1. Head and shoulders of a cadaver sold in 2003 reproduced with the permission of Termedia and Philippe Charlier © Archives of Medical Science / Philippe Charlier / Termedia
2. The goddess Fortuna spinning her wheel, Manchester, John Rylands Library, MS Latin 83, fol. 214v, Photo © The University of Manchester
3. Diagram outlining the correspondence of the four elements, Oxford, St John’s College, MS 17, fol 7V, reproduced by permission of the president and Fellows of St John’s College, Oxford, © University of Oxford
4. Folio from an Arabic translation of the Materia Medica by Dioscorides; recto: a physician treats a blindfolded man; verso: text, 1224 (opaque watercolour, ink and gold on paper), Persian School, (thirteenth century) / Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, USA / Smithsonian Unrestricted Trust Funds, Smithsonian / Bridgeman Images
5. Fifteenth century surgical tools, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, MS latin 7138, fols 199v–200r, © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
6. A magical brass healing bowl, The David Collection, Copenhagen, Inc. no 36/1995, photographer: Pernille Klemp
7. Saint Elzéar of Sabran healing three lepers, c.1373 (alabaster), French School, (fourteenth century) / Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, USA / Bridgeman Images
8. A blemmya, foot of folio from ‘The Rutland Psalter’, c.1260 (ink & colour on vellum), English School, (thirteenth century) / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Images
9. A man’s head complete with a diagrammatic outline of his brain, Cambridge University library, MS Gg. 1.1, fol. 490v © Cambridge University Library
10. Majnun and Layla fainting at their meeting / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman
11. The beheading of Olivier de Clisson, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Français 2643, fol 126r © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
12. A Johanisschussel, the decapitated head of John the Baptist on a platter, Xanten, StiftsMuseum, Object no. 119, CC BY
13. Two tapestries of the six known as ‘La Dame a la Licorne’, titled L’Ouie, or hearing, and La Vue, or sight c.1484–1500 Paris musée national du Moyen Âge, Inv. No. Cl. 10834, 10836 © RMN – Grand Palais / Musée de Cluny – musée nationale du Moyen Âge / Michel Urtado
14. Iraq: The earliest known medical description of the eye, from a nineth century work by Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873), twelfth century CE manuscript / Pictures from History / Bridgeman Images
15. Incense burner with images of the planets within roundels, Mamluk, 1280–90 (pierced & engraved brass inlaid with silver), Syrian School, (thirteenth century) / Samuel Courtauld Trust, The Courtauld Gallery, London, UK / Bridgeman Images
16. Lamp or censer (gilded copper with enamel and crystal), Italian School, (fourteenth century) / Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA / Bridgeman Images
17. Interior of the Hagia Sophia, Photographer: Ian Fraser © Alamy / Ian Fraser
18. Recitation of the Exulet during the Easter Vigil. Exultet of the Cathedral of San Sabino in Bari / Bari Cathedral, Bari, Italy / Alinari Archives, Florence / Bridgeman Images
19. Reliquary of the Jawbone of Saint Anthony of Padua, made in 1349, Padua, Basilica di Sant’ Antonio, Photo © Alamy / Ferdinando Piezzi
20. Ms Roy 6 E VI fol. 503v, Inhabited initial ‘D’ showing a dentist extracting teeth from a patient’s mouth using a cord, from ‘Omne Bonum’, 1360–75 (vellum), English School, (fourteenth century) / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Images
21. The Sixth Cluny Tapestry ‘A Mon Seul Desir’, Paris, Musée national du Moyen Âge, Inv. No. Cl. 10831–6, © RMN – Grand Palais (muse de Cluny – musée national du Moyen Âge) / Michel Urtado
22. A man carrying his skin on a pole, Henri de Mondeville’s Chirurgia Magna, Bibliothèque Nationale De France, MS Français 2030, fol. 10v © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
23. © The Dissection, illustration from ‘Fasciculus Medicinae’ 1493 (woodcut), Italian School, (fifteenth century) / Biblioteca Civica, Padua, Italy / Bridgeman Images
24. Fifteenth century rhinoplasty technique, De curtorum chirurgia per insitionem, Gaspare Tagliacozzi, Venice 1597, Wellcome Collection. CC BY
25. Scenes from the Life of Saint Benedict (detail). Rome, San Crisogono © 2018. Photo Scala, Florence/Fondo Edifici di Culto – Min. dell’Interno
26. A verger’s dream: saints Cosmas and Damian performing a miraculous cure by transplantation of a leg. Oil painting, Attri. Master of Las Balbases, c.1495, Wellcome Collection. CC BY
27. Add 42130 fol. 82, Two knights jousting, from the ‘Luttrell Psalter’, c.1325–35 (vellum), English School, (fourteenth century) / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Images
28. Brother Fritz the Parchment-Maker, scraping down a stretched skin with his lunellum, Housebook of the twelve-Brothers, c.1425, Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Amb. 317.2°, f. 34v © Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg
29. Small holes in parchment transformed by a twelfth-century scribe, Bamberg, Staatsbibliothek, MS Msc. Patr, 41, fol. 69r, Photo: © Gerald Raab / Staatsbibliothek Bamberg
30. The Acts room in the Palace of Westminister containing hundreds of parchment rolls recording over 500 years of British laws, Photo: Jack Hartnell © 2018 Jack Hartnell
31. A woollen burial tunic for a child, Egypt c.400–600, London, Victoria and Albert Museum, No. T.7–1947 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
32. Two scenes from the Marnhull Orphrey, London, c.1300–1350, London, Victoria and Albert Museum, No. T.31&A-1936 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
33. A diagrammatic skeleton explaining the detail of the bones in the body, Tashrih-I badan-I insan, Mansur ibn Ilyas, 1488, Bethesda National Library of Medicine, MS P 18, fol. 12b, CC BY
34. Two pages from different parts of a medical book written in Greek by healer John of Aron, Bologna, Biblioteca Universitaria, MS Gr 3632, fols 385r and 431r © CC BY Biblioteca Universitaria Bologna
35. Bowl with Prince on Horseback from Iran (decorated stonepaste), Seljuq Dynasty (1016–1307) / Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA / Bridgeman Images
36. Sculpted scenes above the western door of the cathedral of Conques, finished c.1107, Wikimedia, CC BY
37. A quadralingual gravestone made in 1149, Palermo, Zisa Museum, Elenco San Giovanni no. 11
38. The mausoleum of the Ziyarid emir Qabus ibn Wushmgir, built 1006, Jorjan, Iran
39. Two effigies of Alice Chaucer (1404–1475) from her alabaster tomb in St Mary’s Church, Ewelme, Oxfordshire © Cameron Newham
40. Detail from a Dance of Death, Janez iz Kasta, the Church of the Holy Trinity in Hrastovlje, Slovenia © Getty
41. A carved ivory rosary bead showing a kissing couple and a skeleton, c.1490–1500 Paris, Musée du Louvre, OA 180 © RMN-Grand Palais (musée du Louvre) / Jean-Gilles Berizzi
42. An image of many of the body’s vital organs form a Latin medical manuscript in thirteenth-century England, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Ashmole 399, fol. 23v © Bodleian Library
43. Three portraits of courtly love from the fourteenth-century Codex Manesse, Heidelberg, Universitatsbibliothek, Cod. Pal. germ. 848, fols 79, 249v and 237r, CC BY
44. Douz Regart, a personification of the lover’s gaze, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Français 2186, fol. 41v © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
45. Six circular details from a German medallion tapestry, c.1360, Regensburg, Historisches Museum
46. Frau Minne torturing the hearts of her beloved, print by Master Casper von Regensburg, c.1485, Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett, Ident. Nr. 467–1908 © Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
47. The heart of Christ viewed through the wound in his side, Book of Hours, Netherlands 1405–1413, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Lat. Liturg. F. 2., fol 4v © Bodleian Library
48. Both sides of Speerbilde by Hartmann Schedel, c.1465, Munich Staatsbibliothek, clm 692, fol. 73v, CC BY
49. A blood-letting figure from a Hebrew medical miscellany, southern France or northern Italy, early 1400s, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Hebreu 1181, fol. 266r
50. Print showing the ritual murder of Simon of Trenta, included in Hartmann Schedel’s Weltchronik, Nuremberg, 1493, Wikimedia CC BY
51. The Tassilo Chalice made in the late eighth century for Liutperga, wife of the Bavarian Duke Tassilo III, Kremunster, Benedictine Abbey, CC BY
52. Egerton MS 1821, f.7v-8r, ‘Psalter and Rosary of the Virgin’, c.1480–90 (colour on vellum), English School, (fifteenth century) / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Images
53. Christ: Miracle of Bleeding Host of Dijon – Host inscribed with image of Christ, arms outstretched, flanked by instruments of the passion. Drops of blood cover surface of host, some forming ring around perimeter. Book of Hours. France, Poitiers, c.1475. MS M.1001, fol. 17v. Purchased on the Fellows Fund, 1979. New York, The Pierpont Morgan Library © 2018. Photo: the Morgan Library & Museum / Art Resource, NY/Scala, Florence
54. A Wound Man from a Bavarian manuscript, c.1420, London, Wellcome Library, MS 49, fol 35r, Wellcome Apocalypse CC BY
55. A small ivory carving depicting a game of Hot Cockles, probably made in fourteenth century France, London, British Museum no. 1888, 1217.1 © Trustees of the British Museum
56. Surgical instruments from a thirteenth-century copy of al-Zahrawi’s Kitah at-Tasrif, Leiden, Universitatsbibliothek, MS Or. 2540 © Leden University
57. Amputation saw, Europe, 1501–1600, by Science Museum, London, no. A241432, CC BY
58. A Guidonian hand from a musical miscellany, Montecassino Archivio dell’Abbazia, cod. 318, p. 291 © Montecassino Achivio Dell’Abbazia
59. A hand inscribed with chiromantic readings, England, 1290s, Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Ashmole 399, fol. 17r © Bodleian Library
60. The Winwick Brooch, a fifteenth century love token, Warrington Museum, Treasure no. 2005 T549. Photo: © Warrington Museum
61. Sculpted relief of King Ardashir of Sasania, Naqsh-e Rostam, Iran, CC BY
62. Hand-washing automaton with flush mechanism, folio from ‘The Book of Ingenious Mechanical Devices’; by Al-Jazari, 1315 (opaque w/c, ink & gold on paper), Islamic School, (fourteenth century) / Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, USA / Bridgeman Images
63. Harley MS 5294 ff.42v to 43r, Pages on herbs from the ‘Pseudo-Apuleius Complex’ (ink & colour on vellum), English School, (twelfth century) / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Images
64. Excerpt of a fourteenth-century Spanish Haggadah, Manchester, John Rylands Library, Hebrew MS 6, fol 19b © The University of Manchester
65. Wall-painting showing the emaciated Saint Mary of Egypt, Church of Panagia Phorbotissa, Asinou, Cyprus. Printed with permission of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus © Department of Antiquities, Cyprus
66. Physicians examining a large accumulation of guts, late fourteenth-century commentary on Aristotle’s De animalibus, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Français 16169, fol. 179r © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
67. Effigies of Charles IV (d.1 February 1328) and Jeanne d’Evreux (d.4 March 1371), c.1371–2, Paris, Musée du Louvre, R.F. 1436 and 1437 © RMN-Grand Palais (Musée du Louvre) / Hervé Lewandowski
68. Sloane MS 56, fol. 44r, Operation to close an anal fistula, from the ‘Liber Medicinarum’ (ink & colour on vellum), English School, (fifteenth century) / British Library, London, UK / © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Images
69. Shrine of the Virgin, c.1300 (gilded wood), German School, (thirteenth century) / Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, USA / Bridge-man Images
70. Eight presentations of the foetus in the womb, nineth century gynaecological manuscript, Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique, MS 3701–15, fols 27v and 28r © Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique
71. A birthing tray, Florence, painted by Bartolomeo di Fruosino, 1428 © Bridgeman Images / Private Collection
72. The trickster Abu Zayd of Saruj speaking to an assembled group, the Maqamat, Muhammad al-Hariri, illustrated by Yahya alWasiti, c.1237, Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale de France, MS Arabe 5847, fol. 58v
73. Saint Wilgefortis on the cross, c.1430–40 (ink on parchment), Flemish School, (fifteenth century) / Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, USA / Bridgeman Images
74. Nuns plucking penises from a tree, Roman de la Rose, Richard and Jeanne de Montbaston, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Français 15397, fol. 22 © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
75. Abraham circumcising himself, from an illustrated Bible, France, 1355, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Français, 15397, fol. 22 © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
76. A wheel of urine sprouting from a tree, German medical manuscript c. 1420, Wellcome Apocalypse, MS49 fol. 42r, Wellcome Collection
77. Watercolour showing the amputation of the foot of the Holy Roman Emperor Friedrich III, c.1493, Veinna, Graphische Sammlung Albertina, Min. 22475 © Albertina
78. Duccio di Buoninsegna (c. 1260–1318): Madonna dei Francescani (Madonna of the Franciscans). Siena, Pinacoteca Nazionale. Restored © 2018. Photo Scala, Florence – courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att. Culturali e del Turism
79. A selection of medieval shoes, c.1200–1400, Museum of London, Object no. BC72 [79] <2496> © English School / Museum of London, UK / Bridgeman Images
80. Persian Astrolabe c.1000, Oxford Museum of the History of Science, Inv. No. 33767 © Museum of the History of Science, University of Oxford
81. Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, 1934–9 (b/w photo) / Private Collection / Bridgeman Images
82. Map of Egypt, 1348 (vellum), Al-Idrisi or Edrisi, Abu Muhammad (c. 1100–64) (after) / Egyptian National Library, Cairo, Egypt / Bridgeman Images
83. Catalan Atlas, Abraham Cresques, c.1375, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Espagnol 30 © Bibliothèque Nationale de France
84. Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (tempera on panel) Cretan School (c. 1500–1600) / Private Collection © Richard and Kalias Icons, London, UK / Bridgeman Images.
85. An anatomical diagram of a man and a woman, c.1559, Wellcome Library, EPB / D 296, anatomical fugitive sheets, CC BY
86. Excavation of a medieval plague pit in London during the construction of Crossrail © Crossrail
87. Twelfth-century casket reliquary of Saint Amandus being scanned, Maryland Medical Centre, Baltimore © Photo: Jack Hartnell
88. While every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders of illustrations, the author and publishers would be grateful for information about any illustrations where they have been unable to trace them and would be glad to make amendments in further editions.