beyond the Great Wall are mostly hulled, almost white, and tender. They are usually dry-roasted to bring out their flavor. They are used on breads and in sweets, as well as to make sesame paste, which is very like the sesame paste from the Eastern Mediterranean that is known as tahini or tahine—and which we use as a substitute. The sesame paste in China is made from roasted seeds, so it has a more intense roasted sesame flavor.
SHALLOTS: A member of the onion family (Allium), shallots are small bulbs covered in a pale orange-brown to reddish-brown papery skin. They have a mild flavor somewhere between garlic and onion. The large shallots grown in Europe are mild tasting and almost watery. We suggest that you look in Asian groceries for Southeast Asian and South Asian shallots, which are smaller and we think, have a cleaner flavor.
SHAOXING WINE, COOKING WINE, RICE WINE: In Chinese cooking, various rice wines and rice liquors may be added as flavorings to stir-fries and simmered dishes. In this book, we call only for Shaoxing wine, sometimes labeled shaoxing jiu. A reasonable substitute is a medium-dry sherry, or look for the Chinese rice wine sold as shi qi rice wine.
SICHUAN PEPPER: Also called fagara in English, Sichuan pepper (sometimes spelled Szechuan) is an old and very important spice in China. Like black and white peppercorns, the pepper comes from the small berries of a tree. The tree, Zanthoxylum piperitum, is a variety of prickly ash; it is a close cousin of the Japanese pepper bush known as sansho. The berries are picked and then sun-dried. The resulting peppercorns are reddish brown, lightweight, and hollow. Inside some of them you may find a shiny black seed; it is bitter and should be discarded. Different companies use varying amounts of care in processing their Sichuan pepper; look for pepper that has been well cleaned and is aromatic, and buy whole peppercorns, rather than ground pepper, for better flavor and freshness. The spice numbs the tongue and makes the mouth tingle in a pleasing way (the numbness may last for a while). There’s a woody resinous flavor and a back aroma that resembles some of the elements in the taste and smell of nutmeg. To bring out the full aroma of Sichuan pepper, heat it, either by dry-roasting it before using or by adding it early in the cooking so that it gets heated and adds its full flavor to the dish. (Photograph on page 37.)
Main stairs to the Potala Palace in Lhasa.
SOYBEANS, SOYBEAN SPROUTS: Fresh soybeans are large round green peas, larger than chickpeas, the seeds of the plant Glycine maximus. In North America, they are most often available frozen both in the pod and shelled, in 1-pound plastic bags, often labeled edamame, the Japanese word for soybeans. Fresh or frozen shelled soybeans can be stir-fried (see Chile-Hot Bright Green Soybeans with Garlic, page 103) or boiled, drained, and tossed with a little salt, and then served to accompany drinks. They are a handy freezer item to have on hand, since they cook so quickly and have such a fresh green color. Dried soybeans, like other dried legumes, are very hard and take a long time to cook (in plenty of boiling water); they are not called for in this book. Cooked and processed, they are the essential ingredient in many staples from China and Japan, including tofu in its many forms; some miso pastes; and soy sauce. Soybean sprouts are sturdier looking than the common mung bean sprouts (longer and thicker), and they usually still have the bean pod attached to the sprout; the pod turns from yellow to green as it sprouts. (See photograph, page 92.) Soy sprouts stand up well to stir-frying and keep their crispness much longer than mung bean sprouts do when cooked. You will find them in Chinese and Southeast Asian grocery stores and in well-stocked supermarkets (or ask your supermarket to stock them). They should be well rinsed in cold water before using. See also BEAN SPROUTS.
SOY SAUCE: Soy sauce is traditionally brewed from soybeans, mixed with a grain (usually wheat these days), and cultured with aspergillus spores. We still find Kikkoman brand to be the most reliable of the widely available soy sauces, though Superior Soy—especially their mushroom soy—also has good flavor. As with rice vinegars, we suggest that you go to a Chinese grocery store and buy several different soy sauces. Taste them, and see which ones you prefer. You may be surprised at the variety of flavors. Some are lighter-tasting and more suitable for dipping sauces; others, with more depth, are better for seasoning dishes during cooking. Thick soy sauce, sometimes labeled soy sauce paste, is a product from Taiwan made of soybeans and wheat, like soy sauce, but it is thickened with potato starch. It has an intense, slightly sweet flavor and a thicker consistency, and it is used as a dressing rather than for cooking. The brand we use is Kimlan.
STAR ANISE: This beautiful star-shaped warm-brown spice (Illicium verum) is now widely available in well-stocked grocery stores as well as Chinese and Southeast Asian groceries. It has an aniseed or licorice flavor that is penetrating. Star anise is used whole, rather as cinnamon sticks are, to perfume soups or stews, especially those made with beef. It also finds its way into some pickles and preserves in Yunnan. Don’t worry if the stars are broken; just use the pieces in the same way as you would use a whole one.
STIR-FRYING: This method of cooking requires a hot wok or other curved pan (though a large deep skillet can be substituted if necessary) and high heat. All ingredients, including seasonings, should be prepared ahead, for cooking time is short and timing is quite precise. Ingredients are usually cut small or thinly sliced, and they are cut to the same size so that they cook evenly. Those that will cook more quickly are added later in the cooking process. First the pan is heated, then a little oil is added and the pan swirled gently to coat the cooking surface. Once aromatics or other ingredients are added to the oil, the food is moved around the wok with a metal spatula so that all sides of the ingredients eventually come into contact with the hot oiled surface of the pan. The spatula can be used to press an ingredient against the pan, then to lift it away and turn it over, in order to expose a different surface to the heat.
The ideal equipment for stir-frying is a good wok with a long-handled spatula that looks like a metal shovel with a wooden handle (see photograph, page 187.); the best heat source is a hot flame. We stir-fry on our regular gas stovetop; in commercial kitchens, it’s done over higher-BTU burners. You can stir-fry on an electric stove if you have a collar to hold your wok stable on the burner or have a flat-bottomed wok. A hot wood stove (rather like the traditional stoves of northern China) also works well for stir-frying: lift off the cover of one burner, and the wok will fit neatly into the hole.
TEA: Originally cultivated in China, and now grown in the hills of northern India and in Sri Lanka, as well as temperate areas of Africa, tea trees (Camellia sinensis) are grown for their leaves. The trees are kept trimmed to about 4 feet so that pickers can reach the fresh young leaves at the top. The harvest starts in the spring. Beyond the Great Wall, Yunnan is famous for its tea, and tea is also grown in Guizhou province, on terraced hillsides that have a temperate climate and receive adequate rainfall. The flavor of tea is affected by the quality of the leaves and where they are grown, as well as by how they are processed. Black tea leaves have been dried and then fermented; green tea leaves have simply been dried, without fermentation. Tea leaves may be rolled or chopped, left loose, or compressed into bricks the way Tibetan brick tea is. See “Tea, Tea, and More Tea,” page 324.
Local market in a Hani village in southeastern Yunnan.
TOFU
FRESH TOFU: Tofu (sometimes spelled dofu or daofu, and also referred to as bean curd) is made from soybeans that are boiled, then pressed to release a thick, smooth liquid, which is then mixed with a coagulant that makes it set to a firm texture. (Among the people living in the hills of Yunnan and Guizhou and Guangxi, and in neighboring parts of Southeast Asia, we’ve seen a number of other coagulated tofu-like foods, mostly made of rice or mung beans, cooked and processed like soybeans with a coagulant.) Fresh tofu is widely sold, usually in 2- to 3-inch-square white blocks that are immersed in water. It comes in various textures, from fairly firm, the standard Chinese style, to smooth and closer to the texture of barely set custard (known as silky tofu, which is not called for in this book).
Tofu should be stored immersed in water in a sealed container, in the refrigerator. The water should fill the container to the brim and should be changed every day. Properly stored, fresh tofu will keep for 4 days. Rinse it before using it.
If you have too much fresh tofu on hand, you can freeze it: Cut it into 1-inch cubes, stack them on a plate or small tray, and freeze them. Once frozen solid, they can be transferred to a plastic bag, well sealed, and kept in the freezer until ready for use. Frozen tofu is porous, with an open spongy texture, ideal for absorbing flavor. Let thaw, squeeze out excess water, then toss it into a hot soup or stew. (Photograph on page 74.)
PRESSED TOFU: When fresh tofu is pressed under a weight (rather as you can press fresh cheese under a weight for the same reason), it gives off liquid and firms up to a cheese-like texture. Pressed tofu, known in Mandarin as doufu gan, is sold at Chinese grocery stores. It comes in small cellophane packages, usually about 4 inches square and ¼ to ½ inch thick. Sometimes the tofu is pale, sometimes it is tinted dark brown because it has been flavored with anise and soy sauce.
You can also make your own pressed tofu by wrapping cubes of fresh tofu in cheesecloth, placing them on a plate, and putting a weight (another plate with a weight on it) on top. The pressure will force water out of the tofu—drain it off occasionally—until it has shrunk and become firmer and more cheese-like in texture.
Pressed tofu does not keep well; once opened, seal tightly in plastic and refrigerate for no more than 2 days. To use, rinse, then slice or chop into small cubes before combining with other ingredients. See Pressed Tofu with Scallions and Ginger, page 75.
TOFU SHEETS, TOFU STICKS: During the process of making tofu, as the soy liquid is coagulating and setting into blocks, layers or sheets of it may be skimmed off before it sets. These tender sheets are called tofu sheets or bean curd sheets (yuba in Japanese). They can be used as wrappers or chopped and added to dishes. However, fresh tofu sheets are not widely available and so are not called for in this book. Dried tofu sheets and tofu sticks are available in larger Chinese grocery stores and are handy pantry staples, widely used in vegetarian cuisines and in places where fresh food is not always easy to come by. Both the sheets and sticks are a pale yellowish tan and brittle. The sticks are made of fresh tofu sheets that have been rolled up and dried; dried tofu sheets are the flat version and are very brittle. Both are sold in clear cellophane packages. To use, soak in warm water until tender (about 15 minutes), and remove and discard any tough bits. Break or chop into pieces and add to soups or stir-fries (see Index for recipes).
TOMATILLOS: Also known by their Mexican name, tomates verdes, or as Mexican green tomatoes, tomatillos are the fruit of the Physalis ixocarpa plant. They are enclosed in papery husks. (See photograph, page 293.) When ripe, the fruits range in color from bright green to yellow to purple. They are used to make green salsa (salsa verde) in Mexico, often cooked but sometimes raw. They have a fresh acidic, tart flavor. We use them as a substitute for hog plums (see above) to make a version of grilled hog plum salsa from the Dai people of southern Yunnan (see the recipe on page 22).
TREE EARS: See MUSHROOMS.
TSAMPA: Tsampa (its Tibetan name, sometimes transcribed tsamba), is the staple food of Tibet. It is made of whole barley grains that are roasted, traditionally in hot sand, and then ground to a very fine flour-like powder. Because the grains have been cooked before being ground, tsampa is edible and digestible with no further cooking. It is eaten stirred into tea and is also used as a thickener or ingredient in some stews and soups. It can be made at home in your kitchen; see page 180.
Hani market in Luchen, Yunnan.
VINEGAR: Vinegar is acetic acid that ranges from 3.5 to over 7 percent acidity. It can be made from, and flavored with, many different ingredients. In this book, we call for rice vinegar, meaning white rice vinegar, and Jinjiang (black rice) vinegar. Rice vinegar is made from white rice, water, and salt. We prefer the vinegars that have about 4 to 4.5 percent acidity. They have a milder, softer flavor than plain distilled white vinegar or most cider vinegars. Our favorites are the Japanese brewed rice vinegars, such as Marukan brand. Look for rice vinegar in a Chinese or Southeast Asian grocery and buy several different brands. They’re not expensive, and it’s interesting to explore the varieties; make sure the ones you buy are unseasoned (some Japanese vinegars come seasoned, so that they can be used to flavor sushi rice). Taste the vinegars and decide which one(s) you like. In the recipes in this book, we call for rice vinegar as a seasoning and also for making pickled red chiles (see page 34) and pickled radish threads (see page 25). (We also use rice vinegar in vinaigrettes, with olive oil, to dress Western-style green salads.)
Jinjiang (black rice) vinegar, sometimes labeled Chinkiang vinegar, is very dark and has a clean, aromatic taste. It’s made of glutinous rice, water, and salt (wheat is sometimes also on the list of ingredients). It’s not to be confused with black vinegar or “vegetarian vinegar,” both of which are generally metallic tasting or taste of chemicals. You’ll find Jinjiang vinegar in Chinese grocery stores. Cider vinegar and a mild balsamic vinegar are reasonable substitutes, though not identical. Jinjiang vinegar is a common table condiment in the northern and western regions beyond the Great Wall, used to flavor bowls of noodles, for example.
WOK: We call for a wok or a wide heavy skillet for the stir-fried dishes in this book (see also stir-frying). A wok is a concave pan, a descendant and adaptation of the traditional Indian karhai. If you are buying a wok, you may want to have a look at Grace Young and Alan Richardson’s book The Breath of a Wok (see Bibliography), but here are a few general pointers: Woks work best over a flame rather than on an electric burner, though if you have a metal collar to support yours, you can use it on an electric burner. Look for a carbon steel (spun steel) or a cast iron wok in a Chinese grocery or equipment store. Carbon steel woks weigh less and are quicker to heat up and to cool down; cast iron woks are heavier and hold the heat longer. We prefer our carbon steel wok for quick stir-fries; cast iron is ideal for simmered dishes. Avoid stainless steel, aluminum, or nonstick woks, which don’t stand up well to long use and don’t distribute the heat properly.
When you bring your new wok home, you will need to clean and season it before using it: scrub it in plenty of hot soapy water, rinse well, and dry. Place the wok over high heat, and when it is almost smoking, remove it. Let it cool a little, then rub it all over with an oiled paper towel or cotton cloth, which will probably become quite black. Place the wok back over high heat. Add a little peanut oil, about 2 tablespoons, and swirl the oil around as it heats. Just before it smokes, remove the wok from the heat. Let it cool for several minutes, then use a clean paper towel or cotton cloth to rub the oil all over the inside of the wok. Pour off any excess oil, and repeat this step again. Rinse the wok with hot water (no soap or detergent) and wipe dry.
After you use your wok, or when you finish cooking one dish and want to use it again for another, always rinse it out right away with water and scrub it clean, then dry it immediately.
WOLFBERRIES: Widely marketed as goji berries or Tibetan goji, these raisin-sized orange-red fruits are sold, dried, in health food stores as well as Chinese herb stores. They are the fruit of Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinensis, species of boxthorn that grow in temperate climates (some have become naturalized in southern England). The dried fruits taste slightly sweet; some are soft, like raisins, while others have dried out more. They have a small inedible seed in the center. Most wolfberries sold in North America seem to come from Ningxia, the Chinese province east of Gansu and south of Inner Mongolia. They also grow in Xinjiang and in Inner Mongolia. Wolfberries have played a role in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries, as a food that is beneficial to the kidneys and liver, nourishes the blood, and is good for the eyes; they are now being marketed as powerful antioxidants, cancer-fighting foods. They can be eaten raw, like raisins, but traditionally they are added to tea or brewed as a tea, or added to broths (see Savory Boiled Dumplings, page 150).
WONTON WRAPPERS: Available in Chinese groceries, these come in packages of 80 to 100, each separated from the other by a dusting of cornstarch. Store well sealed in the refrigerator for not more than a week.
YAK: Technically “yak” is the term for the male of the bovine species Bos grunniens, (in Tibetan, the female is called dri), but in English it is often used to refer to all yak-like creatures. Yaks are large animals that have adapted to high altitudes and the extreme temperatures of the Tibetan plateau and mountains. They are found in Tibet, Quinghai, Nepal, the Kunlun Mountains, the Pamirs, and in parts of Mongolia. They have long hair, most often black but sometimes brown or partially white; a wide face with long, curved, pointed horns; and a small hump at the shoulder. Dri produce a rich, thick milk and are also crossbred with cattle, to produce the yak-like, though smaller, dzo (male) and dzomo (female). The dzomo produces more milk than the dri; the milk of both is used to make cheese, yogurt, and butter. These animals are used for agricultural labor and as beasts of burden. Like yaks, they are prized for their meat.
Man plowing in springtime, using a team of yaks, north of Lhasa.