ABM Treaty, see Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
Accountability, 36–37
Acheson-Lilienthal Report, 16, 17, 19, 20, 29, 356
Acton, James M., 360, 362, 372
Afghanistan, 112, 180, 181, 210, 233
Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 189, 190, 193, 214, 218, 220
Airbus, 172
Albright, Madeleine, 46
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, 352
Allen, Kenneth, 152
Alliot-Marie, Michèle, 136
Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, 96, 180, 329, 363
Arab states, 190, 199, 202, 205n29. See also Iraq; Middle East
Arms control: during Cold War, 18, 367; in post–Cold War era, 95–96; public support, 311; simplification of regime, 366–68; UN goals, 38. See also individual countries, treaties, and U.S. administrations
Atomic Weapons Establishment (AWE), U.K., 103, 107, 263–64, 274, 277
Austria, 176
Bahr, Egon, 48
Baker, James, 46
Ballistic missile defense (BMD), 180–81. See also Missile defense systems
Ballistic missiles: Chinese, 151; early warning systems, 99; French, 128. See also Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles; Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles
Baruch, Bernard, 16–17
Baruch Plan, 16–17, 18, 19, 29, 306, 356
Bechtel Corporation, 262
Beckett, Margaret, 14, 52, 102, 119
Begin Doctrine, 192
Belarus, 174–75
Belgium: articles by statesmen supporting nuclear disarmament, 50–51; NATO nuclear weapons stationed in, 50–51, 171–73
Bentégeat, Henri, 135, 136–37, 194
Berlusconi, Silvio, 288
Bethe, Hans, 274
Bhabha, Homi Jehangir, 225, 226
Biden, Joseph, 348
Biological weapons, 114, 116, 277
Blair, Bruce G., 81
Blair, Tony, 107
Blix, Hans, 32
Bootstrapping, 76
Brazil, see New Agenda Coalition
Britain: arms control policies, 117–19, 170; forces in Iraq and Afghanistan, 112; Iranian nuclear program and, 209; military planning, 111–12, 119; Ministry of Defence, 263; National Security Strategy, 110; nuclear disarmament support, 30, 32, 47, 51–52, 102–3, 109, 120, 168–69; nuclear power plants, 254; Parliament, 169; verification technology initiative, 142–43
British nuclear forces: air-launched, 106; Atomic Weapons Establishment, 103, 263–64, 274, 277; authorization for use, 115; costs, 105; Europe and, 183–84; fissile materials production, 249, 250 (table), 253; independence, 104; modernization, 92, 103, 104, 105–6, 107–8, 110, 168–69; NATO sharing, 106; size, 56, 106, 168; stockpile stewardship agreement with France, 108–9, 183, 264; submarines, 56, 103, 105, 106, 107, 110, 140, 264, 277; substrategic capability, 104, 106, 113, 115; tests, 264
British Nuclear Fuels, 249
British nuclear policies: during Cold War, 104–5, 110–11, 113; deterrence, 103, 104, 105, 107, 110, 113, 115, 117, 120; domestic politics and, 109–10, 168; fissile materials production halted, 168; nonproliferation support, 169–70; in post–Cold War era, 104, 105–17, 169–71; reviews, 103; threats, 104; war avoidance, 105
Brown, Gordon, 44, 51–52, 56, 102–3, 119
Brown, Harold, 53
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 46
Bundy, McGeorge, 70
Bunker buster weapons, 69, 72, 322, 363, 370, 371, 375
Burns, Nicholas, 211
Bush (George H. W.) administration: Presidential Nuclear Initiative, 106
Bush (George W.) administration: arms control policies, 4, 43, 171, 179, 180, 363; defense policies, 319–20; Global Nuclear Energy Partnership, 216–17, 218; Iranian nuclear program and, 206, 210, 211, 212; missile defense program, 318–20, 323, 334; National Security Strategy (2002), 23, 363; North Korean nuclear program and, 12; Nuclear Posture Review, 116, 323, 373, 375; nuclear weapons policies, 3–4, 8, 54–55, 82, 92, 116; preemptive war doctrine, 23, 92, 324, 337, 363; Proliferation Security Initiative, 8; relations with China, 155, 160; relations with Iran, 209; relations with Russia, 330, 363
Butler, Nicola, 169
Byrnes, James, 18
CAEP, see Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics
Calogero, Francesco, 47
Cameron, David, 110
Canada: CIRUS reactor, 226, 239n3; energy exports, 287; nuclear program, 125
Canberra Commission [on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons], 32, 138
CD, see Conference on Disarmament
CEA, see Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique
CFE, see Conventional Forces in Europe
Chemical weapons, 17, 113–14, 116, 207, 221n3, 277
Cherniaev, Anatolii, 21
China: missile defense program, 55; relations with India, 231–32, 237; relations with United States, 149, 153–61. See also Chinese nuclear forces
Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics (CAEP), 265
Chinese nuclear forces: expansion, 152, 157–58; ICBMs, 56, 152; modernization, 92, 150–54; national laboratories, 156, 265–66; short-range ballistic missiles, 151; size, 56, 150, 226; SLBMs, 150; submarines, 150; tests, 231; as threat to India, 226, 231–32
Chinese nuclear policies: CTBT ratification, 99; deterrence, 151–52; effects of U.S. decisions, 153–54, 157; no-first-use, 150, 151, 159, 175
Chinese Scientists Group for Arms Control (CSGAC), 156–57
Chirac, Jacques, 132–33, 134–35, 136, 137, 170–71
Christopher, Warren, 46
CIRUS (Canada-India-Reactor-United States) reactor, 226, 239n3
CISAC, see Committee on International Security and Arms Control
Civilian nuclear power: decommissioning costs, 285; evidence of renaissance, 287–93; exports, 287–89; factors in growth, 284–87; fissile materials, 58, 216; in France, 254, 264, 288; future of, 293–94; IAEA safeguards, 238, 254; in India, 57, 238; information disclosed, 254; international fuel bank proposal, 291–92; in Iran, 58; in Middle East, 202; new reactors, 58; number of reactors, 293; potential for revival, 283; proliferation risks, 283, 294; small reactors, 289–91; waste disposal issues, 285–86, 290–91
Civil society groups, 38, 53. See also Nongovernmental organizations
Clarke, Michael, 107
Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 2, 60, 156, 210, 378
Clinton administration, 3–4, 8, 198
Cold War: arms control agreements, 18, 367; false alarms, 95; mutual deterrence, 18, 91, 96–97; mutually-assured destruction, 5; role of nuclear weapons, 4–5, 93. See also Soviet Union
Cold War, end of: arms control, 95–96; British nuclear policies, 104, 105–17, 169–71; deterrence following, 23, 38, 96–99, 299; end of arms race, 299–300; French nuclear policy, 124, 129, 131–38, 169–71; Reykjavik Summit as turning point, 20, 22; Soviet initiatives, 308; U.S. policies, 4, 81–82
Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique (CEA; French Atomic Energy Commission), 125, 128–29, 131, 138, 264
Committee on International Security and Arms Control (CISAC), 54, 83, 84, 156–57
Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), 176, 184
Compellence, 301
Comprehensive (Nuclear) Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), 54, 96; British support, 118, 168; Chinese ratification, 99; European support, 47, 176; French ratification, 132, 168, 264; negotiations, 128, 233, 235; Senate hearings, 260; Senate ratification, 2, 23, 59–60, 99, 348–49
Conference on Disarmament (CD), 14, 37, 52, 58, 184, 235. See also Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty
Congressional Commission on the Strategic Posture of the United States (Perry/Schlesinger Commission), 59, 350
Conservative Party (U.K.), 103, 109–10, 117
Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE), 48, 96
Cooper, Henry F., 326
Cooperative Airspace Initiative (CAI), 331–32
Council on Foreign Relations, 160
Crowe, William, 12
Cruise missiles: Chinese, 151, 330–31; defense systems, 331, 332; Iranian, 330–31; Iraqi, 328; of Pakistan and India, 56; proliferation risks, 95, 330–31, 338; of United States, 322, 326–27, 337–38, 371–72
CSGAC, see Chinese Scientists Group for Arms Control
CTBT, see Comprehensive (Nuclear) Test Ban Treaty
Cuban missile crisis, 93, 155, 296, 311
Cyprus, 176
Czech Republic: proposed missile defense deployment, 181, 309, 318–19, 330, 334, 351; U.S. nuclear deterrent extended to, 304. See also Obama, Barack, Prague speech (2009)
Dagan, Meir, 188
D’Agostino, Thomas, 270
D’Alema, Massimo, 47
Damage expectancy (DE), 79–81
DARE, see Dialogue among Americans, Russians, and Europeans
DE, see Damage expectancy
Debouzy, Olivier, 140
Defense, Department of (DOD), U.S., 155, 261, 266, 267, 302
De Gaulle, Charles, 126–27, 178
Department of Energy, see Energy, Department of
Desai, Morarji, 227
Deterrence: British policy, 103, 104, 105, 107, 110, 113, 115, 117, 120; Chinese policy, 151–52; during Cold War, 18, 91; core capacity, 54; credibility, 113, 301–2, 303; extended, 299, 300, 301–2, 303–4, 353–54; French policy, 127, 129, 132, 134–41, 169, 170–71; in future, 92–95, 117, 183; mutual, 91, 96–97, 183, 352; mutually-assured destruction, 5; NATO strategy, 184; in post–Cold War era, 23, 38, 96–99, 299; resources used, 98–99; as sole purpose of nuclear weapons, 37; transforming, 99–101; U.S. policies, 75, 82, 83, 299, 300; virtual, 352
Deutch, John, 53
Dialogue among Americans, Russians, and Europeans (DARE), 1–2, 6
Disarmament, see Nuclear disarmament
DOD, see Defense, Department of
DOE, see Energy, Department of
Domenici, Pete, 371
Dougherty, Russell, 79
Dvorkin, Vladimir, 321–22, 328
Eastern Europe: missile defense systems, 51, 181, 308–9, 330, 334; NATO members, 173, 176; nuclear weapon free zone proposal, 174–75. See also individual countries
Economic crisis, 284
Egypt, see New Agenda Coalition
Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC), 231, 232
Einhorn, Robert J., 255
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 76
El Baradei, Mohamed, 58, 207, 307
Electricity markets, 287–89. See also Civilian nuclear power
ENDC, see Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee
Energy: demand for, 284; electricity markets, 287–89; prices, 284; supply security, 286–87. See also Civilian nuclear power
Energy, Department of, U.S. (DOE), 156, 216, 262, 266, 291. See also National laboratories, U.S.
Environmental issues, 285–86, 298
EPR, see European Pressurised Reactor
ESDP, see European security and defense policy
EU, see European Union
Eurofighters, 172
Europe: Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty, 48, 96; energy imports, 286–87; Iranian nuclear threat, 170, 179, 320, 330–31, 334; missile defense systems, 179, 180–81, 318–19, 320, 351; NATO nuclear weapons, 54, 171–73, 178; neutral states, 176–77, 178; Obama administration and, 179–81; public support of nuclear disarmament, 46, 61, 175; role in nuclear disarmament, 183–84; statesmen’s editorials supporting nuclear disarmament, 46–52; tactical nuclear weapons, 48–49, 94, 301, 305. See also Eastern Europe; and individual countries
European Pressurised Reactor (EPR), 286, 290
European security and defense policy (ESDP), 176, 178, 183
European Union (EU): Common Foreign
and Security Policy, 176, 184; energy markets, 287–89; influence on nuclear policies, 167; members without nuclear weapons, 174–76; neutral states, 176–77, 178; nuclear disarmament support, 32, 167
Evans-Kawaguchi Commission, 44
Falkland Islands, 113
Federation of American Scientists, 84–85
Feith, Douglas, 160
Fini, Gianfranco, 47
Finland: nuclear disarmament support, 176; nuclear waste repository, 290
Fissile Material Control Initiative (FMCI), 255
Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT): benefits, 54; British support, 118; European support, 47, 168; Israeli view of, 198–201; need for, 58–59, 251–52; negotiations, 47, 59, 96, 134, 198, 252, 255, 348; U.S. support, 60, 96, 198, 200, 347; verification, 118, 251–52
Fissile materials: British-French stockpile stewardship agreement, 108–9, 183, 264; for civilian power generation, 58, 216; control measures, 32, 356; evidence of production, 248; French halt to production, 51, 131, 133–34, 168, 264; Global Nuclear Energy Partnership, 216–17, 218; global stockpiles, 58; international fuel bank proposal, 291–92; Iranian enrichment capabilities, 189, 191–92, 194–95, 207–9, 211, 283, 292; measuring holdings, 248–49, 250 (table); production histories, 247–48, 252–53; verification process, 246–52
FMCI, see Fissile Material Control Initiative
FMCT, see Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty
Forsberg, Randy, 5
Foster, John S., 77
“Four Horsemen,” see “Gang of Four” editorials
France: arms control policies, 134, 170; article by statesmen supporting nuclear disarmament, 49–50, 138, 140; Iranian nuclear program and, 209; Ministry of Defense, 126, 133, 136, 140, 264; national laboratories, 264–65; nuclear disarmament support, 124, 131–34, 139–40; nuclear power plants, 254, 264, 288; Parliament, 132, 140; withdrawal from NATO integrated military command, 127, 129
Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 47–48
Freedman, Lawrence, 366
French nuclear forces: ballistic missiles, current, 130 (table), 130–31, 133; development, 125–26, 128; domestic politics and, 128; independence, 126; modernization, 92, 130, 133, 141; reductions, 30, 51, 133, 141, 168; secrecy, 124, 125–26, 138, 140; simulation program, 130–31, 133–34, 264; size, 56; submarines, 50, 56, 128, 130, 133, 140; tactical weapons, 129; tests, 126, 128–29, 132; U.S. opposition, 125, 127, 128
French nuclear policy: closing of test sites, 51, 132, 134; during Cold War, 127, cooperation with other countries, 108–9, 183; of de Gaulle, 126–27, 129, 138; deterrence, 127, 129, 132, 134–41, 169, 170–71; domestic politics and, 140–41; evolution, 124; fissile materials production halted, 51, 131, 133–34, 168, 264; future of, 124, 142–43; lack of public debate, 138–41, 142; non-use, 124; in post–Cold War era, 30, 124, 129, 131–38, 169–71; Sarkozy on, 50, 56, 133, 135, 139, 141, 168, 169; stockpile stewardship agreement with Britain, 108–9, 183, 264; testing halt, 132, 133, 134; ultime avertissement, 129, 136–37, 142; vital interests, 127, 132, 135–36, 142, 169
Gandhi, Indira, 226–27, 232, 233
“Gang of Four” editorials, U.S.: of January 2007, 2, 12–14, 30, 43–44, 45, 308, 350; of January 2008, 13, 43–44, 46, 297–98; responses, 14, 30–34, 44, 46–54, 99–100, 139–40, 348. See also individual countries
GCD, see General and complete disarmament
Geithner, Timothy, 156
General and complete disarmament (GCD), 29, 92, 182, 231, 233, 234
General Atomics, 290
Geneva Conference on Disarmament, see Conference on Disarmament
Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 48
Georgia, Republic of, 304, 330, 332, 351
Georgia Power, 285
Germany: articles by statesmen supporting nuclear disarmament, 14, 47–48; NATO nuclear weapons stationed in, 48–49, 171–73, 186n16; Nazi atomic weapons program, 300–301; nuclear power plants, 254; Parliament, 48; views of nuclear policies, 183
Glaser, Charles, 84
Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), 216–17, 218
Global warming, 285
Global Zero initiative, 23, 32, 38, 44
GNEP, see Global Nuclear Energy Partnership
Goldschmidt, Pierre, 293
Gorbachev, Mikhail: antipathy to nuclear weapons, 310–11; conventional forces reductions, 307–8; Global Zero initiative and, 44; India and, 234; Wall Street Journal article, 13, 45–46. See also Reykjavik Summit
Gottemoeller, Rose, 217
Great Britain, see Britain
Greenpeace, 286
Gromyko, Andrei, 16
Gromyko Plan, 29
Gulf War (1991), 113–14
Hammarskjöld, Dag, 32–33
Hatoyama, Yukio, 354
He Yafei, 156
Highly-enriched uranium (HEU), see Uranium
Hoover Initiative, 12–14, 22–24, 46, 350
Hoover Institution, 12
Howard, Michael, 105
Hsieh, Alice Langley, 151
Hurd, Douglas, 47
IAEA, see International Atomic Energy Agency
ICAN, see International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons
ICBMs, see Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles
India: civilian nuclear power, 238; deterrence policy, 228–29, 232; NPT regime and, 228, 229–30, 232, 234; nuclear disarmament support, 52, 224, 230–39; nuclear trade agreement with United States, 57, 177, 218–19, 237; relations with China, 231–32, 237; relations with Pakistan, 228, 237; Weapons of Mass Destruction Act, 236
Indian Atomic Energy Commission, 225, 226
Indian nuclear weapons program: civilian control, 229; confidence-building measures, 237; fissile materials production, 58, 59; minimum credible deterrence, 224, 228–29; missiles, 227–28, 240n7; no-first-use policy, 228, 229; phases, 225–30; public announcements, 234; rationale, 225, 226; recessed deterrence phase, 227–28; submarines, 56, 229; tests, 52, 56–57, 224, 226, 227, 228–29, 233, 235, 237; un-weaponized phase, 226–27; weapon option, 225–26
INF, see Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces
Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs): Chinese, 56, 152; flight times, 94; Russian, 55; of United States, 71, 71 (fig.), 73, 74, 77, 79, 80–81
Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, 22, 96, 256
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): civilian nuclear power and, 58, 291–92, 294; India and, 237–38; international fuel bank proposal, 291–92; Iran and, 189, 204n28, 207–9; safeguards system, 238, 249, 254, 257n2; strengthening, 60; verification responsibilities, 246, 250–51
International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), 32, 38, 53
International Court of Justice, 29
International Panel on Fissile Materials (IPFM), 32, 38
Iran: domestic politics, 211, 214, 219–20; hostility to Israel, 188, 189; Islamic Revolution, 207, 220; as NPT signatory, 204n28, 207, 217; perceived threats, 209–10, 213–14; U.S. National Intelligence Estimate on, 189, 192, 222n19; war with Iraq, 207, 221n3
Iranian nuclear program: challenges for global community, 206, 214–19, 357; civilian power generation, 58; dualuse technology, 208, 218; enrichment capabilities, 189, 191–92, 194–95, 207–9, 211, 283, 292; European mediation efforts, 180; history, 206–8; IAEA inspections and reports, 207–9; Israeli assessments, 190–94, 196, 197; Khan and, 57, 207; North Korean support, 219; opacity, 195–96; peaceful purpose claim, 194, 195–96, 208, 214; political solutions, 57–58; public support, 367–68; Russian views, 97–98; security environment and, 306–7, 309–10; as threat to Europe, 170, 179, 320, 330–31, 334; as threat to Israel, 188–94, 203n12; treaty violations, 204n28; UN resolutions on, 208; UN sanctions, 57, 97, 181, 210; U.S. position, 97–98, 209–12, 217, 310
Iraq: British forces, 112; chemical weapons, 207, 221n3; Gulf War (1991), 113–14; U.S. forces, 210; war with Iran, 207, 221n3
Iraq war (2003–), 23, 114–15, 180, 328, 337
Ireland: New Agenda Coalition, 30–32, 33, 176; nuclear disarmament support, 176
Israel: Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty and, 198–201; Iranian threat to, 188–94, 196, 197; views of nuclear disarmament, 187–88, 201, 202
Israeli nuclear forces: fissile materials production, 58, 199; future policies, 192–93, 197, 198, 201–2; history, 187, 194, 204n28; opacity, 57, 187, 196, 197, 198–99, 201
Italy: articles by statesmen supporting nuclear disarmament, 14, 47; energy imports, 287–89; NATO nuclear weapons stationed in, 171–73; nuclear decommissioning costs, 285
Jacobs, 263
Japan: bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 70, 301, 311; U.S. nuclear guarantee, 354
Jiang Zemin, 159
Johnson, Rebecca, 170
Joint Strategic Targeting Planning Staff (JSTPS), 74, 79
Kaplan, Fred, 74
Kapur, K. D., 231
Kaysen, Carl, 74
Kennedy, John F., 29, 74, 155, 194
Kennedy, Michael, 77–78
Kerry, John, 303
Khrushchev, Nikita, 93
Kissinger, Henry A., 12, 297–98. See also “Gang of Four” editorials
Kivlehan-Wise, Maryanne, 152
Koenig, Pierre, 125–26
Kosovo, 179–80
Kristensen, Hans M., 171
Kulesa, Lukasz, 173
Kyrgyzstan, 181
Labour Party (U.K.), 107, 109, 169
La Malfa, Giorgio, 47
LANL, see Los Alamos National Laboratory
Larijani, Ali, 194
Latent capacity, 83–84, 227, 271, 352
Latent opacity, 195–96
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), 261, 262, 266, 267, 268, 269, 276, 282n52. See also National laboratories, U.S.
Lee Myung-bak, 303
Lee, Wen Ho, 276
Leterme, Yves, 51
Lethality, 69, 71–73, 72 (fig.)
Lewis, Kevin N., 77–78
Liberal Democratic Party (U.K.), 103, 117
Li Bin, 158–59
Lilienthal, David, 16
LLNL, see Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Lockheed-Martin Corporation, 262
Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), 261, 262, 266, 268, 269, 270, 276. See also National laboratories, U.S.
Mack, Andrew, 312
Major, John, 114
Maleki, Abbas, 292
Malta, 176
Manhattan Project, 15, 266, 273, 300–301
Mayfield, Michael, 289
McCain, John, 2, 14, 46, 360–61
McFaul, Michael, 309
Medvedev, Dmitry, 30, 48, 59, 82, 181, 329, 348, 351, 364
Mexico, see New Agenda Coalition
Middle East: Arab states, 190, 199, 202, 205n29; nuclear power plants, 202; nuclear weapon free zone proposal, 33, 57, 193–94, 199, 200, 202, 215; proliferation threats, 190. See also individual countries
Miller, Gerald E., 80
Missile defense systems: Chinese responses, 56, 157, 158, 334; against cruise missiles, 331, 332; in Europe, 51, 179, 180–81, 308–9, 318–19, 320, 330, 334, 351; opacity, 319, 323; Russian concerns, 328–29, 334; Russian cooperation, 333; space-based components, 321, 334; Strategic Defense Initiative, 11, 22, 45, 326; tests, 55; of United States, 55, 56, 157, 158, 318–21, 323, 333
Missiles, see Ballistic missiles; Cruise missiles; Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles; Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles
Mitterrand, François, 127, 131–32, 138
Mofaz, Shaul, 192
Mousavi, Mir-Hussein, 220
Murti, Arjun N., 284
Mutual deterrence, 91, 96–97, 183, 352
Mutually-assured destruction (MAD), 5, 45, 46, 190
Myrdal, Alva, 38
NAC, see New Agenda Coalition
National Academy of Sciences, Committee on International Security and Arms Control (CISAC), 54, 83, 84, 156–57
National Intelligence Estimate (NIE), 189, 192, 222n19
National laboratories: British, 103, 107, 263–64, 274, 277; Chinese, 156, 265–66; collaboration, 263, 264, 274; dismantling surplus weapons, 269, 271; diversity, 261, 265; effects of nuclear disarmament, 268, 269, 270–78; exchanges, 156; French, 264–65; future roles, 274–78; Indian, 226; proliferation risks, 273–74; recruiting new generations of scientists, 107, 263–64, 269; roles in verification of nuclear disarmament, 118, 260, 271, 273, 276; Russian, 263, 274; Soviet, 262–63
National laboratories, U.S.: administration, 261; collaboration with Russia, 263, 274; contribution to nuclear disarmament, 260–61; effects of nuclear disarmament, 270–78; exchanges with Chinese, 156; funding, 371; history, 266; management contracts, 262, 269, 276; policy debates and, 260–61, 269–70; regional impacts, 267–68, 376; research programs, 261–62, 266, 275, 277; security breaches, 273, 275–76, 281n47; Stockpile Stewardship Program (SSP), 260–61, 266–67, 271–72; transformation plans, 270–71; Work for Others, 261–62, 275, 277; workplace cultures, 268–69, 275–76
National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), 261, 262, 269, 270–71, 276, 371
National Research Council (NRC), 324–25
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): conventional superiority, 54; Cooperative Airspace Initiative, 331–32; Eastern European members, 173; enlargement, 174, 175, 304, 308–9, 330; French withdrawal from integrated military command, 127, 129; Iranian threat to, 330–31; Kosovo operation, 179–80; members without nuclear weapons, 174–76; missile defense program, 319, 320, 331, 333; relations with Russia, 176, 319, 330, 331–32; Strategic Concept (1991), 112–13; Strategic Concept (2010), 172
NATO nuclear weapons: consultations on use, 115–16; deterrence strategy, 184; in Europe, 48–49, 54, 171–73, 178; potential effects of withdrawal, 171–72, 173; sharing arrangements, 106, 171
NATO-Russia Council, 319, 330, 331–32
Natural Resources Defense Council, 84–85
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 225, 230–31
Netanyahu, Benjamin, 188, 190, 192, 198, 203n15
Netherlands, 171–73
New Agenda Coalition (NAC), 30–32, 33, 176
New START (Strategic Arms Control
Treaty, 2010), agreement, 2, 30, 59, 82, 100, 181, 329, 348, 364; impact, 99, 324; Senate ratification, 160, 271, 370
New Zealand, see New Agenda Coalition
NIE, see National Intelligence Estimate
Nie Hongyi, 158–59
Nixon, Richard M., 12
NNSA, see National Nuclear Security Administration
No-first-use policies: Chinese, 150, 151, 159, 175; of India, 228, 229; of Soviet Union, 92; as step toward nuclear disarmament, 311; of United States, 83, 85, 311
Nolan, Janne E., 78
Nongovernmental organizations, 32, 38–39, 53
Nonproliferation: relationship to nuclear disarmament, 182, 297–98, 353–55. See also Proliferation threats
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): agreement, 29; British support, 119; French ratification, 131; future of, 182; goals, 15; India’s critique, 232; Iran as signatory, 204n28, 207, 217; non-signatories, 215, 218–19; North Korean withdrawal, 57, 180, 219; nuclear disarmament and, 353; peaceful use rights, 214, 216; preparatory committee meetings, 33, 175, 215, 217; proposals to strengthen, 32, 33; renewal (2010), 2; review conference (2000), 33, 176; review conference (2005), 96, 170, 177; review conference (2010), 60, 120, 214, 218; review process, 36; South Africa as signatory, 250; Swiss view, 177
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, see NATO
North Korea: NPT withdrawal, 57, 180, 219; support of Iranian nuclear program, 219
North Korean nuclear program: challenges for global community, 219, 357; exports, 57; missile development, 57; security environment and, 306–7, 309–10; six-party talks, 57; tests, 12, 57, 219, 357; as threat to Europe, 179
Norway: conference on nuclear disarmament, 14; nuclear disarmament support, 32, 49; verification technology initiative, 142–43
NPR, see Nuclear Posture Review
NPT, see Non-Proliferation Treaty
NRC, see National Research Council
Nuclear disarmament: arguments against, 349–50, 360; assessing proposals, 34–37; challenges, 35, 214–16, 317–18; feasibility, 18, 349–50, 355–56; Gandhi plan, 235–36; global summit, 364–66; history of efforts, 15, 28–29, 37–38; issues, 61, 100–101, 356–57, 373; latent capacity to rearm, 83–84, 352; military planning and, 372–73, 374–75, 378; moral arguments, 43, 310–13; Obama administration initiatives, 2, 60, 213, 305–7, 347, 348–49, 364–68, 378; obstacles in U.S. policy, 298–99, 302; political issues, 373–77; public support, 46, 61, 175, 366; recent proposals, 30–35, 31 (table), 38–39; recent renewal of interest, 2–3, 12–15, 22–23; regional conflicts as obstacle, 202; relationship to nonproliferation, 182, 297–98, 353–55; Security Council resolutions, 14, 348; Security Council summit, 24, 33, 52, 347–48, 354–55; security environment and, 299, 306–10; skepticism, 3, 29, 35–36, 53, 372, 374–75; steps, 61–62, 305–6, 368–69; 13 Steps, 176; transparent process, 34–35; UN goals, 38; UN special sessions, 29, 233, 234. See also Verification
Nuclear forensics, 248, 273, 277
Nuclear freeze movement, 366
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (see Non-proliferation Treaty)
Nuclear Posture Review (NPR): of 2001, 116, 323, 373, 375; of 2010, 82, 149, 160, 213–14, 270, 298, 305, 348, 349, 362, 373
Nuclear power plants, see Civilian nuclear power
Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), 57, 238
Nuclear taboo, 5, 141–42, 159, 303, 311
Nuclear umbrella, 303–4, 307, 353–54
Nuclear waste disposal, 285–86, 290–91
Nuclear weapon free zones (NWFZs): in Central and Eastern Europe, 174–75; in Middle East, 33, 57, 193–94, 199, 200, 202, 215; regional, 29; in Southeast Asia, 237, 240n10; treaties, 29; UN principles, 175; U.S. criteria, 175
Nuclear weapons: costs, 98–99, 267; destructive effects, 44; future need for, 39–40; global stockpiles, 20, 21 (fig.), 54; international control efforts in 1940s, 15–20, 29; stigmatization, 312–13; uses, 91–92, 300–302
Nuclear weapons states (NWS): civilian nuclear power, 254; cooperation, 183–84; current stockpiles, 56; in Europe, 168–71; global summit on disarmament, 365; national laboratories, 260–61. See also individual countries
Nunn, Sam, 329. See also “Gang of Four” editorials
NWFZs, see Nuclear weapon free zones NWS, see Nuclear weapons states
Obama, Barack: New START signing, 329, 348, 364; Nobel Peace Prize, 2, 14; presidential campaign (2008), 2, 13–14, 46, 286, 360; summit with Medvedev, 59, 181, 364; at United Nations, 14, 24, 354–55
Obama, Barack, Prague speech (2009): commitment to nuclear disarmament, 2, 14, 30, 212–13; Iran issue, 213, 310; moral arguments, 43; nonproliferation goals, 305; policy changes announced, 59, 304; steps toward nuclear disarmament, 213
Obama administration: arms control policies, 179; defense policies, 317, 324; disarmament initiatives, 2, 60, 213, 305–7, 347, 348–49, 364–68, 378; foreign policy, 181, 354–55; Iranian nuclear program and, 206, 208, 209, 210–12, 213, 217, 310; missile defense program, 51, 320–21, 329, 351; naval forces near Iran, 209–10; no-first-use policy, 311; Nuclear Posture Review, 82, 149, 160, 213–14, 270, 298, 305, 348, 349, 362, 373; Nuclear Security summit, 347; nuclear weapons policies, 82, 100, 181, 302, 355, 363–64; relations with China, 149, 156; relations with Europe, 179–81; relations with Iran, 220; relations with Russia, 2, 309, 351; support of Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty, 200. See also New START
Oil prices, 284
Opacity: of Iranian nuclear program, 195–96; of Israeli nuclear policy, 57, 187, 196, 197, 198–99, 201; latent, 195–96; of missile defense systems, 319, 323
Oppenheimer, Robert, 15, 16, 19
Owen, David, 47
Pakistan: Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty negotiations and, 59, 347; fissile materials production, 58; Khan network, 57, 98, 207, 273; nuclear weapons program, 56, 227, 228–29, 237; relations with India, 228, 237; relations with United States, 98
Palestinians, 190
Palewski, Gaston, 125–26
Palme, Olof, 233
Parisi, Arturo, 47
Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), 231
Patton, George S., 39–40
Peaceful uses of nuclear energy: Acheson-Lilienthal Report on, 16, 17, 19, 20, 29, 356; rights of non-nuclear weapon states, 214, 216; technology sharing, 216–18. See also Civilian nuclear power
Peacekeeping operations, 111
Perkovich, George, 60, 360, 362, 372
Perle, Richard, 303
Perry, William J., 160, 303, 350. See also “Gang of Four” editorials
Perry/Schlesinger Commission, 59, 350
Plutonium, 58, 248, 283, 291. See also Fissile materials
Poindexter, John, 12
Poirier, Lucien, 135–36
Poland: NATO membership, 175; nuclear disarmament support, 49, 50; proposed missile defense deployment, 51, 181, 309, 318–19, 330, 334, 351
Political context, 39, 93, 117, 352, 373–77
Powell, Colin, 46
Power generation, see Civilian nuclear power
Prague, see Obama, Barack, Prague speech (2009)
Presidential Nuclear Initiative (PNI), 106
Proliferation Security Initiative, 8, 97, 347
Proliferation threats: civilian nuclear power and, 283, 294; in future, 118, 178–79; of long-range missiles, 95; in Middle East, 190; U.S. concerns, 298. See also Nonproliferation
Prompt Global Strike, 54–55, 101, 322–26
PTBT, see Partial Test Ban Treaty
Pugwash Conferences, 15, 32, 47, 53
Putin, Vladimir, 52, 309, 319, 333
“Quartet,” see “Gang of Four” editorials
Ragsdale, Margureita, 217
Rajagopalan, Rajesh, 238
Ramanna, Raja, 226
RAND Corporation, 296–97
Reagan, Ronald: antipathy to nuclear weapons, 310–11, 361; Star Wars support, 22, 326. See also Reykjavik Summit
Reagan administration, 78. See also Strategic Defense Initiative
Reid, Harry, 286
Reliable Replacement Warhead (RRW), 59–60, 363, 370, 371
Research and development, see National laboratories
Reykjavik Summit (1986), 20–22; failure, 233–34; lessons, 22; nuclear disarmament discussion, 11–12, 29, 45; twentieth anniversary conference, 12
Rhodes, Richard, 5
Rice, Condoleezza, 309, 332, 377–78
Richard, Alain, 49–50, 138, 140
Rifkind, Malcolm, 47, 105, 113
RNEP, see Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator
Robertson, George, 47
Robust Nuclear Earth Penetrator (RNEP), 370, 371. See also Bunker buster weapons
Rocard, Michel, 49–50, 138, 140
Rogue states, 23, 180, 324, 328, 331, 365
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 15, 19
Rose, François de la, 140
Ross, Dennis, 212
RRW, see Reliable Replacement Warhead Rumsfeld, Donald, 155
Russell-Einstein Manifesto, 15
Russia: arms control policies, 96; Cooperative Airspace Initiative, 331–32; foreign policy, 48; gas exports, 284; relations with Europe, 178, 179; relations with NATO, 176, 319, 330, 331–32; security concerns, 308–9, 318, 321–22; targets on U.S. list, 81–82, 85; Treaty on Conventional Forces in Europe and, 48; views of nuclear disarmament, 100–101; war with Georgia, 304, 332, 351. See also New START; Soviet Union; U.S.-Russian relations
Russian nuclear weapons program: costs, 98–99; modernization, 55, 92, 98–99; national laboratories, 263, 274; policies, 52, 92, 339n13; reductions, 82, 91, 350–52; submarines, 152; tactical weapons, 50, 54, 94
Rydell, Randy, 361
SAC, see Strategic Air Command
Sandia Corporation, 262
Sandia National Laboratory (SNL), 261, 262, 266, 268, 275. See also National laboratories, U.S.
Sarkozy, Nicolas, 47, 50, 56, 133, 135, 139, 141, 168, 169, 170
Schmidt, Helmut, 47–48
Schwartz, Stephen I., 267, 376
Scientists, see National laboratories Scowcroft, Brent, 160
SDI, see Strategic Defense Initiative Sethna, Homi, 226
Shastri, Lal Bahadur, 226
Shultz, George P., 11–12, 20. See also “Gang of Four” editorials
Sierra Leone, 111
Singh, Manmohan, 52
Single Integrated Operational Plans (SIOPs), 74–75, 77, 80
Six Nation Initiative, 233
Slavery, abolition of, 5, 311, 312
SLBMs, see Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles
Sloss, Leon, 78
Sneh, Ephraim, 190
SNL, see Sandia National Laboratory
Sokov, Nikolai, 173
Soltanieh, Ali Asghar, 218
SORT, see Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
South Africa: denuclearization process, 142, 250–51; New Agenda Coalition, 30–32, 33, 176; NPT regime and, 250 Southeast Asia, nuclear weapon free zone proposal, 237, 240n10
South Korea, 303–4
Soviet nuclear weapons program: development, 301; intermediate-range missiles, 256; national laboratories, 262–63; no-first-use policy, 92; number of strategic weapons, 71, 71 (fig.); test sites, 263; threat to Europe, 104, 127, 301
Soviet Union: closed nuclear cities, 262–63; conventional forces, 301, 307–8; Cuban missile crisis, 93, 155, 311; Geneva Summit (1985), 20; hardening of targets, 78–79; nuclear nonproliferation policies, 16, 17; relations with United States, 20, 93, 155, 311; spies, 273. See also Cold War; Gorbachev, Mikhail; Reykjavik Summit; Russia
Space planes, 326
SSP, see Stockpile Stewardship Program Stalin, Joseph, 15, 17, 18, 19
Stanford University, 12
START, see Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
START III, see New START State Department, U.S., Acheson-Lilienthal Report, 16, 17, 19, 20, 29, 356
Steinberg, Jim, 211
Steinmeier, Frank-Walter, 44, 52
Stockpile Stewardship Program (SSP), 260–61, 266–67, 271–72
Strategic Air Command (SAC), 74, 79
Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I), 11, 22, 59, 91, 99, 173
Strategic Command, U.S., 116, 322, 324, 375
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 11, 22, 45, 326
Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT), 4, 91
Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs): flight times, 94; Trident, 73, 78, 105, 106, 108, 322, 323, 325; of United States, 71 (fig.), 74, 108, 153
Submarines: British, 56, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 140, 264, 277; Chinese, 150; collision of French and British, 140; French, 50, 56, 128, 130, 133, 140; Indian, 56, 229; of United States, 322, 326–27, 335–37
Sweden: India and, 233; New Agenda Coalition, 30–32, 33, 176; nuclear disarmament support, 50, 176
Switzerland, 177
Tactical nuclear weapons (TNW): current numbers, 54; in Europe, 48–49, 94, 301, 305; French, 129; of NATO, 48–49, 171–73, 176; purpose, 94; rationale, 173; reductions, 173; Russian, 50, 54, 94; support for withdrawal from Europe, 48–49, 50–51, 61, 178, 186n16; of United States, 106, 301
Terrorist groups: hijackings, 331; Iranian
links to, 98; as nuclear threats, 23, 114, 236, 298; weapons of mass destruction and, 324
Tertrais, Bruno, 183
TNW, see Tactical nuclear weapons
Transparency: disadvantages, 252; of disarmament process, 34–35, 102, 117, 323; of fissile materials stocks, 255; in South Africa, 251; in U.S.-Russian relations, 329–30, 335. See also Opacity
Trident missiles: on British submarines, 105, 106, 108; conventional payloads, 322, 323, 325; deployment, 78; lethality, 73
Truman, Harry S., 16, 17, 18, 19
Turkey, 171–73
Ukraine, 174–75, 178, 304, 330, 331
United Kingdom, see Britain
United Nations: Atomic Energy Commission, 16–17; Charter, 28; disarmament goals, 38; peacekeeping operations, 111; sanctions on Iran, 57, 97, 181, 210. See also Conference on Disarmament
United Nations General Assembly: comprehensive test ban resolutions, 230; First Committee, 36; nuclear disarmament resolutions, 28–29, 32, 33, 34, 231, 235; resolution on fissile materials control, 198; resolution on nuclear weapon use, 233; special sessions on disarmament, 29, 233, 234
United Nations Security Council: nuclear disarmament resolutions, 348; nuclear disarmament summit, 14, 24, 33, 52, 347–48, 354–55; resolutions on Iranian nuclear program, 208
United States: antiterrorist strategy, 180; conventional superiority, 317, 318–22, 334–37, 374; defense budgets, 98, 267, 375–76; military transformation, 375; National Intelligence Estimates, 189, 192, 222n19; relations with China, 149, 153–61; relations with Israel, 197; relations with Pakistan, 98; relations with Soviet Union, 20, 93, 155, 311. See also Prompt Global Strike
United States nuclear policies: agreement with India, 57, 177, 218–19, 237; contradictions, 306; deterrence, 75, 82, 83, 299, 300; disarmament initiatives, 100, 212–15, 305–7; extended deterrence, 299, 300, 301–2, 303–4; goals, 69–70; military and defense planning bureaucracies and, 372–73, 374–75, 378; no-first-use, 83, 85, 311; of Obama administration, 82, 100, 181, 302, 355, 363–64; obstacles to disarmament, 298–99; in post–Cold War era, 81–82; potential changes, 85–86, 362, 370–73; Presidential Nuclear Initiative, 106; purposes of weapons, 300–305; targets, 70, 74, 75–78, 81–82, 84–85; war planning, 69–70, 73–81, 82, 85, 302–3
United States nuclear weapons program: bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 301, 311; bunker buster weapons, 363, 370, 375; civilian control, 262; costs, 267, 375–76; cruise missiles, 322, 326–27, 337–38, 371–72; economic impact, 267–68; 376–77; fissile materials production, 249, 250 (table), 253; ICBMs, 71, 71 (fig.), 73, 74, 77, 79, 80–81; Joint Strike Fighter, 172; lethality increases, 69, 71–73, 72 (fig.); Manhattan Project, 15, 266, 273, 300–301; modernization, 54–55, 98; moratorium on new programs, 370–72; number of strategic weapons, 85, 153; reductions, 82, 83, 85, 91, 271–72, 350–52, 376; SLBMs, 71 (fig.), 74, 108, 153; submarines, 322, 326–27; tactical weapons, 106; technological superiority, 55; tests, 230–31
U.S.-Russian relations: during Bush (George W.) administration, 330, 363; confidence-building measures, 371–72; cooperation, 96–97, 329–37; future of, 181; improvements, 351; Iranian nuclear program issue and, 97–98; issues, 100–101; Joint Data Exchange Center, 332–33; missile defense issue, 309, 328–29; during Obama administration, 2, 309, 351; perceptions of U.S. conventional superiority, 318–22, 323–29, 334–35; in post–Cold War era, 90, 91–99; strategic nuclear partnership, 99; strategic stability, 353; submarine patrol areas, 335–37, 336 (fig.); transparency, 329–30, 335. See also New START
University of California, 262
Uranium: enrichment degree, 283; supply, 58, 286–87. See also Fissile materials
Vandenberg, Hoyt, 76
Verification: of absence of fissile material, 246–52; challenges, 246–52; costs, 253; fissile materials control, 118, 246–52; IAEA responsibilities, 246, 250–51; national laboratory roles, 118, 260, 271, 273, 276; ongoing, 245–46; political issues, 256–57; recordkeeping and, 252–53; in South Africa, 250–51; technological development, 142–43, 377; during transition to zero, 34–35, 245, 246, 273; whistle-blowers and, 313–14; Wiesner model, 256–57, 313
Wall Street Journal, 13, 45–46. See also “Gang of Four” editorials
Walpole, Robert D., 152
Weapons of mass destruction (WMDs): chemical and biological, 17, 113–14, 116, 207, 221n3, 277; controls, 236; of rogue states or terrorist groups, 324. See also Nuclear weapons
Weber, Max, 357
Weinberger, Casper, 12
Weizsäcker, Richard von, 48
Western Electric, 262
Westerwelle, Guido, 49
Westinghouse, 289
Whistle-blowers, 312–13
Wiesner, Jerome, 312
Wiesner model of verification, 256–57, 312
Wittner, Lawrence, 34
WMDs, see Weapons of mass destruction Wolfowitz, Paul, 160
Yang Jiechi, 14
Yeltsin, Boris, 332