Study Notes

1:1—6:13 The first section of Isaiah’s prophecies, dominated by messages of judgment and climaxing in Isaiah’s commission (ch. 6; cf. note on 7:1—12:6).

1:1–31 Compare the indictment of ch. 1 with that of ch. 5; the two enclose the first series of messages. Ch. 1 also serves as an introduction to the whole book.

1:1 The title of the book. Other headings occur in 2:1; 13:1; 14:28; 15:1; 17:1; 19:1; 21:1,11,13; 22:1; 23:1. vision. In the sense of “revelation” or “prophecy” (see Pr 29:18; Ob 1 and notes; see also 1Sa 3:1). Isaiah. See introduction: Author. Amoz. Not to be confused with the prophet Amos. Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah. These kings reigned from 792 to 686 bc. None of the kings of Israel is mentioned since Isaiah ministered primarily to the southern kingdom (Judah). Isaiah’s focus is on the kings of Judah also because these are the legitimate kings of Israel in the line of David (2Sa 7:11–17).

1:2 Isaiah begins and ends (66:24) with a condemnation of those who rebel against God—such revolt is the very essence of sin. The prophet calls on the heavens and the earth to testify to the truth of God’s accusation against Israel and the rightness of his judgment—since they were witnesses of his covenant (see Dt 30:19 and note; 31:28; 32:1; Ps 50:1 and note).

1:3 manger. Feeding trough. does not know. Refusal to know and understand God later resulted in Judah’s exile from their land (5:13).

1:4 Holy One of Israel. Occurs 26 times in Isaiah (see especially 5:24) and only 6 times elsewhere in the OT (see Introduction: Author; see also note on 2Ki 19:22). Holy One. See 6:3; Ex 3:5; Lev 11:44 and notes.

1:5–6 The pitiable moral and spiritual condition of Israel is transferred to the suffering servant in 53:4–5. The Hebrew words for “beaten,” “injured” and “welts” here in 1:5–6 correspond to those for “stricken,” “pain” and “wounds” in 53:4–5.

1:6 The disease ravages the entire body, as with Job (2:7). olive oil. Commonly used for treating wounds (Lk 10:34).

1:7–9 The desolation of the land of Judah is the result of foreign invasion: e.g., by Aram, the northern kingdom of Israel, Edom and Philistia (2Ch 28:5–18); later (701 bc) by King Sennacherib and the Assyrian army (36:1–2); still later (605–586) by King Nebuchadnezzar and the Neo-Babylonian army.

1:8 Daughter Zion. A personification of Jerusalem (see note on 2Ki 19:21). shelter . . . hut. Temporary structures used by watchmen (Job 27:18), who were on the lookout for thieves and intruders. The flimsiness of these structures points to Jerusalem’s vulnerability.

1:9–10 Sodom . . . Gomorrah. Classic examples of sinful cities that were completely destroyed (3:9; Ge 13:13; 18:20–21; 19:5,24–25). Just as Jesus addressed Peter as though he were Satan (Mt 16:23), so Isaiah addresses his fellow Israelites as though they were the “rulers of Sodom” and the “people of Gomorrah.”

1:9 Quoted in Ro 9:29, where it is linked with Isa 10:22–23. Isaiah often refers to the remnant that will survive God’s judgment on the nation and take possession of the land (4:3; 10:20–23; 11:11,16; 46:3).

1:11–15 The moral character and conduct of the worshipers, not the number of their religious activities, are most important (see 66:3; 1Sa 15:22; Jer 6:20; 7:22–23; Hos 6:6; Am 5:21–24; Mic 6:6–8 and notes).

1:11 fattened animals. Those well fed to serve as acceptable sacrifices.

1:13 meaningless offerings. “To obey is better than sacrifice” (1Sa 15:22—see note there; see also Ps 51:16–17 and note).

1:14 New Moon feasts. Celebrated on the first day of each Hebrew month. Special sacrifices and feasts were part of the observance (Nu 28:11–15). appointed festivals. Included the annual festivals, such as Passover, Weeks (Pentecost) and Tabernacles (Ex 23:14–17; 34:18–25; Lev 23; Dt 16:1–17).

1:15 hide my eyes. In 8:17; 59:2 God turns away from Israel because of the nation’s sin (see also Mic 3:4 and note).

1:17 See Jer 22:16 and note; Jas 1:27. fatherless . . . widow. Represented the weak and often oppressed part of society. Rulers were warned not to take advantage of them (see v. 23; 10:2; Ex 22:21–27 and note; Jer 22:3).

1:18 scarlet . . . crimson. Refers to the blood that has stained the hands of murderers (vv. 15,21). white as snow. A powerful figurative description of the result of forgiveness (see Ps 51:7 and note). This offer of forgiveness is conditioned on the reformation of life called for in v. 19.

1:19–20 eat . . . be devoured. The vivid contrast is stressed by the use of the same Hebrew verb.

1:21 become a prostitute. Jerusalem (representing all Judah) has been unfaithful to the Lord. Here their unfaithfulness is specified as social abuse, exploitation of the powerless, and violence against one’s neighbor—violating the Lord’s moral order for the community of his people (see note on Ps 73:27; cf. note on Ex 34:15).

1:22 Your silver has become dross. See Ps 12:6 and note.

1:24 The Lord, the LORD Almighty, the Mighty One of Israel. Stressing God’s sovereign authority as Judge (cf. Ps 50:1,6; cf. also Jos 22:22 and note). the LORD Almighty. See note on 1Sa 1:3.

1:25–26 turn . . . restore. The use of the same Hebrew verb emphasizes the contrast (see note on vv. 19–20).

1:25 purge away your dross. Purifying fire is also mentioned in 4:4; 48:10.

1:26 Faithful City. See v. 21. Using a related Hebrew noun, Zec 8:3 also refers to the future Jerusalem as the “Faithful City.”

1:27–28 This contrast between the redemption of Zion (Jerusalem) as a whole and the perishing of individuals who refuse to repent is developed in 65:8–16.

1:29 sacred oaks . . . gardens. Pagan sacrifices were offered and sexual immorality occurred at such places (65:3; 66:17). See photo.

1:30 garden without water. Contrast Ps 1:3; Jer 17:8.

1:31 fire. A figure of punishment (see 33:11–14; 34:9–10; see also note on La 1:13).

2:1 A second heading, probably relating to chs. 2–4 or to chs. 2–12 (see 13:1; see also note on 1:1).

2:2–5 See note on 4:2–6.

2:2–4 Almost identical to Mic 4:1–3. The theme of the “mountain of the LORD” (Mount Zion) is common in Isaiah; it occurs in passages that depict the coming of both Jews and Gentiles to Jerusalem (Zion) in the last days (see 11:9; 27:13; 56:7; 57:13; 65:25; 66:20; see also 60:3–5; Zec 14:16 and note). Some believe that the peace described in this passage has been inaugurated through the coming of Christ and the preaching of the gospel and will be consummated at the return of Christ. Others maintain that it is solely a prophecy of conditions during a future reign of Christ on the earth.

2:2 the last days. Can refer to the future generally (see Ge 49:1), but usually it seems to have in view the Messianic era. In a real sense the last days began with the first coming of Christ (see Ac 2:17; Heb 1:1–2 and notes) and will be completely fulfilled at his second coming.

2:3 Many peoples will come. See Zec 14:16 and note.

2:4 swords into plowshares. Meaning they will turn instruments of war into instruments of peace. The reverse process occurs in Joel 3:10. Isaiah speaks of a time of blessing that will come after a time of judgment; Joel speaks of a time of judgment that will come before the time of blessing. Plowshare here refers to an iron point mounted on a wooden plow blade. See photo.

2:6 East. Probably means Aram (Syria) and Mesopotamia. divination like the Philistines. See 1Sa 6:2 and note; for a description of such occult practices, see also Dt 18:10–11 and note on 18:9.

2:7 silver and gold . . . horses. Accumulating large quantities of these was forbidden to the king (see Dt 17:16–17 and note). They usually led to a failure to trust in God (see 30:1–3,7; 31:1–3).

2:8 they bow down to the work of their hands. Forbidden in Ex 20:4–5.

2:9 do not forgive them. Because they are unrepentant (cf. 30:15).

2:10,19,21 These verses contain a refrain that builds to a climax in v. 21.

2:10 rocks . . . ground. During times of severe oppression the Israelites took refuge in caves and holes in the ground (see Jdg 6:1–2; 1Sa 13:6). majesty. The Hebrew for this word is translated “pride” when used of people. Pride is their attempt to be their own gods (14:13–14).

2:11,17,20 in that day. The phrase, which refers to the day of the Lord, occurs seven times in chs. 2–4 (3:7,18; 4:1–2) and seven times in chs. 24–27 (see note on 24:21). The day of the Lord (see also v. 12) is a time of judgment and/or blessing, as God intervenes decisively in the affairs of the nations (see Joel 1:15; Am 5:18 and notes). It can occur in history, though there is also a final day of the Lord (see article). Assyria would bring the terror of judgment upon Judah in Isaiah’s day (7:17–24).

2:13 cedars of Lebanon. See SS 5:15 and note. Even inanimate things that people stand in awe of will be humbled so that “the LORD alone will be exalted” (v. 11). Bashan. A region east of the Jordan and north of Gilead. It was famous for its oaks (Eze 27:6) and its fat, sleek animals (see Eze 39:18 and note).

2:16 trading ship. These “ships of Tarshish” (see NIV text note) were large vessels such as those used by Solomon (1Ki 10:22) and the Phoenicians (Isa 23:1,14) to ply the sea in far-flung commercial ventures. For the location of Tarshish, see notes on 23:6; Eze 27:12; Jnh 1:3. Southern Spain (Tartessus) seems most likely.

2:20 The futility of worshiping idols is repeatedly noted by Isaiah (see, e.g., 30:22; 31:7; 40:19–20; 44:9–20). See also note on 40:18–20.

2:22 Stop trusting in. The verb is used to describe the rejection of the Messiah in 53:3. Ironically, people rejected the one Man who should have been trusted and “held . . . in . . . esteem” (equals “hold . . . in esteem” here). He alone was worthy of the esteem wrongly given to frail leaders.

3:1–3 Leaders would be taken away by either death or deportation (2Ki 24:14; 25:18–21).

3:2–3 diviner . . . enchanter. Occult practitioners and snake charmers (see Dt 18:10 and note on 18:9; Jer 8:17), whose activities were condemned. Both legitimate and illegitimate kinds of assistance would be removed or deported (2Ki 24:14–16; 25:12; Hos 3:4).

3:3 captain of fifty. A company of 50 was a common military unit (2Ki 1:9). It was also used for civil groupings (Ex 18:25).

3:6 Normally it was unnecessary to force anyone to be a leader. In 4:1 the same social upheaval is seen as seven women “take hold of” one man. You have a cloak. The cloak may be a symbol of greater wealth or of distinguished leadership (as a judge today wears a robe). heap of ruins. Probably Jerusalem (v. 8).

3:7,18 in that day. See note on 2:11,17,20.

3:8 Judah is falling. Fulfilled almost 150 years later in 586 bc.

3:9 Sodom. A symbol of evil (see note on 1:9–10).

3:11 paid back for what their hands have done. Cf. Pr 26:27 and note; Gal 6:7–9 and note on 6:7.

3:12 In the patriarchal culture of the ancient Near East, neither the rule of the young nor that of women was looked on with favor.

3:14 vineyard. Represents Israel (see 5:1 and note).

3:15 The leaders were crushing the poor, as women grind grain between two millstones (see note on Jdg 9:53).

3:16–24 For NT warnings against overemphasis on outward adornment, see 1Ti 2:9–10; 1Pe 3:3–5 and notes.

3:17 sores . . . bald. Judgment from God resulting in disease and humiliation. Baldness on women was viewed as shameful (v. 24).

3:18 crescent necklaces. Probably crescent-shaped; they implied veneration of the moon-god. See photo below.

3:20 headdresses. Perhaps a kind of turban (Eze 24:17,23).

3:21 signet rings. Contained a seal and were a mark of authority (see Ge 41:42; Hag 2:23 and notes).

3:24 rope . . . branding. Captives were led away by ropes (see notes on 37:29; 2Ki 19:28; Am 4:2) and sometimes branded.

3:26 gates of Zion. The gates are personified, as in Ps 24:7,9. They will lament because the crowds that used to assemble there are gone.

4:1–2 In that day. See note on 2:11,17,20. After judgment comes salvation.

4:1 See note on 3:6. War will decimate the male population (3:25; see 13:12 and note), leaving many women with the hardship of being widows and the disgrace of being childless. See 54:4.

4:2–6 A prophecy of redemption just before the long message of indictment and judgment in ch. 5. It balances that found in 2:2–5, which immediately follows the long message of indictment and judgment in ch. 1 (see note on 1:1–31). These two prophecies of redemption complement each other. Cf. also 28:5–8,15–17; 65:18.

4:2–3 survivors . . . are left. See note on 1:9.

4:2 Branch. A Messianic title related to the “shoot” and “Branch” (11:1; 53:2) descended from David (see Jer 23:5 and note; 33:15; Zec 3:8; 6:12 and note)—but some believe that here “Branch” refers to Judah. pride. A legitimate pride in the fruitfulness of the land that will characterize the Messiah’s reign (see Ps 72:3, 6,16 and note on 72:3). Contrast the pride of 2:11,17. glory. Here the fruitfulness of the land will be Israel’s glory; in 46:13 God’s salvation will be their glory (“splendor”); in 60:19 God himself will be their glory.

4:3 holy. Means “set apart” to God (see Lev 11:44 and note; Zec 14:20–21 and notes).

4:4 judgment . . . fire. Purifying fire is also mentioned in 1:25 (see also 48:10 and note).

4:5–6 cloud . . . fire . . . shelter. These words recall Israel’s wilderness wanderings, when the pillar of cloud and fire guided and protected the people (see Ex 13:21 and note; 14:21–22). Isaiah often refers to the time of the exodus (see 11:15–16; 31:5; 51:10 and notes).

4:5 the glory. The manifestation of God’s presence, represented by a glow of flaming fire (see Ex 16:10; 24:17; 40:34–35). canopy. God’s protective presence.

4:6 God’s presence in cloud and fire will protect and preserve redeemed Zion (cf. Ps 121:5–6).

5:1–30 See note on 1:1–31.

5:1 loved one. God. vineyard. Israel (see v. 7; 3:14; Ps 80:8–16; see also photos here and here). Jesus’ parable of the tenants (Mt 21:33–44; Mk 12:1–11; Lk 20:9–18) is based on this song. Both Jesus’ parable and this song depict God’s judgment because of the failure of Israel’s leaders to produce fruit (to give God his due). See also Jn 15:1–17.

5:2 watchtower. Contrast the more modest “shelter” of 1:8. God’s vineyard had every advantage (see Mt 21:33 and note). winepress. Or “wine vat,” a trough into which the grape juice flowed (see 16:10; Hag 2:16 and notes; see also photos here and here). he looked for . . . but. The interpretation (v. 7) uses the same expression (cf. also 59:9,11).

5:6 not to rain. The withholding of rain constituted a curse on the land. See Dt 28:23–24; 2Sa 1:21; 1Ki 17:1.

5:7 The song of the vineyard (vv. 1–6) is now interpreted: The judgment will come in the form of the Assyrian invasion (see Introduction: Background). There is a powerful play on words here since the words for “justice” and “bloodshed” (mishpaṭ and miśpaḥ) sound alike, as do those for “righteousness” (ṣedaqah) and “distress” (ṣe’aqah).

5:8–23 Six woes are pronounced on God’s covenant-breaking people (vv. 8,11–12,18–19,20,21,22–23), followed by three judgment sections (vv. 9–10, 13–15,24–25). See article.

5:8 house to house . . . field to field. Land in Israel could only be leased, never sold, because parcels had been permanently assigned to individual families (see Nu 27:7–11; 1Ki 21:1–3 and note on 21:3). But the rich were now acquiring land and exploiting the poor.

5:10 ephah. A tenth of a homer (see Eze 45:11). Meager crops often accompanied national sin (Dt 28:38–39; Hag 2:16–17). The amount of wine and grain is only a tiny fraction of what a “ten-acre vineyard” and a “homer of seed” would normally produce.

5:11–13 See Am 4:1–3; 6:4–7, where a lifestyle characterized by drunkenness and revelry is likewise condemned.

5:14 Death. Or “the grave” (see note on Ge 37:35). Death, here personified, has an insatiable appetite (see 25:8; Ps 49:14 and notes).

5:16 be proved holy. See Lev 10:3 and note.

5:18 cords of deceit. See Pr 5:22 and note.

5:19 The Hebrew for the words “hurry” and “hasten” corresponds to that of the first and third elements of the name Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz (see 8:1 and NIV text note). When Isaiah named his son (8:3), he may have been responding to the sarcastic taunts of these sinners. God did bring swift judgment, according to 5:26. Holy One of Israel. See 1:4 and note.

5:22 mixing drinks. Spices were added to beer and wine (see Ps 75:8; Pr 23:30 and notes).

5:23 See 1:23; 10:1–2.

5:24 spurned . . . the Holy One of Israel. See v. 19; see also 1:4 and note.

5:25 The mountains shake. In Scripture earthquakes are often expressions of God’s power and divine judgment (64:3; Ps 18:7; Jer 4:24–26; Mic 1:4; Na 1:15; Hab 3:6,10). Yet . . . upraised. A refrain repeated in 9:12,17,21; 10:4.

5:26 lifts up a banner. A pole with a banner was often placed on a hill as a signal for gathering troops (13:2) or for summoning the nations to bring Israel back home (11:10,12; 49:22; 62:10). distant nations. Such as Assyria, whose armies struck Israel and Judah in c. 732, 722 and 701 bc, and Babylonia, which began its invasions in 605. those at the ends of the earth. Nations like Egypt and Assyria.

5:27 Not one . . . grows tired or stumbles. Cf. the use of these terms in 40:29–31, where the words describe the strength God gives. Here the power of Israel’s enemies, the agents of God’s judgment, is in view.

5:30 In that day. Here the day of God’s judgment (see note on 2:11,17,20; see also article). darkness and distress. Similar words describe the horrors of war in 8:22.

6:1–13 Isaiah’s commission, the climax of the first major section of his prophecies (see note on 1:1—6:13). In vv. 1–4 he sees the Lord in all his glory (v. 1); in vv. 5–7 he then sees himself in all his uncleanness (v. 5); in vv. 8–13 the prophet, now cleansed and forgiven (v. 7), sees the rebellious people to whom God is sending him to proclaim the divine message of judgment.

6:1 the year that King Uzziah died. 740 bc (cf. 14:28 and note). Isaiah’s commission probably preceded his preaching ministry; the account was postponed to serve as a climax to the opening series of messages and to provide warrant for the shocking announcements of judgment they contain. The people had mocked the “Holy One of Israel” (5:19), and now he has commissioned Isaiah to call them to account. Uzziah reigned from 792 to 740 and was a godly and powerful king. When he insisted on burning incense in the temple, however, he was struck with “leprosy” and remained “leprous” until his death (see 2Ch 26:16–21 and NIV text note on 26:19). He was also called Azariah (2Ki 14:21; 2Ch 26:1). I saw. Probably in a vision of the heavenly throne room. the Lord. The true King (v. 5). high and exalted. The same Hebrew words are applied to God also in 57:15, and similar terms are used of the suffering servant in 52:13. train of his robe. A long, flowing garment. Cf. the robe of the “son of man” in Rev 1:13. temple. Probably the heavenly temple, with which the earthly temple was closely associated. John’s vision of God on his throne is similar (Rev 4:1–8).

6:2 seraphim. See v. 6; heavenly beings not mentioned elsewhere. Seraphim means “burning ones,” perhaps speaking of their fiery appearance. Their actions correspond to those of the “living creatures” of Rev 4:6–9, each of whom also had six wings. covered their faces. Apparently they could not gaze directly at the glory of God.

6:3 Holy, holy, holy. See Lev 11:44; Rev 4:8 and notes. The triple repetition underscores God’s perfect holiness. Note the triple use of “the temple of the LORD” in Jer 7:4 to stress the people’s confidence in the security of Jerusalem because of the presence of that sanctuary. LORD Almighty. See note on 1Sa 1:3. full of his glory. In Nu 14:21–22; Ps 72:18–19 the worldwide glory of God is linked with his miraculous signs (cf. note on Eze 1:1–28). Cf. also Jn 12:41 and note.

6:4 doorposts . . . shook . . . filled with smoke. Similarly, the power of God’s voice terrified the Israelites at Mount Sinai, and the mountain was covered with smoke (Ex 19:18–19; 20:18–19).

6:5 eyes have seen the King. Isaiah was dismayed because anyone who saw God expected to die immediately (see Ge 16:13; 32:30 and notes; Ex 33:20).

6:6 live coal. Coals of fire were taken inside the Most Holy Place on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:12), when sacrifice was made to atone for sin. See note on 1:25.

6:7 touched my mouth. When God commissioned Jeremiah, his hand touched the prophet’s mouth (Jer 1:9).

6:8–10 Isaiah’s prophetic commission will have the ironic but justly deserved effect of hardening the callous hearts of rebellious Israel—and so rendering the warnings of judgment sure (vv. 11–13). See also Jer 1:8, 19; Eze 2:3–4.

6:8 for us. The divine King speaks in the heavenly council (see Ge 1:26; Ps 82:1 and notes). As a true prophet, Isaiah is made privy to that council, as were Micaiah (1Ki 22:19–20) and Jeremiah (23:18,22). Cf. Am 3:7. Here am I. See note on Ge 22:1.

6:9–10 Quoted by Jesus to explain why he taught in parables (Mt 13:14–15; Mk 4:12; Lk 8:10). The point is that the initial rejection of the message results in hardness of hearts, which then leads to greater blindness to the truth. God will now use Israel’s rejection to accomplish his purposes (see also Ro 11:7–10, 25 and notes). this people. In 1:3; 3:15; 5:13 the Lord refers to Israel as “my people.” That their persistent and pervasive rebellion (1:1; 66:24) has begun to alienate them from him is indicated by numerous references to them as “this/these people” (e.g., 8:6,12; 29:13–14; cf. Ex 17:4 and note).

6:10 heart . . . ears . . . eyes . . . eyes . . . ears . . . hearts. The a-b-c/c-b-a inversion is a common literary device in the OT. ears dull . . . close their eyes. Israel’s spiritual deafness and blindness are also mentioned in 29:9; 42:18; 43:8; Ac 28:26–27. One day, however, the nation will be able to see and hear (29:18; 35:5; cf. Ro 11:25–29).

6:12 far away. See 5:13.

6:13 a tenth. A remnant—even it will be laid waste. holy seed. The few who are faithful in Israel (cf. 1Ki 19:18; see note on 1:9). stump. Out of which the nation will grow again. For a similar use of this imagery, see 11:1 and note.

7:1—12:6 The second section of Isaiah’s prophecies (sometimes called “the book of Immanuel”), climaxing in the songs of praise found in ch. 12 (cf. note on 1:1—6:13).

7:1 The invasion by Rezin (see chart) and Pekah (probably in 735/734 bc) is sometimes called the Syro-Ephraimite War. Aram (Syria) and Israel (Ephraim; see note on v. 2) were trying unsuccessfully to persuade Ahaz to join a coalition against Assyria, which had aggressive intentions against lands to the west. Isaiah was trying to keep Ahaz from forming a counteralliance with Assyria (2Ki 16:5–18; 2Ch 28:16–21). Pekah. Ruled 752–732 bc (2Ki 15:27–31).

7:2 house of David. A reference to Ahaz, who belonged to David’s dynasty (2Sa 7:8–11). Ephraim. Another name for Israel, the northern kingdom. hearts . . . were shaken. Ahaz had been defeated earlier by Aram and Israel (2Ch 28:5–8).

7:3 Shear-Jashub. See NIV text note; see also 10:20–22 and note. Isaiah gave each of his sons symbolic names (see 8:1,3,18). aqueduct of the Upper Pool. See 36:2 and note. Ahaz was probably inspecting the city’s water supply. Launderer’s Field. Clothes were cleaned by trampling on them in cold water and using a kind of soap or cleansing powder (see Mal 3:2 and note; Mk 9:3).

7:4 two smoldering stubs. Damascus (Aram’s capital; see v. 8) was crushed by Tiglath-Pileser III in 732 bc, and Israel was soundly defeated the same year.

7:6 son of Tabeel. A puppet king that Aram and Israel intended to put on the throne of Judah in place of the king from David’s line. With different vowels, Tabeel means “God is good.” Isaiah may have intentionally changed the vowels to make the word mean “good-for-nothing”—indicating the divine assessment of the one Ahaz’s opponents wanted to install as king.

7:8 Within sixty-five years. By c. 670 bc Esarhaddon (and, shortly after him, Ashurbanipal) king of Assyria settled foreign colonists in Israel. Their intermarriage with the few Israelites who had not been deported resulted in the “Samaritans” (see 2Ki 17:24–34 and note on 17:29) and marked the end of Ephraim as a separate nation.

7:9 only Remaliah’s son. Pekah was a usurper and hardly worthy to challenge Ahaz, a son of David. Aram (v. 8) and Israel (v. 9) had human heads. Judah had a divine head; God was with them (v. 14; 8:8,10). you. The Hebrew for “you” is plural, thus including “his people” in v. 2. stand firm . . . stand. The use of the same Hebrew verb emphasizes the seriousness of the Lord’s warning (see 1:19–20,25–26 and notes). King Ahaz did not “stand firm” in faith (see 2Ki 16:7 and note), so Israel became subject to Assyria.

7:11 sign. God was willing to strengthen the faith of Ahaz through a sign (see Ex 3:12 and note).

7:12 I will not ask. With false humility, Ahaz says he will not test the Lord.

7:13 house of David. See note on v. 2.

7:14 sign. A sign was normally fulfilled within a few years (see 20:3; 37:30; cf. 8:18). The virgin. May refer to a young woman betrothed to Isaiah (8:3; see note there), who was to become his second wife (his first wife presumably having died after Shear-Jashub was born). In Ge 24:43 the same Hebrew word (‘almah) refers to a woman about to be married (see also Pr 30:19). Matthew (1:23) understood the woman mentioned here to be a type (a foreshadowing) of the Virgin Mary. Immanuel. The name “God is with us” was meant to convince Ahaz that God could rescue him from his enemies. See Nu 14:9; 2Ch 13:12; Ps 46:7. The Hebrew for “Immanuel” is used again in 8:8,10, and it may be another name for Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz (8:3). If so, the boys’ names had complementary significance (see note on 8:3). Jesus was the final fulfillment of this prophecy, for he was “God with us” in the fullest sense (Mt 1:23; cf. Isa 9:6–7).

7:15 curds and honey. Curds (a kind of yogurt) and honey meant a return to the simple diet of those who lived off the land. The Assyrian invasions (732–722 bc) would devastate the countryside and make farming impossible. (See vv. 22–25 for the significance of the expression.) when he knows . . . wrong . . . right. Suggests the age of moral determination and responsibility under the law—most likely 12 or 13 years of age. Thus, when this boy is 12 or 13 (722/721 bc), he will be eating curds and honey instead of agricultural products—due to the devastation of Israel by Assyria. Some believe that this expression involves a shorter period of time, identical to that in v. 16 and 8:4.

7:16 before the boy knows . . . land . . . laid waste. See note on v. 4; cf. 8:4. “Before” the boy is 12 or 13 years old, Aram and Israel will be plundered. This happened in 732 bc, when the boy was about two years old.

7:17 Ephraim broke away from Judah. Almost two centuries earlier (930 bc; see 1Ki 12:19–20). king of Assyria. Ahaz’s appeal to Assyria would bring temporary relief (2Ki 16:8–9), but eventually Assyria would attack Judah (see 8:7–8; 36:1 and notes).

7:18,20,23 In that day. Their difficulties will be a foretaste of the “day of the LORD.” See note on 2:11,17,20.

7:18 flies . . . bees. Symbolizing enemy invaders (see Ex 23:28 and note).

7:19 crevices in the rocks. See note on 2:10. It will be impossible to escape from the invaders.

7:20 shave . . . head . . . beard. Such forcible shaving was considered a great insult and humiliating for the men of a defeated city or nation (see 2Sa 10:4 and note).

7:23 briers and thorns. See note on 5:6. The destruction of the vineyards and the farmlands would fulfill 5:5–6.

8:1–2 scroll . . . witnesses. The witnesses would attest to a legal transaction, either the marriage of Isaiah (see note on 7:14) or a symbolic deed connected with Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz.

8:2 Uriah the priest. Served under King Ahaz (2Ki 16:10–11).

8:3–10 See 7:14–17 and notes.

8:3 prophetess . . . son. Some interpret this as the initial fulfillment of 7:14 (see note there). Note the repetition of “conceive,” “give birth to,” “son” and “call/name” from 7:14. The young woman may be called a prophetess here because she had become the wife of a prophet (Isaiah), or she may have had prophetic gifts of her own. Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz. This symbolic name (see NIV text note on v. 1) meant that Ahaz’s enemies would be plundered (see v. 4 and note on 7:4), but it also implied that Judah would suffer (vv. 7–8).

8:4 knows how to say. At about age two. The time period is identical to that in 7:16 (see notes on 7:4,16). plunder of Samaria will be carried off. The first stage of the destruction of the northern kingdom (see note on 7:4), which was not completed until 722–721 bc (see note on 7:15).

8:6 waters of Shiloah. See NIV text note on Ne 3:15. The water in Jerusalem that flows from the Gihon spring (2Ch 32:30) to the Pool of Siloam (see Jn 9:7 and note) may be intended (see Ne 3:15 and note). Here it symbolizes the sustaining power of the Lord. Rezin and the son of Remaliah. Rezin and Pekah both died in 732 bc (see 2Ki 16:9 and note on Isa 7:1).

8:7–8 floodwaters . . . sweep on. Mighty rivers were often used to symbolize a powerful invading army (see 17:12 and note; 28:17–19).

8:8 up to the neck. See 30:28 and note. Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 bc overwhelmed all the cities of Judah except Jerusalem (see 1:7–9 and note), the head of Judah (cf. the initial references to Damascus and Samaria in 7:8–9). outspread wings. The figure changes to a powerful bird of prey. Immanuel. All seems lost, but “God is with us” (v. 10) and defeats the enemy (see note on 7:14).

8:9 nations . . . be shattered. Just as Aram and Israel would be shattered (7:7–9), so Assyria and Babylonia would eventually fall.

8:10 it will not stand. Only God’s plans and purposes will last. God is with us. See NIV text note; see also 2Ch 13:12.

8:11 his strong hand upon me. See Eze 1:3 and note; 37:1; 40:1. The prophets were conscious of God’s presence in and control over their lives.

8:12 The Lord warns the people not to rely on Assyria (see note on 7:1).

8:13 the one you are to fear. See 7:2; Pr 1:7 and note.

8:14 holy place . . . stone . . . fall. Either the Lord is the cornerstone of our lives (28:16) or he is a rock over which we fall. See Ro 9:33; 1Pe 2:6 and note for an application to Christ.

8:16 Perhaps a reference to the legal transaction connected with vv. 1–2 (see note there). testimony of warning. See v. 20. This term occurs elsewhere only in Ru 4:7 (“method of legalizing transactions”). God’s instruction. See v. 20. The Hebrew for this phrase can also mean “law.” The legal document containing Isaiah’s teaching about Assyria’s invasion was a scroll that was tied and sealed and then given to the prophet’s followers, who were to preserve it until the time of its fulfillment, when God would authenticate it by the events of history (cf. Jer 32:12–14,44).

8:17–18 I will put . . . given me. In Heb 2:13 these words are put on Jesus’ lips.

8:17 hiding his face. See 1:15 and note; 59:2; Mic 3:4 and note.

8:18 signs and symbols. For the meaning of the names given to Isaiah’s children, see notes on 7:3,14; cf. 20:3.

8:19 mediums and spiritists. See Dt 18:9–12 and note on 18:9. In the present crisis, people were turning to the spirits of the dead, as King Saul did when he went to a medium to contact the spirit of Samuel (1Sa 28:8–11) and learn about the future. See note on 3:2–3.

8:20 God’s instruction . . . testimony of warning. See v. 16 and note. Only by heeding the Lord’s word through Isaiah—reinforced by the “signs and symbols” (v. 18) that Isaiah and his sons represented—would the light dawn for God’s people.

8:21–22 The Assyrian invasion would bring deep distress on all Israel.

8:21 curse . . . king and . . . God. Because of their terrible suffering (cf. Pr 19:3)—but severe punishment awaited anyone who cursed God or a ruler (Ex 22:28; Lev 24:15–16).

9:1 Naphtali. This tribe in northern Israel suffered greatly when the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser III, attacked in 734 and 732 bc (2Ki 15:29). will honor Galilee. Fulfilled when Jesus ministered in Capernaum—near the major highway from Egypt to Damascus, called “the Way of the Sea” (Mt 4:13–16).

9:2 great light. Jesus and his salvation would be a “light for the Gentiles” (42:6; 49:6; cf. Mt 4:15–16 and note; Lk 2:32).

9:4 Midian’s defeat. Gideon defeated the hordes of Midian and broke their domination over Israel (Jdg 7:22–25). yoke. In 10:26–27 Isaiah predicts that God will destroy the Assyrian army and their oppressive yoke. This was fulfilled in 701 bc (see 37:36–38 and notes).

9:5 boot . . . garment. Military equipment will no longer be needed. See notes on 2:2–4; Mic 5:10–15. See also photo.

9:6 son. A royal son, a son of David (see v. 7; see also 2Sa 7:14; Ps 2:7; Mt 1:1; 3:17; Lk 1:32; Jn 3:16 and notes). Wonderful Counselor. In Hebrew each of the four throne names of the Messiah consists of two elements. “Counselor” points to the Messiah as a king (Mic 4:9) who determines and carries out a program of action (see 14:27, “purposed”; Ps 20:4, “plans”). As Wonderful Counselor, the coming Son of David will carry out a royal program that will cause all the world to marvel. What that program will be is spelled out in ch. 11, and more fully in chs. 24–27 (see 25:1—“Wonderful things, things planned [counseled] long ago”). In 28:29 the same two Hebrew words underlying “Wonderful Counselor” describe the Lord “whose plan is wonderful” (see also Jdg 13:18 and note). Mighty God. See 10:21. His divine power as a warrior is stressed (cf. Ps 24:8). Everlasting Father. He will be an enduring, compassionate provider and protector (cf. 40:9–11). This does not mean that God the Father and God the Son are one and the same (a heresy called modalism; see Mt 28:19 and note). Prince of Peace. His rule will bring wholeness and well-being to individuals and to society (11:6–9).

9:7 David’s throne . . . righteousness . . . forever. In spite of the sins of kings like Ahaz, Christ will be a descendant of David who will rule in righteousness forever (11:3–5; 2Sa 7:12–13, 16; Jer 33:15, 20–22). The zeal . . . this. Repeated in 37:32. God is like a jealous lover who will not abandon his people.

9:8—10:4 Although Isaiah’s prophetic message was primarily “concerning Judah and Jerusalem” (1:1), he also occasionally mediated Yahweh’s word to “Ephraim and the inhabitants of Samaria” (9:9). This section is a message of divine judgment against the northern kingdom. It consists of four balanced stanzas (vv. 8–12,13–17,18–21; 10:1–4), each of which ends with the same refrain (see note on 9:12,17,21).

9:9 Ephraim. Another name for the northern kingdom of Israel.

9:10 bricks have fallen down. Bricks made of clay and dried by the sun crumbled easily (see photo). dressed stone. A sign of wealth. The prophet Amos denounces the stone mansions of the wicked (Am 5:11). cedars. The cedars of Lebanon provided the most valuable wood in the ancient Near East (1Ki 7:2–3).

9:11 Rezin’s foes. The Assyrians (see note on 7:1).

9:12,17,21 Yet . . . upraised. See 5:25. This refrain is repeated in 10:4, where the anger of the Lord reaches a climax in the captivity of his people.

9:14 head and tail . . . palm branch and reed. The leaders of Israel (3:1–3) from the most honored to the most humble. These two pairs refer to Egyptian leaders in 19:15.

9:17 fatherless and widows. They often suffered at the hands of the powerful (see note on 1:17), but now even they are wicked, as the rest of the verse makes clear.

9:18 briers and thorns. See note on 5:6.

9:19 fuel for the fire. Contrast v. 5.

9:21 Manasseh will feed on Ephraim. Symbolizing conflict within Israel. These two prominent tribes in the northern kingdom were descended from the two sons of Joseph (see Ge 46:20; see also Ge 48:5–6 and notes). They had fought each other centuries earlier (Jdg 12:4).

10:1 Woe. Cf. the series of woes in 5:8–23. See article.

10:2 the poor. See note on Ex 22:21–27; cf. Jer 22:15–16. widows . . . fatherless. See notes on 1:17; 9:17.

10:4 captives . . . slain. Jer 39:6–7 similarly describes the plight of Judah’s rulers when Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem in 586 bc. Yet . . . upraised. See note on 9:12,17,21.

10:5 Woe to the Assyrian. Though the agent of God’s judgment, Assyria will then become the object of God’s judgment because of its wickedness. See v. 12 and note. rod . . . club. See 9:4 and note. Babylonia was another hammer or club used by God to punish other nations (Jer 50:23; 51:20; Hab 1:6).

10:6 godless nation. Judah (v. 10). loot . . . plunder. The last part of the fulfillment symbolized by Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz (“loot” here is the translation of Hebrew shalal, and “plunder” is the translation of baz). See 8:1–4 and note on 8:3.

10:7 this is not what he intends. Assyria is an unwitting agent of God’s judgment.

10:9 Kalno. A region in northern Aram (Syria). See Kalneh in Am 6:2 (see also note there). Carchemish. The great fortress on the Euphrates River east of Kalno (see Jer 46:2 and note). Hamath. A city on the Orontes River that marked the northern extent of Solomon’s rule (2Ch 8:4). See note on 2Ki 17:24. Arpad. A city near Hamath and just south of Kalno. All these areas submitted to Assyria by c. 717 bc (36:19).

10:10,14 my hand seized . . . my hand reached. The Hebrew verb is the same in both verses. The repetition of the phrase underscores the unquenchable greed of the Assyrian king.

10:10 images . . . of Jerusalem and Samaria. No Israelite was supposed to worship idols (see Ex 20:4 and note), but the land was full of them (2:8). Samaria fell to Shalmaneser V (2Ki 17:3–6) and Sargon II (see 20:1 and note) in 722–721 bc.

10:12 The Lord’s instruments of judgment are not themselves exempt from his judgment. pride. Judgment against the proud was announced in 2:11,17.

10:13–14 my . . . I. The king of Assyria boastfully refers to himself nine times. Cf. 14:13–14; Eze 28:2–5.

10:15 ax . . . saw . . . rod . . . club. Assyria is merely a tool in God’s hand (see v. 5; 9:4 and notes).

10:16 the Lord, the LORD Almighty. See 1:24 and note. wasting disease. When the angel put to death 185,000 soldiers of the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 701 bc, he may have used a rapidly spreading plague (see note on 37:36; see also 2Sa 24:15–16; 1Ch 21:22,27).

10:17,20 Holy One. See note on 1:4.

10:18–19 forests. The land of Assyria would be devastated as well as its army (see vv. 33–34 and note on v. 33).

10:19 Probably fulfilled between 612 bc (fall of Nineveh) and 605 (battle of Carchemish).

10:20,27 In that day. The day of victory and joy, the positive aspect of the “day of the LORD” (see notes on 2:11,17,20; 9:4). Israel is restored and the people praise God. Ch. 11 connects this “day” with the Messianic age (see 11:10–11 and notes; see also 12:1,4).

10:20–22 remnant. See note on 1:9. “A remnant will return” (v. 21) was the name of Isaiah’s first son (see NIV text note on 7:3). A faithful remnant led by Hezekiah survived the Assyrian invasion of 701 bc (see 37:4 and note). Later, a remnant returned from Babylonian exile. See article.

10:20 him who struck them. The king of Assyria (see note on 7:17).

10:21 Mighty God. See note on 9:6.

10:22 the sand by the sea. See notes on Ge 13:16; 22:17. Destruction . . . decreed. Because of Israel’s sin, God would punish the nation through foreign invaders.

10:23–24 The Lord, the LORD Almighty. See 1:24 and note.

10:24–34 A further description of God’s coming judgment against Assyria (see 10:5,12 and notes).

10:24 rod . . . club. See v. 5; 9:4 and notes.

10:26–27 Midian . . . burden . . . yoke. See note on 9:4.

10:26 Oreb. One of the Midianite leaders (Jdg 7:25). the waters . . . in Egypt. When Moses stretched out his hand over the Red Sea, the waters engulfed the chariots of the pharaoh (Ex 14:26–28).

10:27 fat. God blesses Israel so that they are able to break the yoke of Assyrian oppression.

10:28–32 As if seeing a vision, Isaiah describes the approach of the Assyrian army to Jerusalem from about ten miles north of the city. Cf. Mic 1:8–16 and notes.

10:28 Mikmash. Located about seven miles north of Jerusalem.

10:29 Ramah. The home of Samuel. It was about five miles from Jerusalem (1Sa 7:17; see note on 1Sa 1:1). Gibeah of Saul. About three miles from Jerusalem. It had been the capital of Israel’s first king (1Sa 10:26).

10:30 Daughter Gallim. A personification of a Benjamite town of Saulide association (see 1Sa 25:44; see also note on 2Ki 19:21). Poor Anathoth. Jeremiah’s hometown (see Jer 1:1 and note). The Hebrew for “poor” is a wordplay on “Anathoth.”

10:32 Nob. Perhaps on Mount Scopus, on the outskirts of Jerusalem (see 1Sa 21:1 and note). Daughter Zion. A personification of Jerusalem (see note on 2Ki 19:21).

10:33 the Lord, the LORD Almighty. See 1:24 and note. boughs . . . trees. Sennacherib and his armies will fall (see vv. 16–19 and notes).

10:34 Lebanon. Refers to the famed cedars of Lebanon (see notes on 2:13; 9:10; 14:8).

11:1 shoot . . . stump. The Assyrians all but destroyed Judah, but it was the Babylonian exile that brought the kingdom of Judah to an end in 586 bc. The Messiah will grow as a shoot from that stump of David’s dynasty. See 6:13 and note. Jesse. David’s father (1Sa 16:10–13). Branch. See notes on 4:2; Mt 2:23.

11:2 The Spirit . . . will rest on him. The Messiah, like David (1Sa 16:13), will be empowered by the Holy Spirit (see 61:1 and note). counsel . . . might. The Spirit will endow him with the wisdom to undertake wise purposes and with the power to carry them out (see note on 9:6). fear of the LORD. See Pr 1:7 and note.

11:3 delight in the fear of the LORD. See Jn 8:29. not judge by what he sees . . . or . . . hears. See 1Sa 16:7.

11:4 righteousness . . . justice. The rulers of Isaiah’s day lacked these qualities (see 1:17; 5:7; see also note on 9:7). rod of his mouth . . . breath of his lips. Refers to the Messiah’s divine pronouncements that judge and punish the wicked (see Ps 2:9; Rev 2:27 and notes; 19:15).

11:5 belt . . . sash. Righteousness and faithfulness will characterize his reign.

11:6–9 The peace and safety of the Messianic age are reflected in the fact that little children will be unharmed as they play with formerly ferocious animals. Such conditions are a description of the future consummation of the Messianic kingdom. See 2:2–4; 35:9; 65:20–25 and notes; Eze 34:25–29.

11:9 my holy mountain. See 2:2–4 and note. filled with the knowledge. See 2:3, where the word of the Lord is taught in Jerusalem (see also Hab 2:14 and note).

11:10 In that day. See note on 10:20,27. Root of Jesse. A Messianic title closely connected with v. 1 (see also 53:2; Ro 15:12; Rev 5:5; 22:16 and notes). banner. See 5:26 and note.

11:11 second time. The first time was the exodus from Egypt (v. 16). The second is probably the return from Assyrian and Babylonian exile, though some interpreters, who believe that the passage refers to the dispersion after the destruction of Jerusalem in ad 70, place the regathering at Christ’s second coming. remnant. See notes on 1:9; 10:20–22. Lower Egypt. The delta region of the Nile, in the north. Upper Egypt. Southern Egypt, upstream from the delta. Elam. The land northeast of the lower Tigris River valley (see 21:2 and note; Jer 49:34–39; Da 8:2). Hamath. See note on 10:9. islands of the Mediterranean. The coastlands are probably also intended (41:1,5; 42:4; Ge 10:5).

11:12 gather the exiles. See 27:13; 49:22; 56:8; 62:10; 66:20. four quarters of the earth. Equivalent to “ends of the earth” (24:16; Job 37:3).

11:13 Ephraim’s jealousy. See note on 7:2. Prior to the exile, Ephraim and Judah were frequently fighting each other (see 9:21 and note).

11:14 people to the east. Perhaps the Midianites, who plundered Israel, along with other eastern peoples (9:4). Edom . . . Moab . . . Ammonites. After the exodus, Israel did not attack these nations (Jdg 11:14–18). Israel’s future political domination is also referred to in 14:2; 49:23; 60:12 (see also 25:10; 34:5).

11:15 dry up . . . the Egyptian sea. An allusion to the drying up of the Red Sea during the exodus (Ex 14:21–22). Euphrates. Rev 16:12 refers to the drying up of the Euphrates, perhaps symbolizing the removal of barriers preventing the coming of “the kings from the East.”

11:16 highway. The removal of obstacles and the building of a highway leading to Jerusalem are also described in 57:14; 62:10 (cf. 35:8–10 and note on 35:8; 40:3–4 and note on 40:3).

12:1–6 Two short psalms of praise for deliverance (vv. 1–3,4–6) form the climax of chs. 7–11 (see note on 7:1—12:6; see also note on 6:1).

12:1,4 In that day. See note on 10:20,27.

12:1 you will say. “You” refers to each person in the nation, who will praise the Lord for the deliverance he is sure to bring. your anger has turned away. See note on 9:12,17,21. After God punishes Israel, his anger will be directed against nations like Assyria and Babylonia.

12:2 The LORD, the LORD. See notes on Ex 3:15; 34:6–7; Dt 28:58. the LORD . . . salvation. These lines echo Ex 15:2, a verse commemorating the defeat of the Egyptians at the Red Sea. See also Ps 118:14 and note.

12:3 wells. Perhaps an allusion to God’s abundant provision of water for Israel during the wilderness wanderings (cf. Ex 15:25,27). But here God’s future saving act is itself the well from which Israel will draw life-giving water (see Ps 36:9; Jer 2:13; Jn 4:10 and notes).

12:6 Shout aloud and sing for joy. These two imperatives occur again in 54:1, where Zion rejoices over the restoration of its people. Holy One of Israel. See notes on 1:4; 6:1.

13:1—23:18 A series of prophecies against the nations (see also Jer 46–51; Eze 25–32; Am 1–2; Zep 2:4–15 and notes). They begin with Babylonia (13:1—14:23) and Assyria (14:24–27) before moving on to smaller nations. God’s judgment on his people does not mean that the pagan nations will be spared (Jer 25:29). In fact, God’s judgments on the nations are often a part of his salvation of his people (see, e.g., 10:12; see also map).

13:1—14:27 Since in Isaiah’s day Babylon was part of the Assyrian Empire, indeed one of its most important cities, it may be that the prophecy against Babylonia (13:1—14:23) is actually a prophecy also against the Assyrian Empire (see 14:24–27, which has no new “prophecy” heading). This is not to say that some elements of the prophecy against the city of Babylon did not reach beyond the period of the Assyrian Empire (e.g., see notes on 13:1,20).

13:1 See note on 1:1. prophecy. The Hebrew for this word is perhaps related to a Hebrew verb meaning “to lift up, carry” and is possibly to be understood as either lifting up one’s voice or carrying a burden. Such a prophecy often contains a message of doom. Babylon. See 21:1–9; 46:1–2; 47:1–15; Jer 50–51 and notes. Its judgment is announced first because of the present Assyrian threat and because Babylonia would later bring about the downfall of Judah and Jerusalem between 605 and 586 bc. Babylon was conquered by Cyrus the Persian (45:1; 47:1) in 539. Subsequently it came to symbolize the world powers arrayed against God’s kingdom (cf. 1Pe 5:13), and its final destruction is announced in Rev 14:8; 16:19; 17–18. Here, however, Babylon is still part of the Assyrian Empire (see 14:24–27; see also note on 13:1—14:27).

13:2 Raise a banner. See note on 5:26.

13:3 those I prepared for battle. Or “my consecrated ones,” those set apart to carry out God’s will. Here the reference is probably to the Persians under Cyrus the Great (see note on v. 1). Cf. 10:5, where the Lord calls Assyria “the rod of my anger”; see also 45:1 and note. wrath. God’s anger is no longer turned against Israel (5:25; 9:12,17,21; 10:4) but against their enemies (see vv. 5,9,13; cf. 30:27). God must punish sin, particularly arrogance (v. 11).

13:4 The LORD Almighty is mustering an army. See article. The Hebrew for “army” is the singular form of the word for “Almighty.” God is the head of the armies of Israel (1Sa 17:45), of angelic powers (1Ki 22:19; Lk 2:13) and, here, of the armies that will destroy Babylon.

13:5 weapons of his wrath. Assyria was the club in God’s hand during Isaiah’s day, and Babylon itself would later serve as God’s weapon (see 10:5 and note).

13:6,9 day of the LORD. See note on 2:11,17,20 and article.

13:6 destruction. Hebrew shod, forming a wordplay on “Almighty” (Hebrew Shaddai)—as also in Joel 1:15. See note on 5:7. For Shaddai, see note on Ge 17:1.

13:7 hands will go limp. Courage will fail. See Jer 6:24.

13:8 Terror. The Lord’s warfare in behalf of his people usually brings panic to the enemy (see Ex 15:14–16; Jdg 7:22 and note). pain . . . labor. The prophets often compare the suffering of judgment and war with the pain and anguish that frequently accompany childbirth (26:17; Jer 4:31; 6:24).

13:10 stars . . . sun . . . moon. Cosmic darkness—symbolic of judgment—is associated with the day of the Lord also in Joel 2:10, 31; Rev 6:12–13. Cf. Jdg 5:20.

13:11 arrogance . . . pride. God humbles the proud for their failure to trust in him and their exploitation of the poor and weak (cf. 2:9,11,17; 5:15).

13:12 scarcer . . . rare. War will reduce the male population drastically (see 4:1 and note). Ophir. Solomon imported large quantities of gold from this place (see 1Ki 9:28; 10:11 and notes).

13:13 heavens tremble . . . earth . . . shake. Thunderstorms and earthquakes often accompany the powerful presence of the Lord (see notes on v. 10; 34:4; Ex 19:16). Hail may also be involved (cf. 30:30; Jos 10:11).

13:14 flee. From parts of the Assyrian Empire.

13:16 infants . . . dashed to pieces. Invading armies often slaughtered infants and children; thus there would be no future warriors, nor would there be a remnant through which the city (or country or people) might be revived (see Ps 137:8–9; Hos 10:14 and notes; Na 3:10). wives violated. Women also suffered greatly in war. With their husbands killed, they were often used as prostitutes (see note on Am 7:17).

13:17 Medes. Inhabited what is today northwestern Iran. There was conflict between Assyria and Media during the eighth century bc. Some, however, relate the fulfillment of this verse to the period when the Medes joined the Babylonians in defeating Assyria in 612–609 but later united with Cyrus to conquer Babylon in 539. See notes on vv. 19–20; Ezr 6:2; see also Jer 51:11, 28; Da 5:31; 6:28. do not care for silver and . . . gold. They are bent on conquest and cannot be bribed to switch sides or withdraw.

13:19 pride and glory. Babylon with its temples and palaces became a very beautiful city (see Da 4:29–30 and note on 4:30). The hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar were one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. In 4:2 the Hebrew words for “glory” and “pride” were used to describe the “Branch of the LORD.” Babylonians. The Neo-Babylonian Empire of 612–539 bc was led by the Chaldean people of southern Babylonia (see NIV text note). Nabopolassar welded the tribes together c. 626, and his son Nebuchadnezzar became their most powerful ruler (605–562). Sodom and Gomorrah. Previously Isaiah compared Judah to these cities (see 1:9–10 and note).

13:20–22 See the similar description of the desolation of Edom in 34:10–15. Cf. Rev 18:2.

13:20 never be inhabited. Babylon was almost totally destroyed for the last time by the Persian king Xerxes I in 478 bc. Then, after the time of Alexander the Great in 330, the city was basically deserted, fell into complete ruin and has remained virtually desolate ever since.

14:1 will have compassion . . . will settle them. Babylon’s fall will be linked with Israel’s restoration. God’s compassion on his people is the theme of chs. 40–66 (see 40:1 and note). in their own land. See 2:2–4; 11:10–12 and notes. Foreigners will join them. See 11:10; 56:6–7; 60:3 and note.

14:2 Nations . . . place. See note on 5:26. will take possession of the nations. See note on 11:14.

14:3–21 However exalted (and almost divine) the king of Babylon may have thought himself (vv. 12–14), he will go the way of all world rulers—down to the grave.

14:3 suffering . . . harsh labor forced on you. The Babylonian captivity was much like Israel’s experience in Egypt (see Ex 1:14 and note).

14:4 taunt. Cf. the taunts against Babylon in Rev 18. king of Babylon. Another title used by the king of Assyria at this time.

14:5 rod . . . scepter. See 10:5 and note; see also 10:24.

14:7 break into singing. See 12:6 and note.

14:8 junipers . . . cedars. Isaiah often personified nature. The trees along with the mountains burst into song in 44:23 (cf. 55:12). cedars of Lebanon. These highly prized timbers were hauled away by the kings of Assyria and Babylonia for centuries (see notes on 2:13; 9:10).

14:9 leaders. Sometimes translated as “goats”; a goat often led a flock of sheep (see Jer 50:8 and note). Here the term is used metaphorically for individuals who lead people. In Zec 10:3 the term is parallel to “shepherds.” rise from their thrones. Conditions among the dead are described in terms of their roles on earth. kings over the nations. See v. 18. Even the greatest and most powerful must go down to the “realm of the dead below.”

14:11 pomp . . . grave. Cf. 5:14. noise of your harps. Music was sometimes a sign of luxury and pleasure (Am 6:5–6).

14:12–15 Some believe that Isaiah is giving a description of the fall of Satan (cf. Lk 10:18—where, however, Jesus is referring to an event contemporary with himself). But the passage clearly applies to the king of Babylon, who is later used as a type (prefiguration) of the “beast” who will lead the Babylon of the last days (Rev 13:4; 17:3). Cf. the description of the king of Tyre in Eze 28.

14:12 morning star. The Hebrew for this expression is translated lucifer (meaning “light-bearer”) in the Latin Vulgate, the origin of “Lucifer” in early English translations of this verse. For the true Morning Star, see Rev 22:16 (see also 2Pe 1:19; cf. Nu 24:17 and note).

14:13 utmost heights. Babylonia’s king is destined for the “depths” of the pit (v. 15; the Hebrew word for “utmost heights” and “depths” is the same, indicating the extreme in either direction)—though he aspires to be “like the Most High” (v. 14). Mount Zaphon. See NIV text note; also called Mount Casius, located in northern Syria. The Canaanites considered it the dwelling and meeting place of the gods, much like Mount Olympus for the Greeks (see Ps 48:2 and note). Cf. Ps 82:1.

14:16–20a These verses seem to take place on earth, not in the realm of the dead (Sheol)—probably also vv. 9–10.

14:17 captives go home. Babylon, like Assyria, deported large segments of defeated populations to subdue the rebellious among them (2Ki 24:14–16).

14:18 kings of the nations. See note on v. 9.

14:19 cast out of your tomb. Not to have a proper burial was a grave insult intended to shame the deceased. To have one’s body simply discarded was a terrible fate. corpse trampled. See 5:25.

14:20 the wicked. The king of Babylon.

14:21 slaughter his children. A man’s children, as well as his tombstone, were his memorial (cf. 2Sa 18:18). The king of Babylon would have neither (cf. 47:9).

14:22–23 The taunt is extended to include Babylon itself (see note on vv. 3–21); fulfilled, at least partially, through Sennacherib’s destruction of Babylon in 689 bc—ultimately by the Medes and Persians after they took Babylon in 539 (see also note on 13:20).

14:22 survivors. Israel will survive through a remnant (see 10:20–22 and note; 11:11,16), but Babylonia will not.

14:23 See 13:20–22 and notes. swampland. Southern Babylonia, where the Chaldean tribes (see note on Ezr 5:12) once lived, was a region of marshlands.

14:24–27 For another description of the judgment against Assyria, see Zep 2:13–15 and notes; see also note on Isa 13:1—14:27.

14:24 it will happen. See 8:10 and note. God’s sovereign purposes regarding Assyria and Babylonia will be carried out.

14:25 I will crush the Assyrian in my land. In 701 bc “the angel of the LORD . . . put to death” 185,000 Assyrian soldiers (37:36). yoke . . . burden. See 9:4 and note.

14:26–27 hand stretched out. Ready to strike in judgment (see 9:12; 12:1 and notes). God’s hand was stretched out against Egypt at the Red Sea (Ex 15:12).

14:28–32 For other prophecies against the Philistines, see Jer 47; Eze 25:15–17; Am 1:6–8; Zep 2:4–7 and notes.

14:28 prophecy. See note on 13:1. the year. Perhaps 715 bc. King Ahaz died. Cf. 6:1 and note. The occasion appears to be the Philistine revolt against Assyria while King Sargon (20:1) was too preoccupied with serious revolts elsewhere to give much attention to Canaan.

14:29 Philistines. See note on Ge 10:14. Philistine territory was vulnerable to attack by the great empires (Egypt and Assyria) since it lay along the main route from Egypt to Mesopotamia. the rod. Probably Sargon II of Assyria (see 20:1 and note). is broken. If the rod was Sargon, reference is to the threats to his empire by a series of revolts in Babylonia and Asia Minor. root . . . fruit. From the ruins of Assyria’s defeat, equally dangerous kings will arise. After Sargon will come other Assyrian kings: Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal (see chart).

14:30 poor . . . needy. Israelites (v. 32).

14:31 Wail. Cf. the similar reaction in 13:6; 15:2; 16:7; 23:1. cloud of smoke. The dust raised by the marching feet and the chariots of the Assyrians—who always invaded Canaan “from the north.” not a straggler. A longer description is found in 5:26–29.

14:32 has established Zion. God will protect Jerusalem from the Assyrians (compare 31:4–5 with 2:2; see note on v. 25).

15:1—16:14 For other prophecies against Moab, see Jer 48; Eze 25:8–11; Am 2:1–3; Zep 2:8–11 and notes.

15:1 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Moab. A country east of the Dead Sea that was a perpetual enemy of Israel (see 25:10 and note; 2Ki 13:20). ruined. The same word describes Isaiah’s feelings about himself in 6:5. The destruction of Moab probably resulted from an invasion by Sargon of Assyria in 715/713 bc. Cf. Jer 48:1–17. Kir. Probably Kir Hareseth (see note on 2Ki 3:25). Kir means “city.”

15:2 Dibon. Located four miles north of the Arnon River and given to the tribe of Gad at one time (Nu 32:34). high places. Shrines originally built on hilltops and usually associated with pagan worship (see note on 1Ki 3:2). Nebo. North of the Arnon River, perhaps near Mount Nebo (Dt 34:1; cf. note on Ezr 10:43). Medeba. About six miles south of Heshbon (v. 4) and once captured by Israel from Sihon (Nu 21:26,30). head is shaved . . . beard cut off. Characteristic of intense mourning and shame (Jer 48:37). See photo.

15:3 sackcloth. The coarse garb of mourners (see note on Rev 11:3). roofs. Perhaps chosen because incense was sometimes offered there (see Jer 19:13 and note). See photos here and here.

15:4 Heshbon. Located about 18 miles east of the northern tip of the Dead Sea. See also Jer 48:34. It was King Sihon’s capital before Israel captured it (Nu 21:23–26). Elealeh. About a mile north of Heshbon and always mentioned with it. Jahaz. Just north of the Arnon River and about 20 miles from Heshbon (Nu 21:23; Jer 48:34).

15:5 My heart cries out over Moab. Isaiah is sympathetic toward Israel’s enemy (see 16:11 and note on 16:9–11). Zoar. Probably located near the southern end of the Dead Sea. Lot fled there from Sodom (Ge 14:2; 19:23,30).

15:6 waters of Nimrim. Perhaps to be identified with the Wadi en-Numeirah, ten miles from the southern end of the Dead Sea (cf. Jer 48:34).

15:7 they carry away. The only wealth they escape with is what they can carry. Ravine of the Poplars. Probably at the border between Moab and Edom (v. 8).

15:8 Eglaim. Perhaps near the northern border of Moab. Beer Elim. Hebrew be’er means “well” (cf. Nu 21:16). This site may have been close to the southern border.

15:9 waters of Dimon . . . blood. The Hebrew for “blood” (dam) sounds like “Dimon.” This is probably also a wordplay on the name “Dibon” (v. 2; see note there). Many Moabites will die in the conflict. lion. A reference to either the Assyrian army (cf. 5:29; Jer 50:17) or actual lions (cf. 13:21–22).

16:1 lambs as tribute. As King Mesha sent 100,000 lambs to King Ahab of Israel each year (see 2Ki 3:4 and note), so now proud Moab, which has often oppressed Israel, is advised in this crisis to submit to the king in Jerusalem. Sela. The naturally fortified capital of the Edomites, south of the Dead Sea, situated on a rocky plateau that towers 1,000 feet above the nearby Petra (cf. 42:11). The name means “cliff.” The tribute would be sent around the southern end of the Dead Sea. Daughter Zion. A personification of Jerusalem (see note on 2Ki 19:21).

16:2 fords of the Arnon. The women were fleeing south (see note on Jos 12:1), away from the northern invader.

16:3 Hide the fugitives. The Moabites are asking Judah for refuge (contrast Ru 1:1; 1Sa 22:3–4 and note on 22:3). See map.

16:4 destroyer. Probably Assyria (see notes on 15:1; 33:1). oppressor. This could be Moab, which oppressed Israel, or the Assyrians, who will oppress Moab.

16:5 house of David. See 9:7; 2Sa 7:11–16; 1Ki 12:19; Am 9:11 and notes. “House” equals “dynasty” (see note on 7:2). in judging seeks justice. See 11:2–4 and notes. The Messiah is again in view.

16:6 Moab’s pride. Though a small nation, Moab is proud and defiant like Assyria and Babylonia. Cf. 10:12; 14:13; 25:11; Jer 48:42.

16:7 Kir Hareseth. See note on 15:1 and map. The four cities in vv. 7–8 appear in inverted (a-b-c-d/d-c-b-a) order in vv. 9–11.

16:8 Heshbon. See note on 15:4. Sibmah. Perhaps three miles west of Heshbon. See Jer 48:32. choicest vines. The poet shifts to a metaphor, comparing Moab to a vineyard (cf. 5:1–7 and notes). He returns to a literal description again in v. 10. Jazer. Possibly located about 15 miles north of the Dead Sea (see map). desert. On the eastern edge of Moab. shoots spread out. This is figurative language, as in Ps 80:11, where Israel is the vine. sea. See NIV text note.

16:9–11 I . . . I . . . I . . . My . . . my. The Lord (and/or Isaiah) weeps and laments over the destruction brought on proud Moab to humble its people.

16:9 Elealeh. See note on 15:4.

16:10 treads out wine. The grapes were trampled on, and the juice flowed into the wine vat (see note on 5:2; cf. Jer 48:33; Am 9:13; Hag 2:16 and note).

16:11 Cf. Jer 48:36.

16:12 high place. See 15:2 and note. pray . . . to no avail. Moab’s god, Chemosh, was a mere idol (see 44:17–20 and notes; 1Ki 11:7).

16:13–14 An epilogue to 15:1—16:12.

16:14 Within three years. Probably referring to the time of Assyria’s conquest of Moab. Other signs that have a three-year limit are given in 20:3; 37:30; see also notes on 7:14,16. Moab’s three years were over by c. 715 bc (see note on 15:1). servant bound by contract would count them. The time will pass for Moab like a slave experiencing hard labor. Cf. 21:16–17, where the prophecy against Kedar follows the pattern of this verse.

17:1–14 For other prophecies against Damascus and Aram, see Jer 49:23–27; Am 1:3–5 and notes.

17:1 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Damascus. The capital of Aram (Syria), located northeast of Mount Hermon on strategic trade routes between Mesopotamia, Egypt and Arabia. Since the time of David, the Arameans of Damascus were frequent enemies of Israel (2Sa 8:5; 1Ki 22:31). will become a heap of ruins. See notes on v. 3; 7:4.

17:2 Aroer. About 14 miles east of the Dead Sea on the Arnon River. It marked the southern boundary of Aram’s sphere of control (see 2Ki 10:32–33 and notes). no one to make them afraid. Because the land will be deserted of people.

17:3 Ephraim. The northern kingdom (see note on 7:2) is mentioned here because of its alliance with Damascus against Assyria (see note on 7:1). royal power. In 732 bc Tiglath-Pileser III captured Damascus and made it an Assyrian province. Many of the cities of Israel were also captured (see note on 9:1). remnant of Aram . . . like the glory of the Israelites. Like Israel, Aram will be reduced to a remnant.

17:4–11 The prophet shifts from Damascus to Israel (likely the northern kingdom)—a shift prepared for at the end of v. 3 and which reflects the progression of Assyrian conquest toward the west. This association of judgment on Damascus and Israel reflects the same linkage as that in ch. 7.

17:4,7,9 In that day. See article and notes on 2:11, 17,20; 10:20,27.

17:5 harvest the standing grain. “Harvest” here signifies a time of judgment (see Joel 3:13 and note). Valley of Rephaim. A fertile area west and southwest of Jerusalem (Jos 15:8) and the scene of Philistine raids (1Ch 14:9).

17:6 some gleanings will remain. The remnant of God’s people (see notes on 1:9 and 10:20–22).

17:7–8 Cf. 2:20; 10:20.

17:7 Holy One of Israel. See note on 1:4.

17:8 altars. Probably altars for Baal (cf. 1Ki 16:32). Asherah poles. Objects of pagan worship (see notes on Ex 34:13; Jdg 2:13; see also NIV text note here). incense altars. Associated with high places in Lev 26:30 and with altars for Baal in 2Ch 34:4.

17:9 they. Perhaps the Canaanites, whose religious practices are referred to in v. 8. thickets and undergrowth. Cf. 7:23–25.

17:10 Rock. See 26:4; 30:29; 44:8; Ge 49:24 and note; Dt 32:4, 15,18; Ps 18:2 and note; 19:14. vines. Probably representing the people of Israel (see 5:7; 18:5; 37:30–31; see also notes on Ps 80:8–16 and 80:8–11).

17:11 disease and incurable pain. Brought by the Assyrian invasions.

17:12–14 The same sequence of a powerful invader that is quickly cut down occurs in 10:28–34. Both passages may refer to Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah in 701 bc (see 37:36–37 and notes). The passage, however, may refer more generally to foreign oppression of Israel.

17:12 raging sea. Assyria is called “floodwaters” in 8:7 (see notes on 8:7–8).

17:13 chaff . . . tumbleweed. Easily blown away; symbolic of the enemy also in 29:5; 41:15–16; Ps 83:13.

18:1–7 See Zep 2:12 and note.

18:1 whirring wings. Either a reference to insects (perhaps locusts) or a figurative description of the armies of Cush (7:18–19). Cush. Nubia or ancient Ethiopia (not to be confused with modern Ethiopia, which is located farther to the southeast), south of Egypt (see NIV text note). In 715 bc a Cushite named Shabako gained control of Egypt and founded the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty.

18:2 sea. Perhaps the Nile River (cf. 19:5; Na 3:8, where the same Hebrew word is translated “river”). papyrus boats. See note on Ex 2:3 and photo. Go, swift messengers. With the message contained in vv. 3–6. people tall and smooth-skinned. See v. 7; probably the peoples of Cush and Egypt. Unlike Semites, they were clean-shaven (see note on Ge 41:14). rivers. The Nile and its tributaries.

18:3 All you people of the world. All the nations arrayed against God’s people Israel (see 17:12–14 and note). banner. See 5:26 and note. trumpet. Used to summon troops (see, e.g., Jdg 3:27; 6:34; 2Sa 2:28).

18:4 remain quiet. In the face of the hostility of the nations, the Lord will not act immediately; but when they are in the full growth of summer (v. 5), he will cut them down.

18:6 feed on them. The nations will become carrion when God judges them for their evil (cf. 56:9; see Jer 7:33; Eze 32:4; 39:17–20; Rev 19:17 and notes).

18:7 See v. 2 and note. gifts. Tribute. According to 2Ch 32:23 gifts were brought to Hezekiah after Sennacherib’s death. The Moabites were asked to send tribute to Mount Zion in 16:1 (cf. 45:14; Zep 3:10). Here those from Cush do the same. place of the Name. See Dt 12:5 and note.

19:1—20:6 For other prophecies against Egypt, see Jer 46; Eze 29–32 and notes.

19:1 prophecy. See note on 13:1. rides on a swift cloud. A metaphor portraying the Lord as a divine warrior coming in judgment (cf. Ps 68:4 and note; 104:3). idols . . . tremble. See Jer 50:2 and note. God had also previously judged Egypt’s false gods during the ten plagues (see Ex 12:12 and note). hearts . . . melt. See 13:7.

19:2 Egyptian against Egyptian. Cf. 9:21. Fulfilled in the eighth century bc when the Libyan dynasty clashed with the Cushites (see note on 18:1) and with the Saites of the twenty-fourth Dynasty.

19:3 consult . . . spiritists. Israel also did so in desperate times (see 8:19 and note). See photo.

19:4 cruel master. The king of Assyria (20:4). Esarhaddon conquered Egypt in 670 bc.

19:5 river will dry up. The Nile was the lifeline of Egypt; its annual flooding provided essential water and produced the only fertile soil there.

19:6 canals. For irrigation.

19:7 sown field. Egypt’s crops were normally abundant, and some were exported.

19:8 The fishermen. Fish were usually plentiful in the Nile River (see Nu 11:5 and note).

19:9 work with . . . flax. Large amounts of water were needed to process flax. fine linen. A well-known Egyptian export (see Pr 7:16 and note).

19:11 Zoan. A city (possibly Tanis) in the northeastern part of the Nile delta, familiar to the Israelites during their years in Egypt (Nu 13:22; Ps 78:12,43). It was the northern capital for the twenty-fifth Dynasty (see note on 18:1). wise men. See v. 12. Egypt was famous for its wise men (see 1Ki 4:30 and note).

19:13 Memphis. An important city 15 miles south of the delta that was the capital during the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2160 bc). cornerstones. Wise men, prophets and priests, as well as political leaders (see 9:15–16 and note).

19:14 a drunkard staggers. Cf. Israel’s leaders in 28:7–8; see also 51:17 and note.

19:15 head or tail, palm branch or reed. Egypt’s leaders. The same two pairs are used of Israel’s leaders in 9:14–15 (see note on 9:14).

19:16–25 A chain of four announcements of coming events associated with “that day”: (1) An act of divine judgment will cause Egypt to “shudder with fear” (v. 16) and be in terror of Judah (vv. 16–17). (2) “Five cities” in Egypt will “swear allegiance” to the Lord (v. 18). (3) Because of a divine act of deliverance and healing in Egypt, an altar will be erected in Egypt where Egyptians will offer sacrifices to the Lord (vv. 19–22). (4) Egypt, Assyria and Israel will be linked into one people of the Lord (vv. 23–25). The prophet looks well beyond the present realities in which the world powers do not acknowledge the true God and proudly pursue their own destinies, running roughshod over the people of the Lord. He foresees a series of divine acts that will bring about the conversion of the nations.

19:16,18–19,23–24 In that day. The coming day of the Lord (see 10:20,27 and note; cf. 11:10–11).

19:16 shudder with fear. Like the people of Jericho (Jos 2:9,11). hand . . . the LORD . . . raises. See 14:26–27 and note.

19:17 land of Judah. The Egyptians will somehow recognize (perhaps through court contacts with Hezekiah) that it is the God of Judah who has brought judgment upon them.

19:18 five. Perhaps in the sense of “many.” speak the language of Canaan. Either a symbolic reference to Egypt’s allegiance to the Lord (vv. 21–22,25) or a literal reference to Jews living in Egypt. After the fall of Jerusalem in 586 bc, many Jews fled to Egypt (see Jer 44:1 and note). City of the Sun. Heliopolis, city of the sun-god; it was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (see Jer 43:13 and note; see also NIV text note here).

19:19 altar. The reference appears to be to a conversion to the Lord of a significant number of Egyptians.

19:20 sign and witness. Cf. the purpose of the altar built near the Jordan River by the Transjordan tribes in Jos 22:26–27. oppressors . . . savior. The language of the book of Judges (see Jdg 2:18 and note). It is uncertain who this savior and defender is, but the prophet may well have in mind the promised Son of the house of David (see 11:1–10 and notes).

19:21 make himself known. Cf. Ex 7:5. worship with sacrifices. Offerings of foreigners are also mentioned in 56:7; 60:7 (cf. Zec 14:16–19 and note on 14:16).

19:22 strike Egypt with a plague. Verse 22 is a flashback explaining the circumstances of Egypt’s salvation described in vv. 20–21, 23–25. Oppression (v. 20) and plague were two common forms of divine affliction. This contrasts with the results of the plague on the firstborn in Ex 12:23. turn . . . heal. Cf. 6:10; here parallel to sending Egypt a “savior and defender” (v. 20). Earlier a hardhearted pharaoh had not turned to the Lord (Ex 9:34–35).

19:23 highway. Cf. the highway to Jerusalem in 11:16; 35:8–10 (see notes there). For centuries Egyptians and Assyrians had fought each other (20:4), but in the future they would be linked in a bond of friendship sealed by their common allegiance to the Lord (cf. 25:3). worship together. This description of peace and of unity in worship is similar to 2:2–4 (see note there; see also note on 19:21).

19:25 will bless them. A fulfillment of Ge 12:3 (see note on Ge 12:2–3). Egypt my people. Such a universal vision seems possible for Isaiah only in the light of what has been said about the “shoot . . . from the stump of Jesse” (11:1; see 11:1–10). Cf. 45:14; Eph 2:11–13.

20:1–6 An epilogue to chs. 18–19, as 16:13–14 is to 15:1—16:12.

20:1 the year. Probably 712 bc. Sargon. Sargon II, who reigned 721–705 bc (see chart; see also photos here and here). He is mentioned by name only here in the OT. Ashdod. One of the five Philistine cities (see map; see also 1Sa 6:17), Ashdod was located near the Mediterranean Sea about 18 miles northeast of Gaza. The city rebelled against Assyria in 713 bc under King Azuri. In 1963 three fragments of at least one Assyrian monument commemorating Sargon’s victory (in 711) were discovered at Ashdod.

20:2 sackcloth. Normally the garment of mourners (see note on Rev 11:3); sometimes the garb of prophets (see 2Ki 1:8; Zec 13:4–6 and notes). stripped and barefoot. Perhaps wearing only a loincloth as a sign of mourning and humiliation (see vv. 3–4; cf. 2Sa 15:30; 2Ch 28:15; Mic 1:8 and note).

20:3 my servant. See note on 41:8–9. three years. See 16:14 and note. sign and portent. See 8:18; see also 7:3,14 and notes. The prophet Ezekiel’s behavior also had symbolic significance (Eze 24:24,27; cf. Zec 3:8). Egypt and Cush. See 18:1; 19:1 and notes.

20:5 trusted in Cush . . . Egypt. After Assyria conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722–721 bc, King Hezekiah of Judah was under great pressure to make an alliance with Egypt. Isaiah urgently warned against such a policy (cf. 30:1–2; 31:1 and notes).

21:1 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Desert. The coming judgment would eventually turn Babylon (v. 9) into a wasteland (cf. 13:20–22). the Sea. Refers either to the Persian Gulf, which was southeast of Babylon, or to the plain laid down by the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and their tributaries. whirlwinds . . . desert. The desert sometimes spawns powerful winds (Hos 13:15). an invader. It is not clear whether this refers to an army or continues the description of the whirlwinds.

21:2 Elam. See note on 11:11; see also Jer 49:34–39. The Elamites were perpetual enemies of Assyria and Babylonia. Much later, they were part of the Persian army that conquered Babylon under Cyrus in 539 bc. Media. See note on 13:17. she. Babylon.

21:3 racked with pain, pangs seize me. See 15:5; 16:9–11 and note; see also Daniel’s reaction to visions in Da 8:27; 10:16–17.

21:4 twilight. Perhaps the end of the Babylonian Empire (see note on v. 12). a horror to me. The devastation is beyond even what he had desired.

21:5 eat . . . drink. With the kind of confident assurance reflected in Belshazzar’s feast (Da 5:1). Get up . . . ! The prophet, who has seen in a vision the coming attack on Babylon, rhetorically calls on the officers of Babylon to prepare. Conversely, this could be an order given to the soldiers of Babylon’s enemies. oil the shields. Leather shields were rubbed with oil to preserve them and prepare them for battle (cf. 2Sa 1:21).

21:6 Go, post a lookout. Probably on the walls of Jerusalem (see photo below).

21:7 chariots . . . donkeys . . . camels. Bearing messengers from afar.

21:9 Babylon . . . has fallen! See 13:19. Babylon fell in 689 bc and again in 539. These words were adapted by John in Rev 14:8; 18:2. its gods lie shattered. The fall of a kingdom meant the disgrace of its gods (cf. 46:1–2; 1Sa 5:3–7 and notes).

21:10 crushed. Judah would be punished by the Babylonians and taken into captivity (see 39:5–7 and notes). on the threshing floor. Threshing was a common metaphor for judgment or destruction from war (see Am 1:3 and note).

21:11–12 For other prophecies against Edom, see Jer 49:7–22; Eze 25:12–14; Am 1:11–12; Obadiah and notes.

21:11 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Dumah. See NIV text note. Seir. A synonym for Edom (Ge 32:3), homeland of Esau’s descendants, south of the Dead Sea. Edom is dealt with more extensively in 34:5–15 (see notes there; cf. 63:1 and note).

21:12 Morning . . . but also the night. Perhaps meaning that the long night of Assyrian oppression is almost over, but only a short “morning” will precede Babylonian domination (see v. 4 and note).

21:13–17 See Jer 49:28–33 and notes.

21:13 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Dedanites. An Arabian tribe whose merchant activities are mentioned also in Eze 27:20; 38:13. thickets. The caravans had to hide from the invader (cf. Jdg 5:6). The Assyrians began to attack the Arabs in 732 bc, and the Babylonians did the same under Nebuchadnezzar (Jer 25:17,23–24).

21:14 Tema. An oasis in northern Arabia about 400 miles southwest of Babylon (cf. Job 6:19; Jer 25:23 and last notation on map). fugitives. Those fleeing from the Assyrian armies.

21:15 sword . . . bow. The simple bows of the Arabs were ineffective against the swords and composite bows of Assyria.

21:16 servant bound by contract. See 16:14 and note. splendor. See 14:11; 16:14. Kedar. The home of nomadic tribes in the Arabian Desert. Kedar was known for its flocks (60:7; Eze 27:21). Nebuchadnezzar defeated the people of Kedar (Jer 49:28–29; cf. Jer 2:10 and note).

21:17 survivors . . . will be few. Cf. 10:19; 16:14; 17:6.

22:1–13 The notes on this prophecy assume that it refers primarily to the final Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 588–586 bc. But it is also possible that the primary reference is to the siege by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 701.

22:1 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Valley of Vision. A valley where God revealed himself in visions, probably one of the valleys near Jerusalem (see note on v. 7). See also v. 5. roofs. See 15:3 and note.

22:2 tumult and revelry. See v. 13; 5:11–13 and note; 32:13. Jerusalem is behaving just like Babylon (see 21:5 and note; cf. 23:7). not killed by the sword. Perhaps a reference to death from disease and famine when the Babylonians besieged Jerusalem in 586 bc.

22:3 leaders have fled. King Zedekiah and his army fled Jerusalem but were captured near Jericho (2Ki 25:4–6).

22:4 my people. More formally, “the daughter of my people” (see note on 2Ki 19:21).

22:5 has a day. See 2:12 and note on 2:11,17,20. Also cf. “in that day” in v. 8 and “on that day” in v. 12. tumult. A fulfillment of the curse of Dt 28:20.

22:6 Elam. The land northeast of the lower Tigris Valley (see Jer 49:34–39). Elamites probably fought in the Babylonian army. takes up the quiver. See Jer 49:35. Kir. Perhaps another name for Media (see 21:2; Am 1:5 and note).

22:7 choicest valleys. The Kidron Valley lay east of Jerusalem, the Hinnom Valley to the south and west (see map).

22:8 Palace of the Forest. Built by King Solomon out of cedars from Lebanon (see 1Ki 7:2–6 and notes; 10:17,21).

22:9 City of David. The oldest part of Jerusalem, which David captured from the Jebusites (see 2Sa 5:6–7,9 and notes; cf. Isa 29:1). Lower Pool. Probably the same as the “Old Pool” of v. 11. Hezekiah made a pool and a tunnel as a precaution against Sennacherib’s invasion (see 2Ki 20:20 and note). The “Upper Pool” is mentioned in 7:3; 36:2.

22:10 strengthen the wall. Cf. Hezekiah’s preparations in 2Ch 32:5.

22:11 did not look to the One. In 31:1 those who look to horses and chariots rather than to God are similarly condemned.

22:12 tear out your hair. As a sign of mourning, the hair was either torn out or shaved off (cf. Jer 16:6; Eze 27:31).

22:13 joy and revelry. The same Hebrew phrase is translated “gladness and joy” in 35:10; 51:11, passages depicting great hope in connection with restoration. But this was a time to mourn (Ecc 3:4). See note on v. 2. Let us eat . . . we die. Quoted by Paul in 1Co 15:32 to underscore the utter futility of life without a belief in resurrection from the dead. Cf. Lk 12:19; cf. also Ecc 8:15 and note.

22:15 Shebna. Apparently a foreigner, possibly Egyptian; a contemporary of King Hezekiah. palace administrator. A position second only to the king (see note on v. 21; cf. 36:3; 1Ki 4:6; 2Ki 15:5).

22:16 cut out a grave. One’s place of burial was considered very important, and Shebna coveted a tomb worthy of a king (cf. 2Ch 16:14).

22:17 hurl you away. Cf. Jer 22:24–26 and notes.

22:18 There you will die. Apparently without an honorable burial (see note on 14:19). chariots. A sign of high office (Ge 41:43).

22:20 In that day. When the Lord acts in judgment (vv. 17–19). my servant. See note on 20:3. Eliakim. See 36:3,11,22; 37:2.

22:21 hand your authority over to him. By 701 bc (36:3) Eliakim had replaced Shebna, who was demoted to “secretary.”

22:22 Quoted in part in Rev 3:7 (see note there). The mention of “father” (v. 21) and of the responsibility “on his shoulder” recalls the words about the Messiah in 9:6. key to the house of David. Cf. Rev 3:7 and note; the authority delegated to him by the king, who belongs to David’s dynasty—perhaps controlling entrance into the royal palace. Cf. the “keys of the kingdom” given to Peter (Mt 16:19; see note there).

22:23 peg. Normally the Hebrew for this word refers to a tent peg, but here to a peg driven into wood (see Eze 15:3; Zec 10:4 and note). seat of honor. Cf. 1Sa 2:8.

22:25 In that day. Another (unspecified) day when the Lord will come in judgment. peg . . . will give way. Eliakim, like Shebna, will eventually fall from power.

23:1–18 For other prophecies against Tyre, see Eze 26:1—28:19; Am 1:9–10 and notes.

23:1 prophecy. See note on 13:1. Tyre. The main seaport along the Phoenician coast, about 35 miles north of Mount Carmel. Part of the city was built on two rocky islands about half a mile from the shore. King Hiram of Tyre supplied cedars and craftsmen for the temple (1Ki 5:8–9) and sailors for Solomon’s commercial fleet (1Ki 9:27). Wail, you ships. See v. 14. ships of Tarshish. Trading ships (see note on 2:16). destroyed. Fulfilled through Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar and Alexander. Nebuchadnezzar captured the mainland city in 572 bc (Eze 26:7–11), but the island fortress was not taken until Alexander the Great destroyed it in 332 (cf. Eze 26:3–5; see Zec 9:3 and note). Cyprus. An island in the eastern Mediterranean that had close ties with Tyre (see Eze 27:6 and note) and Sidon.

23:2,4,12 Sidon. See Eze 28:20–26 and notes; the other prominent Phoenician city, about 25 miles north of Tyre.

23:2 island. Tyre (see v. 1 and note). merchants . . . seafarers. Tyre’s commercial ventures affected the entire Mediterranean world (vv. 3,8).

23:3 Shihor. Probably the easternmost branch of the Nile (see NIV text note on Jer 2:18). harvest of the Nile. See 19:7 and note.

23:4 fortress of the sea. Tyre (see note on v. 1). labor . . . birth. Contrast 54:1 (see note there).

23:6 Tarshish. Probably Tartessus in Spain (see note on Eze 27:12) or an island in the western Mediterranean.

23:7 revelry. See note on 22:2. old, old city. Tyre was founded before 2000 bc. settle in far-off lands. Carthage in North Africa was a colony of Tyre. Tarshish may have been another.

23:8–9 planned. See 14:24,26–27; 25:1 and notes.

23:8 bestower of crowns. Tyre crowned kings in its colonies. traders are renowned. See Eze 28:4–5.

23:9 her pride in all her splendor. See Eze 27:3–4 and notes.

23:10 Daughter Tarshish. A personification of Tarshish (see note on 2Ki 19:21).

23:11 stretched out his hand. Ready to strike in judgment. Phoenicia. Roughly the same as modern Lebanon.

23:12 Virgin Daughter Sidon. A personification of Sidon (see note on 2Ki 19:21). now crushed. Sidon was captured by Esarhaddon in the seventh century bc and later by Nebuchadnezzar c. 587 (cf. Jer 25:22,26 and notes). cross over to Cyprus. An important ally of Tyre and Sidon (see note on 23:1).

23:13 Assyrians. Sennacherib destroyed the city of Babylon in 689 bc. Phoenicia would look like the Babylon of that time. desert creatures. Cf. 13:21. siege towers. See note on 2Ki 25:1.

23:14 See v. 1 and note.

23:15 seventy years. Roughly 700–630 bc; also the length of the later Babylonian captivity (see Jer 25:11–12; 29:10 and notes) and the length of time the Babylonian god Marduk (according to an inscription of King Esarhaddon) decreed that Babylon should remain devastated.

23:16 Cf. Pr 7:10–15.

23:17 lucrative prostitution. A “prostitute” nation was one that sought to make the highest profits, regardless of the means (cf. Rev 14:8; 17:5 and notes).

23:18 set apart for the LORD. The earnings of a prostitute could not be given to the Lord (Dt 23:18), but the silver and gold of a city that is devoted to destruction (see note on Dt 2:34) were placed in the Lord’s treasury (see Jos 6:17,19 and note on 6:17; cf. Mic 4:13). to those. Israel will one day receive the wealth of the nations (see note on 18:7; cf. 60:5–11 and notes; 61:6).

24:1—27:13 Chs. 24–27 deal with judgment and blessing in the last days, the time of God’s final victory over the forces of evil. These chapters form a conclusion to chs. 13–23, just as chs. 34–35 form a conclusion to chs. 28–33.

24:1 lay waste the earth. Cf. 2:10,19,21; see also 13:13 and note. scatter its inhabitants. See Ge 11:8–9 and notes.

24:2 Social distinctions will provide no escape from the judgment (cf. 3:1–3 and notes).

24:4 dries up and withers. Words applied to Moab in 15:6; 16:8. Cf. 34:4.

24:5 broken the everlasting covenant. Reference is probably to the covenant of Ge 9:8–17 (see chart; Ge 9:11 and note). See also v. 18 and note. Although everlasting from the divine viewpoint, God’s covenants can be broken by sinful people (see Jer 31:32 and note).

24:6 curse. Because of the intensification of evil in the world, God’s devastating curse will burn up the earth’s inhabitants (cf. Ge 8:21–22; cf. also the covenant of Ge 9:8–17).

24:7 vine withers. See v. 4 and note.

24:8 joyful timbrels are stilled. Cf. v. 11; 22:2,13; 23:7. See photo.

24:9 wine with a song. Characteristic of Judah in 5:11–13 (see note there).

24:10 ruined city. The same idea appears in 25:2; 26:5 (cf. 17:1; 19:18). It is probably a composite of all the cities opposed to God—such as Babylon, Tyre, Jerusalem and Rome.

24:13 Only a few olives and grapes will be left (see v. 6; 17:6,11).

24:14 They. The godly remnant that survives the judgment.

24:15 islands. See note on 11:11.

24:16 ends of the earth. See note on 11:12. I waste away . . . betray! In the Hebrew text these last four lines of the verse (Razi li, razi li! ‘Oy li! Bogedim bagadu! Ubeged bogedim bagadu!) contain powerful examples of alliteration and assonance (see 5:7 and note; see also Introduction: Literary Features). Woe to me! Isaiah wastes away because of the villainy of the “treacherous” nations that try to crush Israel. The treacherous. The enemies of God’s people.

24:17–18 Cf. Am 5:19–20 and note.

24:17 Terror and pit and snare. Another example (see note on v. 16) of alliteration and assonance (see note on Jer 48:43). The Hebrew words are paḥad, paḥat and paḥ.

24:18a God’s judgment is inescapable (cf. Am 5:19–20; 9:2–4 and notes).

24:18b floodgates of the heavens. An echo of Noah’s flood (Ge 7:11; 8:2). foundations . . . shake. Earthquakes and thunder are common images in Scripture for God’s judgment (see note on 13:13; cf. Joel 3:16).

24:20 like a drunkard. Cf. 19:14. like a hut. See 1:8 and note.

24:21 In that day. The phrase, which refers to the day of the Lord (see notes on 2:11,17,20; 10:20,27), occurs seven times in chs. 24–27 (25:9; 26:1; 27:1–2,12–13). powers in the heavens . . . kings. All powers in the creation that exalt themselves against God (2:6–21; Eph 6:11–12).

24:22 shut up in prison. Cf. Rev 20:2. punished after many days. See NIV text note; cf. Rev 20:7–10.

24:23 The moon . . . dismayed, the sun ashamed. The sun and moon do not shine during judgment (see note on 13:10) or when the Lord is the “everlasting light” (60:19–20; cf. Rev 21:23; 22:5). reign on Mount Zion. See 2:2–4 and note.

25:1–5 A song of praise celebrating the deliverance brought about by the judgments of ch. 24 (see 24:14–16; see also ch. 12).

25:1 planned long ago. See 14:24,26–27; 23:8–9; Ps 33:10–11.

25:2 the city . . . a ruin. See 24:10 and note. never be rebuilt. Cf. 24:20.

25:3 strong peoples . . . ruthless nations. Such as Egypt and Assyria (see 19:18–25 and notes). honor you . . . revere you. See 24:15–16.

25:4–5 refuge . . . shelter . . . shade . . . cloud. See 4:5–6 and note; cf. 32:2.

25:6–8 A description of the eschatological feast of God, the Messianic banquet (see 1Ch 12:38–40; Mt 8:11; Lk 14:15; 22:16 and notes).

25:6–7,10 this mountain. Mount Zion. See 2:2–4 and note; cf. 24:23.

25:6 feast . . . banquet. Associated with a coronation (1Ki 1:25) or wedding (see Jdg 14:10 and note); cf. the “wedding supper of the Lamb” (Rev 19:9). rich food. Symbolic of great spiritual blessings (see 55:2 and note). aged wine. The best wine—aged while being left on its dregs (see Jer 48:11 and note; Zep 1:12).

25:7–8 Christ has brought about the ultimate destruction of death itself (see 1Co 15:50–58; 2Ti 1:10; cf. Heb 2:14–15 and notes).

25:7 shroud . . . sheet. Items associated with death.

25:8 Quoted in part in 1Co 15:54. swallow up death. Death, the great swallower (see Ps 49:14 and note), will be swallowed up by the Lord. Sovereign LORD. See 7:7; 28:16; 30:15; 40:10; 49:22; 52:4; 61:11; 65:13. wipe away the tears. See Rev 7:17; 21:4. remove his people’s disgrace. See 54:4.

25:9 Another brief song of praise. In that day. The day of the Lord (12:1,4; 24:21; see also 10:20,27 and note; see article). we trusted . . . he saved. Cf. Ps 22:4–5. rejoice and be glad. Cf. 35:10; 51:11; 66:10.

25:10–12 An elaboration on the theme of judgment.

25:10 Moab. Representative of all the enemies of God and his people, like Edom in 34:5–17. See note on 15:1.

25:11 pride. See note on 16:6.

25:12 high fortified walls. See v. 2; 2:15; 2Ki 3:27; Jer 51:44,58 and note on 51:44.

26:1–15 Another song of praise for God’s deliverance (see note on 25:1–5).

26:1 In that day. See 12:1,4; 24:21; 25:9; see also note on 10:20,27. strong city. Jerusalem. salvation its walls and ramparts. God’s saving acts are Zion’s security and strength (cf. Ps 46; 48). ramparts. Sloping fortifications of earth or stone (cf. 2Sa 20:15).

26:2 nation that keeps faith. A radical change.

26:3 See 30:15 and note. minds are steadfast. Cf. Ps 112:6–8 and notes. trust. Cf. 25:9.

26:4 Rock. See 17:10; Ps 18:2 and notes.

26:5 lofty city. See note on 24:10. levels it . . . to the dust. Cf. 25:2,12.

26:6 feet of the oppressed. The oppressors are humiliated also in 49:24–26; 51:22–23 (contrast 3:14–15).

26:7 path . . . level . . . way . . . smooth. A theme found also in 40:3–4; 42:16; 45:13 (see notes there; see also Pr 4:26 and note; contrast La 3:9).

26:8 A desire for God to reveal his power in their behalf (see Hos 12:5–6). name and renown. See v. 13; 24:15; 25:1.

26:9 judgments. Punishment (cf. 4:4).

26:10 grace. Such as the blessings of harvest and general prosperity (cf. Mt 5:45 and note).

26:11 hand is lifted high. A sign of power. See 9:12,17,21 and note; Ps 89:13. zeal. See 9:7 and note; cf. 37:32; 63:15. fire. See note on 1:31.

26:12 peace. See v. 3.

26:13 other lords. Foreign rulers, such as those of Egypt or Assyria.

26:14 They are now dead . . . their spirits do not rise. Cf. the fate of the king of Babylon in 14:9–10—and contrast the resurrection scene in 26:19 (see note there).

26:15 enlarged the nation. To increase its greatness. The expression is applied to the return from Babylonian exile in 54:2–3; cf. also 9:3; Zec 2:4 and note.

26:16–18 The prophet speaks to the Lord on behalf of God’s people.