1 DISCOVERING HUMAN ANTIQUITY (PAGES 18–40)
1 Chauvet et al. (1996, 41–42).
2 Bégouën and Clottes (1981, 1987); for more on important finds in these caves, see Bégouën and Clottes (1991).
3 Moorhead (1969, 181).
4 Sulloway (1982).
5 George (1982, 7).
6 Darwin (1968 [1859], 453).
7 Darwin (1968 [1859], 435).
8 Daniel & Renfrew (1988, 143).
9 Darwin (1968 [1859], 458).
10 Greene (1999).
11 Childe (1942).
12 Darwin himself used the word; Darwin (1968 [1859], 455).
13 George (1982, 143).
14 Darwin (1859).
15 Darwin (1859).
16 George (1982, 140).
17 For a recent and informed overview of Upper Palaeolithic art see Clottes (2001). See also Clottes and Lewis-Williams (1998). On the distinction between deep cave art and images in better lighted areas see Clottes (1997). For recent debates see Clottes and Lewis-Williams (1996).
18 Varagnac and Chollot (1964); Clottes (1990); Sieveking (1991).
19 Kurtén (1972).
20 Pfeiffer (1982, 260).
21 Clottes et al. (1994).
22 See, for example, Kühn (1955); Ucko & Rosenfeld (1967); Sieveking (1979); Bahn (1997, 17–22).
23 For discussions of Altamira see Freeman (1987) and de Quirós (1991).
24 Beltran (1999, 8).
25 Kühn (1955, 48).
26 Corruchaga (1999, 22).
27 Kühn (1955, 45).
28 Kühn (1955, 48).
29 Corruchaga (1999, 24).
30 Breuil (1952, 15).
31 Breuil (1952, 154).
32 Kühn (1955, 78).
33 Beltran (1999).
34 Breuil (1952, 66).
2 SEEKING ANSWERS (PAGES 41–68)
1 Tomásková (1997).
2 See Conkey (1987, 1991); Soffer & Conkey (1997).
3 Ucko & Rosenfeld (1967, 118–19).
4 Conkey (1995, fig. 2; 1997).
5 Halverson (1987, 1992).
6 Leach (1961).
7 Lewis-Williams (1982, 429).
8 As we shall see in a later chapter the paired bison in Lascaux are an exception, and even there symmetry seems not to have been the aim of the image-maker.
9 Laming (1962, 66).
10 Cf. Layton (1987); Lewis-Williams (1991).
11 Lévi-Strauss (1969).
12 Delport (1990, 192–94).
13 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 34).
14 Brannigan (1981); Gilbert & Mulkay (1984); Mulkay (1979).
15 Kuhn (1962).
16 E.g., Latour & Woolgar (1979); see Conkey (1997) on the intellectual history of Upper Palaeolithic art research.
17 Ingold (1992); Hacking (2000). On social construction and relativism in archaeology see Watson (1990).
18 E.g., Chalmers (1990); Hacking (1983, 2000).
19 Conkey (1980), (2001); for critique see Conkey (1990).
20 Conkey (1988).
21 Chesney (1994).
22 Conkey (1992).
23 Raphael (1945).
24 Chesney (1991, 14).
25 Chesney (1991, 14).
26 Raphael (1945, 38).
27 Raphael (1945, 2).
28 Raphael (1945, 2–3).
29 Chesney (1991, 19).
30 Chesney (1991, 3).
31 See, for example, Bloch (1983); McGuire (1992); Baert (1998).
32 Raphael (1945, 6).
33 Raphael (1945, 38).
34 Raphael (1945, 4).
35 Raphael (1945, 4, 48).
36 Raphael (1945, 51).
37 Chesney (1991, 17).
38 Chesney (1991, 11).
39 Cf. Conkey (1997, 354).
40 Laming (1959, 200).
41 Laming (1959, 180).
42 Laming (1959, 184).
43 Laming (1959, 186).
44 Laming-Emperaire (1962).
45 Laming-Emperaire (1962, 118); Chesney (1991, 19).
46 Laming-Emperaire (1962, 118, 119); translation by J. Clottes.
47 Laming-Emperaire (1962).
48 Laming-Emperaire (1972).
49 Laming (1959, 170).
50 Laming (1959, 172).
51 Barnard (2000, 125).
52 Gibbs (1998).
53 Leach (1974, 11).
54 Barnard (2000, 125).
55 Badcock (1975, 67–77).
56 Leach (1974, 16).
57 Lévi-Strauss (1967a).
58 See chapters in Leach (1967a).
59 Lévi-Strauss (1963, 229).
60 Lévi-Strauss (1963, 229).
61 Leroi-Gourhan (1968).
62 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 19).
63 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 118).
64 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 20, 110).
65 Lévi-Strauss (1966); first published in French in 1962.
66 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 19).
67 Leroi-Gourhan (1982).
68 Leroi-Gourhan (1976).
69 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 174).
70 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 174).
71 Lévi-Strauss (1963, 229).
72 Stevens (1975); Ucko & Rosenfeld (1967); Parkington (1969).
73 Johnson (1999).
74 Lévi-Strauss (1967b, 8).
75 Gibbs (1998, 40).
76 Conkey (2000); see also Clottes (1992) and Coudart (1999).
77 E.g., (1988); Sauvet & Wlodarczyk (1995).
78 Vialou (1986, 1987, 1991).
79 De Quirós (1999).
80 De Quirós (1999, 34).
81 Cf. Pfeiffer (1982).
82 De Quirós (1999, 56).
83 Laming-Emperaire (1962).
84 Pfeiffer (1982); Mithen (1988); Barton et al. (1994).
85 Gamble (1980, 1982, 1999); see also Jochim (1983).
86 Barton et al. (1994, 199).
87 Gilman (1984).
88 See, for example, Meillassoux (1972); Hindess & Hirst (1975); Seddon (1978).
89 Gombrich (1982). Taking a contrary view, Terrence Deacon, Professor of Biological Anthropology at Boston University, writes that Upper Palaeolithic cave paintings are ‘the first concrete evidence of the storage of such symbolic information outside of a human brain’ (Deacon 1997, 374; see also Donald 1991). Deacon and others who follow him confuse pictures with written records that do indeed store information and permit it to be accessed by minds in which it does not already exist.
90 Dissanayake (1995).
91 Wylie (1989).
92 Philosophers, e.g., Copi (1982), see analogy as a form of induction.
93 For an early and perceptive account of the social behaviourist position, see Mead (1934, 1964).
3 A CREATIVE ILLUSION (PAGES 69–100)
1 Tattersall (1999: 74–76); Palmer (2000: 13–18).
2 Tattersall (1999, 76).
3 Palmer (2000, 14).
4 Palmer (2000, 15).
5 For overviews, see Gamble (1991, 1999); Mellars (1989, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000); Mellars & Stringer (1989); Knecht et al. (1993); Stringer & Gamble (1993); Byers (1994); Shreeve (1995); Tattersall (1999); Bar-Yosef (2000); Hublin (2000).
6 For a more generous view of Neanderthal aesthetics and accomplishments, see Hayden (1993).
7 See Guthrie (1990).
8 Wynn (1996).
9 Knecht et al. (1993).
10 White (1989b, 385).
11 White (1986).
12 Taborin (1993).
13 Bahn (1977).
14 White (1989, 227).
15 See, especially, Wiessner (1982, 1986) on the southern African San.
16 Binford (1981); but see Chase (1986).
17 Conkey (1980).
18 Sept (1992).
19 Farizy (1990a, 1990b).
20 White (1993).
21 White (1993, 288).
22 White (1993, 294).
23 Gargett (1989; 1999, 375–80); see Riel-Salvatore and Clark (2001) for a reply to Gargett and a lively response from him and other researchers.
24 Gargett (1999, 83–84).
25 Breuil (1952).
26 Leroi-Gourhan (1968).
27 But see Clottes (1990).
28 Chauvet et al. (1996); Clottes (1996).
29 Hahn (1970, 1971, 1993); Bosinski (1982).
30 Marshack (1991, fig. 129).
31 Wolpoff (1989).
32 Hublin et al. (1996).
33 Stringer & Gamble (1993, 132–36); Krings et al. (1997, 1999). For a review of the evidence from Portugal in favour of interbreeding if not of production of fertile offspring, see Wong (2000).
34 D’Errico et al. (1998); for a recent response see Mellars (2000).
35 Harrold (1989).
36 Gamble (1999, 377).
37 Bocquet-Appel & Demars (2000); for discussion, see Pettitt & Pike (2001) with response by Bocquet-Appel & Demars.
38 See Mellars (1996).
39 Gamble (1999, 377).
40 But see Straus (1993).
41 Mellars (1996, 415–16); for more recent discussions see Kuhn and Bietti (2000) and Kozolowski (2000).
42 White (1993a, 1993b); Gamble (1999, 380).
43 For a discussion of acculturation, see Herskovitz (1958).
44 Life in Europe at the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic has been the topic of numerous imaginative novels, for example, William Golding’s The Inheritors; Elizabeth Marshall Thomas’s Reindeer Moon; Björn Kurtén’s Dance of the Tiger; and Jean Auel’s novels The Clan of the Cave Bear, The Valley of the Horses, and The Mammoth Hunters.
45 Stringer & Gamble (1993, 193).
46 Gamble (1999, 378).
47 Gamble (1999, 381–87).
48 Gamble (1999, 382).
49 Gamble (1999, 383).
50 Zubrow (1989).
51 Zubrow (1989, 230); see also Bocquet-Appel & Demars (2000).
52 Davidson & Noble (1989); Chase & Dibble (1987); Dibble (1989); Lieberman (1989).
53 Pinker (1994); Bickerton (1990).
54 Stringer & Gamble (1993, 88–91, 216–17); Mellars (1996, 387–91).
55 Davidson (1997).
56 Hublin et al. (1996).
57 Turner quoted by White (1989a, 214).
58 White (1989a, 218).
59 The evidence from the burial at Saint Césaire is inconclusive; Gamble (1999, 380–81).
60 Binford (1968).
61 It seems that some chimpanzees can be trained to perform some of these functions, perhaps up to the level of a three-year-old human child. Somewhat controversial experiments showed that these abilities in chimpanzees may give us some insight into the limitations of Neanderthals. See Savage-Rumbaugh (1986); Deacon (1997, 84ff).
62 Hahn (1993).
63 If we use ‘acculturation’ to denote Neanderthal/Homo sapiens interaction, we must take care that we do not imply inappropriate connotations, such as complete and comfortable assimilation of sets of interlocking traits. Indeed, I doubt if it is appropriate to speak of acculturation at the Transition.We must rather focus on the evidence and not become embroiled in a sterile logomachy (Demars 1998).
64 Pfeiffer (1982).
65 Mellars & Stringer (1989).
66 Davidson (1997).
67 McBrearty & Brooks (2000, 534).
68 McBrearty & Brooks (2000, 492).
69 McBrearty & Brooks (2000, 534).
70 For an accessible review see Deacon & Deacon (1999).
71 E.g., Howell (1999).
72 McBrearty & Brooks (2000, fig 13).
73 McBrearty & Brooks (2000); Deacon & Deacon (1999); Klein (2001); Henshilwood and Sealy (1997); Henshilwood et al. (2002).
74 McBreaty & Brooks (2000, 529).
75 McBreaty & Brooks (2000, 530).
76 See Hayden (1995) on the creation of social inequality.
4 THE MATTER OF THE MIND (PAGES 101–35)
1 Wylie (1989).
2 Glynn (1999).
3 For recent overviews of evolutionary psychology see Cummins & Allen (1998) and Kohn (2000).
4 Mithen (1996a); see also (1994, 1996b, 1998).
5 Fodor (1983); Gardner (1983); Barkow, Cosmides & Tooby (1992); Hirschfeld & Gelman (1994).
6 Chomsky (1972).
7 Chomsky (1986).
8 Bickerton (1981, 1990).
9 Mithen (1994, 36).
10 See, for example, Rose & Rose (2000).
11 Mithen (1996, fig. 33, 210–13).
12 Damasio (1999).
13 For a discussion of a possible relationship between the vividness of mental imagery and creativity see Campos & Gonzalez (1995).
14 Humphrey (1992).
15 Lutz (1992).
16 Lutz (1992, 73).
17 Lutz (1992, 76).
18 On the dangers of taking ‘social construction’ too far see Hacking (1999).
19 James (1982, 388). William James’s brother, the writer Henry James, was also much interested in psychology, as his novels show.
20 Martindale (1981, viii).
21 Ardener (1971, xx, xxxiv).
22 Martindale (1981, 311–14).
23 McDonald (1971).
24 Dentan (1988).
25 Laughlin et al. (1992).
26 Laughlin et al. (1992, 132).
27 Cf. Laughlin et al. (1992, 138).
28 Martindale (1981, 255).
29 Gackenbach (1986); Price-Williams (1987).
30 Al-Issa (1977).
31 See also Siegel (1985).
32 E.g., Klüver (1926, 1942, 172–77, 1966); Knoll & Kugler (1959); Horowitz (1964); (1975); Oster (1970); Richards (1971); Eichmeier & Höfer (1974); Siegel & Jarvik (1975); Siegel (1977); Asaad & Shapiro (1986).
33 Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1988); Haviland & Haviland (1995); Haviland & Power (1995).
34 Klüver (1926, 504); Siegel (1977, 132).
35 Klüver (1926, 503); Siegel (1977, 134).
36 Knoll et al. (1963, 221).
37 Siegel (1977, 134).
38 Walker (1981).
39 Knoll et al. (1963); Siegel (1977).
40 Bressloff et al. (2000).
41 Horowitz (1964, 514; 1975, 164, 177, 178, 181).
42 Heinze (1986).
43 Horowitz (1975, 177).
44 Siegel (1977, 132).
45 Horowitz (1975, 178). Willis (1994); see Wilbert (1997) on Warao hallucinations.
46 Siegel & Jarvik (1975, 127, 143); Siegel (1977, 136).
47 Horowitz (1964); Grof & Grof (1980); Siegel (1980); Drab (1981).
48 Siegel (1977, 134, 1975, 139).
49 Siegel & Jarvik (1975, 113).
50 Rasmussen (1929, 124); Harner (1982, 31).
51 Boas (1900, 37).
52 Vastokas & Vastokas (1973, 53).
53 Harner (1982, 32).
54 Siegel & Jarvik (1975, 128).
55 Grof (1975, 38–39) illustrates how a clock tower changes into an owl.
56 Siegel & Jarvik (1975, 128).
57 Siegel (1977, 134).
58 Reichel-Dolmatoff (1978a, 147).
59 Klüver (1942, 181, 182).
60 E.g., Siegel & Jarvik (1975, 105).
61 Wedenoja (1990).
62 Murdock (1967).
63 Bourguignon (1973, 11); Shaara (1992).
64 Bourguignon (1973, 12); emphasis in original.
65 Reichel-Dolmatoff (1972, 1978a, 12–13, 1981).
66 Reichel-Dolmatoff (1978b, 291–92).
67 Gebhart-Sayer (1985).
68 Shirokogoroff (1935).
69 See, for example, Ränk (1967); Nordland (1967); Eliade (1972); Bourguignon (1973); Hultkranz (1973); Siikala (1982); Winkelman (1990); Atkinson (1992); Riches (1994); Vitebsky (1995a, 1995b); Thomas & Humphrey (1996); Jakobsen (1999); Narby & Huxley (2001). See also debate between Hultkranz (1998) and Hamayon (1998).
70 See Cardeña (1996) on the universalism of shamanism and a comparison between shamanism and hypnotic phenomena and the distinction between soul-loss and spirit possession.
71 Siikala (1982); Ludwig (1968).
72 Noll (1985, 445–46).
73 Siikala (1992, 105–06); see also Stephen (1989).
74 Furst (1976, 4–5); see also (1972, viii–ix).
75 McClenon (1997, 349).
76 La Barre (1980, 82–83); see also Winkelman (1992).
5 CASE STUDY 1: SOUTHERN AFRICAN SAN ROCK ART (PAGES 136–62)
1 For accounts of the Bleek family and their work see chapters in Deacon & Dowson (1996) and Lewis-Williams (2000); also Hewitt (1986) and Guenther (1989).
2 For published texts, see, for example, Bleek & Lloyd (1911); Bleek (1924); Lewis-Williams (2000).
3 There are at least two other rock art traditions in southern Africa, that made by Khoekhoen pastoralists and the distinctive, white, largely geometric images that Bantu-speaking farmers made.
4 Stow & Bleek (1930); see also Orpen (1875) for rock paintings and comments by Bleek’s informants.
5 Bleek (1875, 20).
6 For introductions to San rock art see Vinnicombe (1976); Lewis-Williams (1981, 1990); Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1999).
7 Bleek (1875, 20).
8 For tales about /Kaggen see Bleek (1924); Bleek & Lloyd (1911); Lewis-Williams (2000).
9 For a full discussion of !gi:xa and associated words and their translation into English see Lewis-Williams (1992). For /Xam texts about !gi:ten see Bleek (1933a, 1933b, 1935, 1936); Lewis-Williams (2000, 255–65).
10 Marshall (1976, 1999).
11 Marshall Thomas (1959).
12 Ruby (1993).
13 For other accounts of Kalahari Desert San groups see Lee (1979); Silberbauer (1981); Guenther (1986); Wilmsen (1989); Valiente-Noailles (1993). On the San in history, see Gordon (1992, 1997).
14 On the San trance dance see Marshall (1962, 1969, 1999, 63–90); Lee (1968); Katz (1982); Katz et al. (1997); Keeney (1999).
15 Biesele (1993).
16 Guenther (1975, 1999).
17 Dowson (1988, 2000).
18 Blundell (in prep.).
19 Barnard (1992).
20 Biesele (1993, 70).
21 Biesele (1993, 81).
22 Biesele (1993, 81).
23 See analyses of two /Xam myths in Lewis-Williams (1996, 1997b).
24 Bleek (1875, 13).
25 Vinnicombe (1976); Lewis-Williams (1981).
26 Orpen (1874).
27 Lewis-Williams (1980, 1981).
28 Siegel (1977).
29 For compendia of accounts see Eliade (1972); Halifax (1980); Vitebsky (1995b); Musi (1997) and Bean (1992).
30 The poem is printed together with Coleridge’s explanation in Dixon & Grierson (1909).
31 Biesele (1993, 70–72).
32 Biesele (1993, 72).
33 See Eliade (1972); Halifax (1980); Vitebsky (1995b); Musi (1997) and Bean (1992).
34 Biesele (1993, 72).
35 See also Lewis-Williams (1981, 1983); Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1999).
36 Lewis-Williams (1995a).
37 Lewis-Williams et al. (2000).
38 Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1990).
39 Lewis-Williams (1981, 103–16); Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1999, 92–99).
40 Bleek (1933, 309).
41 Dowson (1992).
42 Lewis-Williams (1995a).
43 Siegel (1977).
44 Sacks (1970).
45 Pager (1971, 151, 347–52).
46 E.g., Bootzin (1980, 343).
47 Lamb (1980, 144).
48 Halifax (1980, 32); Lame Deer & Erdoes (1980, 74); Neihardt (1980, 97); Munn (1973, 1(19); Christie-Murray (1978).
49 E. Wilmsen, pers. comm.
50 Orpen (1874, 8).
51 Lewis-Williams (1995b).
52 Leroi-Gourhan (1943, 1945); Dobres & Hoffman (1994); Dobres (2000).
53 Biesele (1993).
54 Lewis-Williams (1987).
55 How (1962).
56 Lewis-Williams (1986); Jolly (1986); see also Prins (1990, 1994).
57 Cf. Riddington (1988); Ingold (1993).
58 Yates & Manhire (1991).
59 Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1999, 108); Lewis-Williams & Blundell (1997).
60 Deacon (1988); Dowson (1994, 2000).
61 Stow (1905).
62 Lewis-Williams (1981).
63 See Victor Turner’s work on symbolism in an African community (Turner 1967).
6 CASE STUDY 2: NORTH AMERICAN ROCK ART (PAGES 163–79)
1 Kroeber (1939).
2 See, for example, Steward (1929); Driver (1937); Newcomb & Kirkland (1967); Grant (1968); Ritter & Ritter (1972); Vastokas & Vastokas (1973); Wellmann (1978); Schaafsma (1980, 1992); Hedges (1982, 1992); Furst (1986); Conway & Conway (1990); Conway, T. (1993); York et al. (1993); McCreery & Malotki (1994); Ritter (1994); Turpin (1994); Haviland (1995); Boyd (1996), (1998); Stoffle et al. (2000). For an account of shamanism and altered states of consciousness in the Pacific Northwest see Jilek (1982).
3 Heizer & Baumhoff (1959, 1962); Grant (1968).
4 For a discussion of supposed North American hunting magic, see Conway (1993, 106–08) and Whitley (2000).
5 Whitley (2000, 103).
6 Whitley (2000, 103).
7 Lévi-Strauss (1977, 7).
8 Blackburn (1975, xiv).
9 Blackburn (1975, xiv).
10 Blackburn (1975, 23); see also Librado (1981).
11 Blackburn (1975, 30).
12 See also Kroeber (1925); Grant (1965); Applegate (1975).
13 Blackburn (1976, 1977).
14 Wellmann (1978, 1979a, 1979b).
15 Wilbert (1981).
16 Hedges (1976, 1982, 1992, 1994).
17 See, for example, Whitley (1992, 1994, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 2000); Keyser & Whitley (2000).
18 Whitley (2000).
19 For a short summary of North American religion and vision questing see Zimmerman (1996).
20 Hultkranz (1987).
21 Whitley pers. comm. See Whitley et al. (1999).
22 Hultkranz (1987, 53).
23 Whitley (2000, 77).
24 Hultkranz (1987, 53).
25 Gayton (1948).
26 Whitley (2000, 79–80).
27 Whitley (2000, 75).
28 Driver (1937).
29 Whitley (2000, 76).
30 Zigmond (1986, 406–07).
31 Cited by Keyser & Whitley (2000, 20).
32 Cited by Keyser & Whitley (2000, 20).
33 Cited by Keyser & Whitley (2000, 20).
34 Whitley (2000, 81).
35 Whitley (2000, 90).
36 Whitley (2000, 83).
37 Whitley (2000, 83); parentheses in Gayton.
38 Conway (1993, 109–10).
39 Conway (1993, 109–10).
40 Steward (1929, 225).
41 Whitley (2000, 86); see also Steward (1929, 227).
42 Whitley (2000, 86); see also Steward (1929, 227).
43 Whitley pers. comm.
44 For example, Taçon (1983).
45 Biesele pers. comm.
46 Whitley (2000, 107).
47 Whitley (2000, 105–23).
48 Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1988, 215).
49 Whitley (2000, 108).
50 Whitley (2000, 108).
51 Whitley (2000, 110).
52 Whitley (2000, 111).
53 Whitley (2000, 111).
54 Whitley (2000, 115).
55 Whitley (2000, 115).
56 Lewis-Williams et al. (1993).
57 Whitley et al. (1999, 235).
58 B. Johnson, cited by Whitley et al. (1999).
59 Whitley (1994).
60 Hultkranz (1987, 52).
61 Whitley (2000, 82).
62 Whitley (2000, 78).
63 Whitley (2000, 20).
64 Whitley (2000, 83).
65 Gayton (1930).
7 AN ORIGIN OF IMAGE-MAKING (PAGES 180–203)
1 On environmental and social change during the Upper Palaeolithic see Jochim (1983) and Gamble (1999). On altered states and social change, see Bourguignon (1973).
2 Raphael (1945, 3).
3 Breuil (1952, 23).
4 Delluc & Delluc (1986).
5 Breuil (1952, 21).
6 Forge (1970, 281).
7 See also Segall et al. (1966).
8 Forge (1970, 287).
9 Davis (1986, 1987).
10 Davis (1986, 201).
11 Davis (1986, 201).
12 Faris (1986, 203).
13 See Edelman (1987, 1989, 1992); Edelman & Tononi (2000).
14 Edelman (1994, 113).
15 Edelman (1994, 112–24).
16 Edelman (1994, 112–32).
17 Edelman (1994, 124).
18 Greenfield (1997, 2001).
19 EEG is the acronym for ‘electroencephalography’, a technique that measures electrical activity in various parts of the brain by means of electrodes fixed to the scalp.
20 Klüver (1926, 505, 506); see also Knoll et al. (1963, 208).
21 Siegel & Jarvik (1975, 109).
22 Siegel (1977, 134).
23 Klüver (1942, 179).
24 Reichel-Dolmatoff (1978a, 8).
25 See Clottes (1996) on thematic changes in Upper Palaeolithic art.
26 Halverson (1987, 66–67).
27 Hahn (1986, 1993).
28 Hahn (1993, 232).
29 Hahn (1993, 238).
30 Hahn (1993, 236).
31 Hahn (1986).
32 Hahn (1993, 238).
33 Clottes & Packer (2001, 177–80); Clottes (1996).
34 Hahn (1993, 231).
35 See Turner (1967) on the multiple meanings of symbols.
36 Hahn (1993, 240).
37 Hahn (1986, 1993).
38 Hahn (1993, 234).
39 Hahn (1993, 240).
40 Dowson & Porr (2001).
8 THE CAVE IN THE MIND (PAGES 204–27)
1 Plato (1935, 207).
2 There is debate about the applicability of ‘shamanism’ to Aboriginal Australian religions. Some writers believe that altered states of consciousness play no role Aboriginal religion, but I suspect that their judgment is based on a misunderstanding of what constitutes an altered state.
3 Leroi-Gourhan & Allain (1979).
4 Bégouën & Breuil (1958).
5 Leroi-Gourhan (1968); Marshack (1972).
6 Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1988).
7 Clottes & Courtin (1996); Clottes pers. comm.
8 See, for example, Graziosi (1960); Ucko & Rosenfeld (1967); Bahn & Vertut (1988); Gonnella (1999).
9 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, fig. 13).
10 Bahn & Vertut (1988, fig. 52).
11 See Clottes & Lewis-Williams (1988, fig. 83) for a photograph.
12 For photographs see Clottes (1995, figs 142, 164).
13 Freeman et al. (1987, 223–24); Beltran (1999, 34, 43, 47, 48, 152, 153, 154, 162).
14 Breuil (1952, fig. 271).
15 Eliade (1972, 50–51); Halifax (1980, 6).
16 Upper Palaeolithic vision questing has been suggested by other writers, such as Hayden (1993) and Pfeiffer (1982).
17 On sensory deprivation and visions see La Barre (1975, 14), Walker (1981, 146), Pfeiffer (1982, 211) and Siegel & Jarvik (1975).
18 Myerhoff (1974, 42).
19 Clottes & Courtin (1996, 61).
20 Clottes et al. (1992, 586–87); Clottes & Courtin (1996).
21 Lorblanchet (1992, 451).
22 Duday & Garcia (1983).
23 Lorblanchet (1992, 488–89).
24 Ucko (1992, pl. 9).
25 Ucko (1992, 188, pls 10 and 11).
26 Clottes & Courtin (1996, 60).
27 Ucko (1992, 158).
28 Clottes & Courtin (1996, 63).
29 Baffier & Feruglio (1998, 2001).
30 Lorblanchet (1991, 29).
31 Lorblanchet (1991, 30); see also Smith (1992) on the importance of breath.
32 Freeman et al. (1987, 105).
33 De Beaune (1987); de Beaune et al. (1988); de Beaune & White (1993).
34 De Beaune & White (1993, 78–79).
35 See, for example, Lakoff & Johnson (1980).
36 Jakobsen (1999, 59).
37 Kensinger (1973, 9).
38 See Levinson (1966) on auditory hallucinations in hysteria.
39 Tuzin (1984).
40 Delluc & Delluc (1990, 62–63).
41 Bahn & Vertut (1988, 69, fig. 34).
42 Needham (1967).
43 Oppitz (1992); Potapov (1996); on Lapp drums, see Manker (1996).
44 Potapov (1996, 120).
45 Vajnštejn (1996, 131).
46 Vitebsky (1995b, 79, 82).
47 Siikala (1998, 90).
48 Harner (1982, 65).
49 Neher (1961, 1962).
50 Reznikoff & Dauvois (1988); Scarre (1989); Waller 1993.
51 Waller (1993).
52 Cohen (1964, 160, 170).
53 Myerhoff (1974, 41).
54 The Greek words are variously translated.
9 CAVE AND COMMUNITY (PAGES 228–67)
1 Ingold (1992, 53). For discussions of these ideas in the context of Neolithic chambered tombs see Thomas (1990, 1991) and Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1993).
2 Cf.Vialou (1982, 1986).
3 Breuil (1952, 310–11); Gaussen (1964); Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 317).
4 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 317); Gaussen et al. in L’art des cavernes (1984, 225–31).
5 Breuil (1952, 310).
6 Breuil (1952, 311).
7 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 317).
8 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 317).
9 Gaussen (1964, pl. 22).
10 Lorblanchet & Sieveking (1997).
11 For photographs see Clottes & Lewis-Williams (1996, fig. 96) and Leroi-Gourhan (1968, pl. 58).
12 Laming (1959).
13 Aujoulat (1987). Lascaux is the most extensively published Upper Palaeolithic cave. Early books include Brodrick (1949); Windels (1949); Breuil (1952, 107–51); Bataille (1955); Laming (1959). More recent guides to the cave include Delluc & Delluc (1984, 1990). The most comprehensive accounts are Ar. Leroi-Gourhan & Allain (1979); Ar. Leroi-Gourhan (1982); Leroi-Gourhan (1984); Ruspoli (1987).
14 Leroi-Gourhan (1984, fig. 2).
15 Delluc & Delluc (1990, 3).
16 Laming (1959, 67).
17 Ruspoli (1987, 109).
18 See Tuzin (1984) on miraculous voices.
19 Breuil (1952, 125).
20 Laming (1959, 78).
21 Laming (1959, 77).
22 E.g., Kehoe (1989).
23 Bégouën et al. (1993).
24 Furst (1977, 16–17).
25 Clottes, pers. comm.
26 Furst (1977, 16–21).
27 As Conkey (1980) argued for Altamira.
28 Leroi-Gourhan (1979, fig. 40).
29 Laming (1959, 80).
30 Ar. Leroi-Gourhan & Allain (1979).
31 Vialou (1979, 244, 280).
32 Breuil (1952, 147).
33 For a penetrating discussion of perspective see Kubovy (1986).
34 See, for example, Clottes & Lewis-Williams (1998, fig. 73).
35 Kubovy (1986).
36 Guthrie (1990, 93).
37 See Smith (1992).
38 Davenport & Jochim (1988).
39 Brodrick (1949, 82).
40 Eliade (1972).
10 CAVE AND CONFLICT (PAGES 268–86)
1 See Clottes (1996) on the persistence of and differential emphasis on themes found in early Aurignacian art through to the Magdalenian. More recently, he has written: ‘Chauvet has also made us realise that the contents of the art did not change considerably over time’ (Clottes 1998, 126). One of the most interesting changes in emphasis concerns felines and ‘dangerous’ animals; at the present stage of research, there appear to be more in the early rather than late Upper Palaeolithic sites.
2 Bourdieu (1977); Giddens (1984).
3 But see Bender (1989); Hayden (1990); Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1993) for related studies.
4 Foucault (1965).
5 For a review of work on the construction of personae and a specific study of personhood in the British Neolithic see Fowler (2001).
6 Sherratt (1991, 52).
7 I take ‘somatic’ to include haptic, or tactile, and cenesthetic hallucinations.
8 Siegel (1977); Brindley (1973, 593).
9 Pfeifer (1970, 57).
10 Pfeifer (1970, 58).
11 Winters (1975, 54).
12 Asaad (1980).
13 La Barre (1975, 12–13).
14 Klüver (1942, 199); McKellar (1972, 48–50); Fischer (1975, 222); La Barre (1975, 10); Emboden (1979, 44); Cytowic (1994).
15 Siegel (1978, 313).
16 Sedman (1966); Hare (1973); Taylor (1981).
17 Harner (1973a, 156).
18 Siegel (1992, 29).
19 Siegel (1978, 313).
20 Siegel (1978, 309–10).
21 Siegel (1978, 309).
22 Asaad (1980).
23 Goodman (1972, 58).
24 Ezekiel 34: 26.
25 Sarbin (1967, 371).
26 Halifax (1980, 189).
27 Harner (1973a, 17); see also Harner (1973b).
28 Harner (1973a, 21–22).
29 Harner (1973a, 24).
30 Bates (1992, 101–02).
31 Eliade (1972).
32 Eliade (1972, 43).
33 Eliade (1972, 43).
34 Eliade (1972, 44).
35 Eliade (1972, 44).
36 Biesele (1980, 57).
37 Katz (1982, 94).
38 Lewis-Williams (1997a, figs 2, 3 and 4).
39 Katz (1982, 46).
40 Katz (1982, 120).
41 Katz (1982, 214).
42 For further examples of ‘impaled’ figures in southern African rock art see Garlake (1987a, fig. 67); (1987b, fig. 6); (1995, fig. 185); Bond (1948).
43 Halifax (1982).
44 Halifax (1982, 5).
45 Leroi-Gourhan (1982, 54, chart xxviii).
46 Clottes & Courtin (1996, figs 157, 158).
47 Clottes & Courtin (1996, figs 166, 167, 168); Bahn & Vertut (1988, 152).
48 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, figs 501, 502, 514).
49 Méroc & Mazet (1977, 35–37, 70).
50 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, fig. 383).
51 Leroi-Gourhan (1968, fig. 384).
52 Méroc & Mazet (1977).
53 Lorblanchet (1984a, fig. 8).
54 Leroi-Gourhan (1982, 53).
55 Katz (1982, 46).
56 Marshall (1969, 363–64).
57 See, for example, Lewis-Williams (1981, figs 19, 20, 23, 28, 32); Lewis-Williams & Dowson (1999, figs 15, 16c, 17, 20, 28, 32a).
58 See, for example, Marshack (1972, figs 181, 182); Leroi-Gourhan (1968, fig. 57).
59 Lewis-Williams (1991).
60 Clottes & Courtin (1996, 161); Leroi-Gourhan (1982, 54).
61 Graziosi (1960, 182); Leroi-Gourhan (1968, 130); (1982, 54); Méroc & Mazet (1977, 36); Breuil (1979, 272); Clottes & Courtin (1996, 160–61).
62 Smith (1992, 84–85, 109, 114).
63 Halifax (1982).
64 Eliade (1972, 46).
65 Eliade (1972, 51).
66 Eliade (1972, 101).
67 See also Pfeiffer (1982); Hayden (1990).
68 Clottes & Courtin (1996, 159).
69 For a range of ideas on this point see Carrithers et al. (1985).
70 Hollis (1985, 222); see Rappaport (1999) on the importance of altered states in ritual.
71 Lévi-Strauss (1963, 229).
72 For a discussion of late Magdalenian cave art see Clottes (1990)
ENVOI (PAGES 287–91)
1 Jaynes (1982).
2 Iliad (19, 86–90).
3 Jaynes (1982, 74).
4 Bloom (1998, xx).
5 Bloom (1998, 3, 518–19).
6 Goya tempered his title with the following caption, ‘Imagination abandoned by reason produces impossible monsters, united with her, she is the mother of the arts and the source of their wonders’.
7 D’Aquili (1978, 1986).
8 Twemlow et al. (1982).
9 Lex (1979); d’Aquili & Newberg (1993a, 1993b, 1998, 1999); Trevarthen (1986).