Figure 1.1
The intersections of events, food, tourism
Chapter 1
Food Events, Festivals and Farmers’ Markets: An Introduction
Food events, sometimes referred to as hallmark or special events are fairs, festivals, expositions, cultural, consumer and industry events which are held on either a regular or a one-off basis. Hallmark events have assumed a key role in intern ational, national, regional and firm tourism and food and wine marketing and promotion strategies. From a business perspective their primary marketing function is to provide products, sponsors, host communities and other stakeholders with an opportunity to secure high prominence in the marketplace while also adding brand value and building customer and consumer relationships (Hall and Mitchell, 2008).
Events have assumed an important role in tourism and marketing in recent years and have developed their own specialist professional organizations and niche area within tourism and visitor studies. At the same time the study of food and wine tourism, which is sometimes also referred to as gourmet, culinary or gastronomic tourism has also grown in importance (Hall et al., 2000, 2003b). Food events therefore lie at the intersection of these two fields (Figure 1.1). However, because of the nature of food as a product and the daily part it plays in consumption and economic systems, food events are more than just part of food retailing, marketing and promotion but also coincide with a number of other economic, political and social concerns relating to the nature of contemporary agricultural systems, conservation of rural landscapes, maintenance of rural lifestyles and communities, and concerns over food quality. Because of these factors, food events are different.
Figure 1.1
The intersections of events, food, tourism
Food events are therefore not just about external promotion to visitors and/or consumers outside of the host region they also have substantial internal drivers for being conducted which relate to the consumption and production of food from particular locations and communities and to the maintenance of those communities. Food events are therefore strongly connected to senses of place and community pride in the products that they produce. Furthermore, food and the emotions and necessities that surround it, are significant not just for prod u cers but also for consumers in that consumption of particular products may also have implications for identities and lifestyles (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Hall et al., 2003c; Che et al., 2005). There is also widespread agreement that the number of food-related events being held around the developed world is growing rapidly although definitive figures are hard to determine (Payne, 2002; Griffin and Frongillo, 2003).
The purpose of this book is therefore to provide an overview of the food events area via an assessment of key features and issues and presentation of cases and examples of the various events. This first chapter aims to give an introduction to some of the key issues from a management perspective while the following chapter addresses some of the ways within which events are embedded within local food systems and alternative forms of food distribution and marketing.
Food Events in a Tourism Context
Food tourism is defined by Hall and Mitchell (2001, p. 308) as ‘visitation to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants and specific locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production regions are the primary motivating factor for travel’. Wine tourism is a subset of food tourism being defined as visitation to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals and wine shows for which grape wine tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of a grape wine region are the prime motivating factors for visitors (Hall, 1996). Such definitions do not mean that any trip to an event is food tourism, rather the desire to experience a particular type of food or the produce of a specific region must be the major moti v ation for such travel. Indeed, food tourism may possibly be regarded as an example of ‘culinary’, ‘gastronomic’, ‘gourmet’ or ‘cuisine’ tourism that reflects consumers for who interest in food and wine is a form of ‘serious leisure’ (Hall and Mitchell, 2001; Hall and Sharples, 2003; Mitchell and Hall, 2003) (Figure 1.2). Such definitional distinctions are significant because they also alert the reader to the potential dimensions of the food tourism market. However, for all these categories described as part of food tourism, food and wine rank as the main or a major travel motivator. Such categories of tourism are therefore defined primarily by the consumer (Hall et al., 2003a).
Figure 1.2
Food tourism as a special interest tourism product (Source: After Hall and Sharples, 2003)
Food events are dependent on tourism. However, in using tourism in this context we are looking at a more generic notion of travel than the one imbued in terms of popular culture. Tourism can be understood as one form of leisure oriented mobility that ranges in scale from the local to the international (Hall, 2005). Tourism in the context used in this book therefore refers to visitation to events by people from within the immediate environment of the event, and the broader region and beyond therefore encompasses what we may conceive of as day tripping, domestic travel and international tourism.
From the production perspective a number of advantages of events, and food events in particular, can be identified at both a regional and enterprise scale. At a regional scale (Dywer et al., 2000; Chhabra et al., 2003; Lankford and Çela, 2005; Farmers’ Market Federation of New York, 2006) advantages include:
At the enterprise level (Telfer and Wall, 1996; Hall and Mitchell, 2001, 2008; Hall et al., 2003b) advantages include:
Because food events are usually regarded as part of the supply side of tourism they are often regarded as being a form of tourism product. In one sense they clearly are because, as discussed later in this chapter and throughout the book, they are capable of being managed, marketed and planned in order to provide a particular type of visitor product or serve a range of goals of those who provide the elements that make up the event. However, increasingly, the division between consumption and production in tourism is becoming recognized as a convenient abstraction. Instead, it is increasingly recognized that from a services perspective, tourism is co-produced or co-created between the consumer and the people and firms that enable the visitor experience.
Although tourism is a service industry this does not mean that it is completely intangible. Far from it. Tourism is based on a complex set of infrastructure and physical resources, such as events spaces, market buildings, food products and landscape that have a significant relationship to the places in which they are situated. However, what is being purchased or consumed by the event visitor are the experiences that this infrastructure and set of resources provides, not the infrastructure itself. Because tourism is an experience-based product it means that in order to be able to understand food event phenomenon we need to be able to understand both its consumption and production. This is an almost deceptively simple statement but its implications are enormous: food events cannot be understood by looking at one aspect in isolation, consumption cannot occur without production and vice versa. The inseparability of production and consumption is therefore one of the hallmarks of tourism with the value of the visitor experience therefore being determined by both the consumer and the producer of the experience and the tourism product (Figure 1.3). The inseparability of consumption and production also means that the factors that make up consumption and production are constantly feeding back on one another thereby influencing the development of food event products and their appeal to consumers (Cooper and Hall, 2008).
Figure 1.3
Locating the food event experience and product
The fact that food events are co-created between producers and consumers also means that in order to be able to understand the nature and quality of the experience we need to have an appreciation of both the consumption and production elements of food events and how they come together to provide experiences for consumers.
Food Events and Festivals
Events have long been synonymous with food and particularly with religious and spiritual festivals. Celebrations have long been held in many cultures that celebrate harvest. As Hall and Mitchell (2008) note, wine-related events have their origins in pre-Christian bacchanalia – mystical festivals dedicated to the Roman god of wine (in Greek mythology, Bacchus was known as Dionysus or Eleutherios) that were originally held in mid-March but later extended to be held five times a year. In Christian societies saints days were often used to try and replace pagan festivals though the festivals and events associated with them were often continued (Barkin and James, 1994). In wine-growing countries religious festivals and celebrations are often entwined with the various stages of vine growth: budbreak, flowering, fruit set, veraison and harvest. However, in recent years events have become far more secular in nature although in a number of countries, such as Spain and Italy, wine and food festivals and religious celebrations still go hand-in-hand, while in others while events may still be held on saint’s days this fact may not be recognized by visitors (see Exhibit 1.1). Many holidays also have a strong relationship to food. Thanksgiving, sometimes also jokingly referred to as ‘Turkey Day’ which is celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States and the second Monday of October in Canada is a traditional holiday to give thanks at the conclusion of the harvest season.
Festivals are a celebration of something the local community wishes to share and which involves the wider public as participants in the experience. Festivals are ‘an event, a social phenomenon, encountered in virtually all human cultures’ (Falassi, 1987, p. 1) which have five key elements:
Exhibit 1.1 Whitstable Oyster Fair
The town of Whitstable is situated on the South East coastline of England in the county of Kent. It is located just to the north of the historic cathedral city of Canterbury and close to the historic town of Margate. The town has been associated with oysters for hundreds of years and evidence reports that in Norman times Whitstable was an established fishing port. In 1793 the Whitstable Oyster Company was established and from this time the industry expanded bringing work to the town and creating a buoyant economy. By the nineteenth century the oyster industry was so successful that the town acquired the nickname of ‘Oysterville’.
A festival associated with fish can be traced back to Norman Times when fishermen and dredgers would celebrate their trade with an annual ceremony. The fishermen then started to hold their celebration at a slack time of year, the close season for Oysters, and the festival became linked to the feast day of St James of Compestella, the patron saint of Oysters, on the 25th July. This traditional focus has continued and the festival now lasts for one week around this time of July.
The exact form of the original festival is unknown but it is likely that it included a blessing of the town, the sea, the boats and the fishermen who worked the fleet, as well as dancing, games and contests. The format today is a little more complex but still contains these basic elements. The programme includes a Food and Produce Fair, an Oyster Parade, the Landing and Blessing of the Catch at Long Beach, Oyster Eating Competitions, Guided History Walks, a Beer Festival and Arts and Music events. The programme caters for all age groups including children.
The festival is now managed by the newly formed Whitstable Oyster Festival Association (WOFA, 2007) which is made up of local residents committed to maintaining the community focus of the event. Sponsorship is primarily local and includes Canterbury City Council. The aims of the WOFA are described in its Constitution as follows:
The Association’s objects are to promote, maintain, improve and advance, education, celebration, appreciation and understanding of the culture and heritage of Whitstable and the surrounding areas, through the curation and development of the annual Whitstable Oyster Festival. The Association will do this through the provision of a programme that is accessible, inclusive and participatory, involving residents and visitors of all ages in events that embrace without limitations the arts, heritage, and sport.
Source: Derived from Whitstable Oyster Festival: http://www.whitstableoysterfestival.co.uk and WOFA: http://www.wofa.org.uk.
Festivals are intimately related with the maintenance and celebration of community values. ‘Both the social function and the symbolic meaning of the festival are closely related to a series of overt values that the community recognizes as essen tial to its ideology and worldview, to its social identity, its historical continuity, and to its physical survival, which is ulti m ately what festival celebrates’ (Falassi, 1987, p. 2). However, as a result of greater cultural and economic connectedness between places, community food festivals have increasingly taken on a role as a commoditized product that is used externally promoted in order to attract visitors, promote the region or community, or promote consumption of specific food products – all usually with an economic motive (Hall and Mitchell, 2008). This is not to deny that events and festivals still have an important community-based social function but that such cele brations increasingly also have an economic and commercial dimension to them.
Many rural towns, especially in North America, often proclaim themselves as the ‘capital’ of various food types as a way of celebrating their heritage and food production, while simultaneously using the food as a way of differentiating themselves as a place to visit. For example, in California, Sacremento and Chico both proclaim to the almond capital of the world, while Watsonville is the strawberry capital of the world. Gilroy is the garlic capital of the world and also hosts an annual garlic festival that usually attracts over 100,000 people each year (Exhibit 1.2).
The use of food events and festivals for tourism and economic development purposes has also allowed for renewed public and private investment in community-based food events because of the perceived direct, that is purchasing of local product, and indirect benefits, that is awareness of regional brand, that they bring (e.g. the Whitstable Oyster Fair discussed in Exhibit 1.1). The economic benefits of such events may be substantial even if they retain a community focus. Çela et al. (2007) assessed the economic impact of 11 community-based food festivals in Northeast Iowa (from May to October 2005). The total economic impact of visitors (n = 22,806) in local food festivals was estimated to be almost $2.6 million in terms of sales; $1.4 million in terms of personal income; and generated 51 jobs. The study also found that festival participants were middle-aged, college graduates, affluent and day trippers and were primarily motivated to specifically attend the festivals, via word of mouth. However, the focus of food events will usually depend on the relative mix of their commercial and non-commercial goals, their product focus and their size and intended visitor reach (scale). Food and wine events occur over a range of scales not only in terms of the numbers of people they attract but also their promotional base (i.e. brand, firm, multi-firm, community or region). Table 1.1 provides an overview of some of the categories of different food events with examples.
Exhibit 1.2 The Gilroy Garlic Festival
The Gilroy Garlic festival is one of the most well-known food festivals in California if not the USA. The first festival was held in August 1979. The festival was founded because Rudy Melone, then President of the local community college, read an article in mid-1978 about a garlic festival in Arleux, France, a small community that claimed to be Garlic Capital of the World, but who believed that Gilroy had claim to the title given the economic import ance of garlic to the area. Following a Rotary Club luncheon with members of the garlic industry and local media support for a garlic festival was generated and civic leaders, initially reluctant, started to assist the project. The first festival was an enormous success, far exceeding expectations, and succeeding in raising $19,000 and improving community relations and pride in the local garlic industry. Since then several million dollars have been raised from the more than three million visitors the festival has received.
The festival is organized by the Gilroy Garlic Festival Association which is a non-profit corporation. Its goal is to support the community projects, charitable groups and service organizations of Gilroy. The mission statement of the festival is that it ‘is established to provide benefits to local worthy charities and non-profit groups by promoting the community of Gilroy through a quality celebration of Garlic’. In 2006 over 4,000 volunteers from 169 nonprofit groups worked 41,763 hours to host the 28th Annual Garlic Festival; $253,000 was distributed to non-profit organizations. From 1979 through 2006 the success of the annual Festival enabled the Association to award over $7.5 million to these groups, as well as assisting other charities which generate funds through booths at the 3-day event.
Source: Derived from Gilroy Garlic Festival: http://www.gilroygarlicfestival.com/.
In addition to public events there are also a substantial number of private, industry-oriented events that are often categorized as trade fairs and exhibitions, although some of these events now also host a day when the general public can attend to sample. The size of such events varies substantially. For example, Vinitaly 2007 one of the world’s largest wine trade events had more than 150,000 visitors from more than 100 countries of which 38,000 were international attendees. In addition, there were more than 2,600 journalists from 52 countries. In terms of numbers of businesses the exhibition attracted 4,300 companies from more than 30 countries (VeronaFiere Press Office, 2007). The International Wine Competition held as part of Vinitaly included almost 3,500 wines from 31 different countries (Hall and Mitchell, 2008). Nevertheless, also the food exhibition market is significant for business-to-business commerce; the primary focus of the present book is on public food events.
Public Food Events
Public food events can be defined (after Ritchie, 1984; Hall, 1992) as one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, sales, appeal and profitability of food and beverage products in the short and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on uniqueness, status, quality or timely significance to create interest and attract attention. A primary function of food events is to provide an opportunity for food products and related destinations to secure a position of prominence in the market for a short, well defined, period of time in order to make sales. Significant secondary functions from the demand side include building and promoting product, firm and destination brand values, maintaining relationships with customers, encouraging new consumers, educating consumers and promoting visitation (Hall and Mitchell, 2008) (see Exhibits 1.3 and 1.4). From the production side secondary functions include promoting improved production methods and quality of product, reducing the length of supply chains, and promoting sustainable agricultural development, particularly with respect to the development of farmers’ markets.
Although there may be some commonalities with respect to visitor profiles (e.g. see the discussion in Chapter 13) with respect to farmers – markets–consumers, it is important to note that food event attendees do not constitute a single homogeneous market, instead different events attract different audiences. For example, Table 1.2 provides a breakdown of different visitor profiles to wine events and festivals.
Table 1.1 Categories of food events
Exhibit 1.3 Wakefield Food, Drink and Rhubarb Festival
The area between Wakefield, Leeds and Morley, in the county of West Yorkshire, is commonly known as the Wakefield Rhubarb Triangle due to the rows of long, low, ‘forcing’ sheds in this area which produce the ‘champagne of rhubarb’ according to connoisseurs. Artificially brought on in pitch black, warm, moist conditions the rhubarb that is produced has pink/red stems, and tightly curled yellow leaves, unlike its green outdoor relative. The Wakefield growers produce about nine-tenths of the world’s total forced Rhubarb crop. One grower, E. Oldroyd & Sons, in the village of Carlton, was established in 1934, and regularly supplies rhubarb to markets in London, Europe and further afield. The company makes the most of this rich asset and throughout the growing season, particularly during the festival, organize tours of the forcing sheds. The national rhubarb collection, home to 150 varieties of rhubarb, is located at The Harlow Carr Gardens in Harrogate, just North of Wakefield, which is an additional attraction for rhubarb lovers.
Wakefield hosts an annual rhubarb-oriented food festival and attracts food and rhubarb enthusiasts from around the UK and overseas. The festival started in 1999 and at first was just dedicated to the appreciation of Rhubarb. In 2007 the festival organizers decided to extend their offering and the festival now includes a city centre marquee hosting live cookery demonstrations, tasting sessions and a specialist food market. Many of the local restaurants, hotels and pubs are also involved in offering themed rhubarb menus for the duration of the festival and there are tours of Fernandes, the local micro-brewery, to sample their award winning ales, including one based on Rhubarb.
Source: Derived from Campaign For Real Ale: http://www.camra.org.uk, Visit Wakefield: http://www.wakefield.gov.uk/ and Yorkshire Rhubarb: http://www.yorkshirerhubarb.co.uk.
Exhibit 1.4 BBC Good Food Shows
There are increasing linkages between food events and the media, especially specialist food media. One of the biggest food events within the UK is the BBC Good Food Show which is held in November at the National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham. This spectacular event is home to over 500 food producers as part of the Great British Food Festival and presents an impressive range of lectures, master-classes, cookery demonstrations and competitions. The Show has over 10 ‘theatres’ including a ‘Supertheatre’ sponsored by supermarket chain Sainsbury’s and 9 restaurants offering a range of cuisines. The show also includes a speciality food fair organized by Henrietta Green, who organizes a number of Food Lover’s fairs throughout the UK, a stand which showcases Ludlow, one the best food festivals in the UK and the Ludlow Slow Food Convivium is also present.
A number of celebrity chefs are involved with the event. In 2007 there was a line up including Rick Stein, Gordon Ramsey, Ainsley Harriet, James Martin and Jamie Oliver. In addition a new activity, the Kids Kitchen Academy, was sponsored by Morrison’s supermarket.
The BBC Good Food concept has been so successful in recent years that the show has now been ‘rolled out’ at several other locations around the UK. Similar shows now take place in London and Glasgow and in the Summer another event takes place in Birmingham. Details of these shows can be found on the main website.
Source: Derived from Good Food Show: at http://www.bbcgoodfoodshow.com.
Critical factors that determine visitation to a food event include, from the production perspective (Taylor and Shanka, 2002; Hall et al., 2003b, c; Tasslopoulos and Haydam, 2006; Hall and Mitchell, 2008):
Table 1.2 Profile of visitors to selected wine events from around the world
| Festival | Profile |
Breedekloof Outdoor Festival, South Africa | Almost 36.7% of attendees were between 36 and 50 years, almost 32.2% were single, the majority were female (57.4%), and were mostly Afrikaans-speaking (78.1%). The results suggest that the overwhelming majority of the event attendees were domestic visitors primarily from Cape Town. The travelling party to the event consisted mostly of two people (25.9%) and the majority (68.7%) only visited the event for one day (Tasslopoulos and Haydam, 2006). |
Rutherglen Winery Walkabout, Australia | 31.2% of respondents were aged 18–30 with only a low number of older people (5% of respondents aged 61 and over attended the festival). 22.2% of respondents had family incomes lower than AUS$35,000 (Houghton, 2001). |
Tastes of Rutherglen, Australia | In terms of age 31.6% of respondents were 31–40 and 29.8% 41–50. In comparison with the Rutherglen winery walkabout 14% of respondents to this event were aged 61 or over; 10.5% of respondents had family incomes lower than AUS$35,000 (Houghton, 2001). |
Vancouver Playhouse International Wine Festival, Canada | 19.3% of attendees were aged less than 30 and 4.3% were over 60. The average age of attendees was 39. Females made up 58% of the audience. The average monthly expenditure on wine was CAN$152 and 31.3% of attendees spend between CAN$51–100 on wine a month; 40.5% of attendees were single (Vancouver Playhouse International Wine Festival, 2007). |
Wine Marlborough Festival, New Zealand | In 2003, 28.4% of respondents to a festival survey were aged 24 or below. The 2003 survey indicated a significant increase in festival goers in this age group over the previous year, while the 25–34 age group had not changed significantly. There had been a significant decline in numbers in the 40–59 age group. This group almost halved between 2002 and 2003, down from 43.5% to 23.1%; 54.7% of respondents came from outside the Marlborough region, including 10% from overseas; 45.2% of survey respondents were from the Marlborough region (Hall and Mitchell, 2005). |
Winter Wine Fest, Australia | 52% of visitors were female. 7% were aged between 18 and 24 years old, 42% between 25 and 44, 47% between 45 and 64 and only 4% were 65 years or over; 87% were working full or part-time. In terms of social groups the largest proportion visited with friends (48%), followed by couples (33%), families (15%) and only 4% attended by themselves. Nearly all visitation was domestic primarily from Melbourne (Weiler et al., 2004). |
From the consumers’ perspective important considerations are (Hall et al., 2003b, c; Brown and Getz, 2005; Çai et al., 2005; Hall, 2005; Hall and Mitchell, 2008):
These factors are dealt with in more detail in the various chapters in the book while the next chapter looks at some of the economic development and planning aspects in more detail.
Outline and Summary
The chapters in the book are broadly divided into five sections. This and the following two chapters provides a broad introduction to food events, with Chapter 2 paying special emphasis to economic and planning issues, especially in relation to the development of local food systems. Chapter 3 by Rotherham picks up on the theme of the connection between food, landscape and events discussed in Chapter 2 and provides an historical account of feasts and events in relation to British regional landscape and culture.
Chapters 4–8 deal with a number of marketing and management issues in food events, with 9–12 examining wine- and beverage-related events. Chapters on branding (Kalkstein et al., Chapter 4), impacts and business-to-business network relations (Hede, Chapter 6), visitor behaviour (Yuan et al., Chapter 10) and visitor profiles (Houghton, Chapter 12) are interspersed with case studies and review chapters on apple and cider festivals (Sharples, Chapter 9), Scottish food events (Barrie, Chapter 5), beer festivals (Sharples and Lyons, Chapter 11), the food festival of the world-famous gastronomic destin ation of Ludlow in the UK (Sharples and Lyons, Chapter 7), and a study of two food and wine events in Tasmania within the context of the state’s broader tourism strategies (Crispin and Reiser, Chapter 8).
Chapters 13–18 focus on farmers’ markets as a particular type of food event that is growing in business and community importance. The section is introduced in Chapter 13 by a review of farmers’ markets and some of the issues of definition, marketing and development that contextualize the rest of the farmers’ market chapters which focus, in turn, on the different local, national and regional contexts in which farmers’ markets are embedded. These include New Brunswick, Canada (Jolliffe, Chapter 14); Japan (Telfer and Hashimoto, Chapter 15); Airey Inlet Farmers’ Market, Australia (Hede, Chapter 16); Otago Farmers’ Market, New Zealand (Mitchell and Scott, Chapter 17) and markets in the UK (Eastham, Chapter 18).
The final two chapters aim to provide a guide to ongoing issues facing food events with Chapter 19 by Lyons suggesting research methods and approaches that can be utilized in food festival research, while the last chapter by Hall and Sharples (Chapter 20) outlines some of the issues faced by food events that will need to be addressed in order to maintain the current level of their development.
Food events have come to enjoy an extremely high public profile in developed countries in recent years. This is partly due to the growth of food as an important expression of contemporary lifestyle and consumption, especially with respect to the way in which it has come to be given a significant role in the media, including specialized food magazines and even television channels. However, it is also related to the increasing concerns that many people feel about where their food comes from with respect to its quality and the impacts of its production and consumption on the economic, social and physical environment. Travelling locally to food events may be one of the most sustainable forms of tourism that currently exist as not only is the environmental effects of consumption reduced, but also, and especially in the case of farmers’ markets, production. It is to this sustainable dimension of food events that we will now turn to in the next chapter.
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