Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “f” indicate figures and “t” indicate tables.

A

Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP) 75–76

Acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN) 75–77

Aedes aegypti 69–70, 135, 143–146, 154–155, 251–252

Aedes albopictus 111, 216–217, 249

Africa 

CHIKV 

emergence 216

isolation 237–238

transmission cycle 26–33, 116–118

ZIKV 

isolation 237–238

transmission cycle 37–39, 116–118

America 

CHIKV 

emergence 216–217

transmission cycles 37

infectious disease emergence 215–216

ZIKV, transmission cycles 40–41

Angola, ZIKV emergence 103

Animal models 

CHIKV 

encephalitis 324–325

infection 317–318, 318–320t

other severe outcomes 324–325

pathogenesis 317–318, 318–320t

musculoskeletal disease 

acute CHIKV disease 320–323

chronic CHIKV disease 323–324

ZIKV 

adults 329–333

infection 325–329, 326–329t

neonates 329–333

pathogenesis 325–329, 326–329t

during pregnancy 335–337

replication 325–329, 326–329t

sexual transmission 333–334

Anti-CHIKV IgM antibodies 89, 95

Antirheumatoid drugs 72–73

Anti-T cell therapy 374

Aptima ZIKV assay 308–309

Arbovirus 239

discovery 1–2

mosquito-borne transmission 16

transmission cycles 51–52

Arthralgia 87–88

Arthritis 72–73

Asia 

CHIKV 

detect 136–141

historical medical accounts 141–143

history 135

nature of endemicity 136–141

neutralizing antibody 136–141

re-emergence 167–169

sequences 136

sporadic cases and sporadic viral isolations 137–139t

transmission 33–36, 140f

ZIKV 

between 1947 and 2006 170–172

isolation 169–170

outbreaks 172–173

serosurveys 169–170

transmission 39–40, 174f

Australia, CHIKV 166

B

Bangladesh, CHIKV 159–160

BG Sentinel trap (BGS) 121

Bhutan, CHIKV 160

Brazil 

CHIKV emergence 217–218, 218f, 219t

ZIKV emergence 224–225, 225f

Brunei, CHIKV 153

C

Cambodia, CHIKV 

isolation 145

phylogenetic analysis 145

stochastic model 145–146

subclinical infections 145–146

Cameroon, ZIKV emergence 102

Caribbean, CHIKV emergence 218–222

CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases 295

Central Africa 

CHIKV emergence 92–94

ZIKV emergence 101–102

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) 

acute stage 294

amplification of 372

animal models 

infection 317–318, 318–320t

mouse genetics 322

pathogenesis 317–318, 318–320t

swim bladder inflation 318–320t, 321

in vivo imaging techniques 321

antivirals 373–374

in Asia 367–368

clinical observations 370

compartmental model 368

crossprotection 372–373

disease 

acute 320–323

chronic 323–324

emergence 2–7, 9–10, 87–88, 264

in Africa 216

in America 216–217

in Brazil 217–218, 218f, 219t

Caribbean 218–222

coinfection 103

discovery 2

in humans 89–99

Makonde Plateau 2

phylogenetic study 116

prevention and control 119–120

in South America 216–218

United States 218–223

entomological surveillance 119

enzootic cycle 371–372

epidemiology 

autochthonous outbreak cases 194–196

historical accounts of 193

re-emergences 193–194

sequence analysis 195

transmission 196–198, 197t

vaccine development 198–199

evolution 369–371

immune enhancement 372–373

infection 294

clinical features 69–72

prognosis 73–74

treatment 72–73

intracellular life cycle 243–247

pathogenesis of 371

phylogeny 116

replication of 238

reproductive rate 367–368

surveillance system 118–119

transmission cycles 367–368, 371–372

vaccines 373–374

challenges 360–361

chimeric virus vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 355

inactivated virus vaccine 347–348, 348–350t

live-attenuated virus vaccine 347–348, 348f, 348–350t, 353–354

nucleic acid vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 356–357

subunit vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 358–359

viral vector vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 355

VLP vaccine 347–348, 348f, 348–350t, 358–359

whole virus formulations 351–352

vector distribution 

Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus 208, 208t

arthropod vectors 207

European Region 207–208

mosquito to transmit 208

urbanization 207

vectorial capacity 369–371

viral virulence 369–371

western hemisphere 367–369

Chimeric virus vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 355–356

China, CHIKV 161–162

Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS) 

cases 79

definition 77–78

heterogenicities 79

pregnancy/infant outcomes 78–79

retrospective assessment 79

vs. ZIKV infection 78

Cramp-like pains 141

D

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) 92

Dengue 

hemorrhagic fever 143–144

isolations 142–143

Dengue virus (DENV) 103, 367–368, 372–373

Djibouti, CHIKV emergence 96

DNA vaccine principles 358

E

East Africa 

CHIKV emergence 95–99

ZIKV emergence 102

East Asia, CHIKV.  See specific country

Ebola 347–348, 358

Emergence 

CHIKV 2–7, 9–10, 87–88, 264

in Africa 216

in America 216–217

in Brazil 217–218, 218f, 219t

Caribbean 218–222

coinfection 103

discovery 2

in humans 89–99

Makonde Plateau 2

phylogenetic study 116

prevention and control 119–120

in South America 216–218

United States 218–223

infectious disease in 215–216

ZIKV 7–10, 87–88

in Brazil 41, 224–225, 225f

coinfection 103–104

in Florida 228–229

prevention and control 119–120

in South America 223–225

in Texas 229

transmission cycles 41–42

in United States 225–231

US travelers 229–231

Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) 307

Encephalitis 71

Enzootic cycle 371–372

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) 

CHIKV 299

ZIKV 309–310

Ethiopia, ZIKV emergence 102

Europe, CHIKV 

dispersal 252–260

epidemiology 193–199

transmission cycles 37

F

Febrile convulsions 73

Febrile exanthem 74–75

Florida, ZIKV emergence 228–229

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 307

G

GBS.  See Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS)

Genetics 

arboviruses 

accumulation of point mutations 240–241

17D vaccine 240–241

emergence 241–242

live-attenuated JEV SA14-14-2 vaccine strain 240–241

manipulation 240–241

NY99 genotype 241–242

proof-reading mechanisms 239

reverse genetics 242–243

selection of mutants 239

transmission 239

CHIKV 

A226V mutation 261–262

dispersal 252–260

endemic status 248

entomological surveys 261–262

epidemics 250, 253–254t

genetic variants characterization 261

Indian Ocean lineage 262–263

intercontinental spread 249

lineages 247–249

live-attenuated vaccine 263–264

mosquito vectors 260

phylogenetic relationships 247–248

re-emergence 249–252

reverse genetics system 242–243, 260

sylvatic transmission cycles 248–249, 264

systematic examination 248

West African genotype 248–249

ZIKV 

live-attenuated vaccine candidates 273–275

manipulation 273–275

molecular analysis 204–205

phylogenetic studies 204–205

reservoir 204

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) 325–329, 370–371, 373–374

axonal variant 75–76

cases of 76

characteristics 75–76

dysautonomia 75–76

examination 80

in French Polynesia 76–77

minor residual signs 80

mortality rates 80–81

motor nerve terminal degeneration 80

reversible conduction failure 77

Guinea Bissau, ZIKV emergence 100

H

Hong Kong, CHIKV 163

I

IgM antibody-capture ELISA (MAC-ELISA) 

CHIKV 300

ZIKV 310–311

Immunochromatographic (IC) assay 301

Immunofluorescence assays (IFA), CHIKV diagnosis 300

Inactivated virus vaccine 347–348, 348–351t

India, CHIKV 

Ae. albopictus 157–158

detection 158

E1-226A 157

E1-A226V mutation 157

entomological studies 157

epidemic peak 156–157

epidemiological and virological analysis 153

hemorrhagic fever outbreak 153

incidence 155–156

isolation 153–154

in Madras 153–154

in Maharashtra 154–155

origins and initial spread 158

phylogenetic analyses 154–155

phylogenetic analysis 158

retrospective study 155

socioeconomic impact 156

in Vishakapatnam 154–155

in Yawat 154–155

Indian Ocean, CHIKV 

emergence 95–99

epidemics in 249–252

transmission cycles 35–36

Indonesia, CHIKV 148–149

Influenza 358

International Health Commission 1–2

Israel, CHIKV 167

J

Japan, CHIKV 163

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) 352, 371

K

Kenya 

CHIKV 

ECSA genotype in 249–252

emergence 97–98

ZIKV emergence 102

Kidinga pepo 141

Knokkel-koorts 141

Knuckle fever  See Knokkel-koorts

L

Laboratory confirmation 293

Laboratory diagnosis 

CHIKV 

antibody test results 299, 300t

clinical criteria 294

common serological laboratory tests 302t

confirmation 294–295

culture isolation 298

ELISA 299

IFA 300

IgM capture 300

laboratory criteria 294

molecular testing 296–298

PRNT 300–301

rapid immunochromatography-based assays 301

RT-PCR 297–298

safety and reporting 295

sample collection 295–296

serological testing 299

ZIKV 

amniotic fluid 305

Aptima ZIKV assay 308–309

asymptomatic pregnant women meeting epidemiological criteria 306–307

cerebrospinal fluid 304–305

clinical criteria 305

ELISA 309–310

epidemiological criteria 306

IgM MAC-ELISA 310–311

immunofluorescence 310

laboratory criteria 305–306

molecular testing 307

patient categorization 305–306

PRNT 311

serological diagnosis 309

serum specimens 303–304

symptomatic individuals meeting epidemiological criteria 306

test results 311–312

Trioplex Real-time RT-PCR Assay 307–308

urine samples 304

whole blood samples 304

xMAP MultiFlex Zika RNA Assay test 308

Laboratory study 

CHIKV 

mosquitoes 43–47

transmission mechanisms 47–49

ZIKV 

mosquitoes 49–51, 50t

vertical transmission 51

Laos, CHIKV 153

Leptomeningial cells 324–325

Live-attenuated virus (LAV) vaccine 199, 263–264, 347–348, 348f, 348–351t, 353–354

Long-term immunity 356–357

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) 297

M

Madagascar, CHIKV emergence 99

Malaysia, CHIKV 150–151

Maldives, CHIKV 160

Mauritius, CHIKV emergence 98

Microsphere-based immunoassay (MIA) 300

Molecular biology 

CHIKV 

crystal structures, of E1-E2 heterodimer 245f

genome structure and organization 243f

glycoprotein 244

11.8-kb genome 243–244

RNA synthesis 243–244

transcription and translation strategy 244–247, 246f

ZIKV 

acidic environment 268–269

antiparallel dimeric structure 265–267, 266f

cotranslational and posttranslational modifications 268–269

genetic characterization 264–265

genome and polyprotein structure 267f

glycosylation 265–267

icosahedral shell 265–267

isolation 264–265

prM protein functions 268–269

single-stranded positive-sense RNA genome 265–267

Mosquito-borne disease 52–53

Mosquitoes 

anatomy 21, 22f

CHIKV 

detection and bioecology 104–107, 105f, 106t

vector competence 112, 113t

collection 17

consequences of infection 25

dissemination of virus 23–24

host preference 18–19

infectivity for 20–21

midgut infection 22–23

saliva 24–25

salivary glands 24

transmission cycle 16–17

vector competence variation 17–18

ZIKV 

detection and bioecology 107–112, 107f, 108t, 109f

vector competence 112, 113t

Mosquito-transmitted alphavirus 317

Mouse genetics 322

Musculoskeletal disease 

acute CHIKV disease 320–323

chronic CHIKV disease 323–324

Myanmar, CHIKV 148

N

Nepal, CHIKV 160–161

New Zealand, CHIKV 166

Nigeria, ZIKV emergence 101

North Africa, ZIKV emergence 103

Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA) 297

Nucleic acid vaccine 347–348, 348–351t, 356–358

O

Oceania, CHIKV.  See specific Islands

o’nyong nyong virus (ONNV) 5–6

P

Pacific Islands, CHIKV 

autochthonous transmission 164

entomological survey 164

laboratory studies 165

PPHSN 163–164

seroprevalence study 163

transmission 164f

Pacific Public Health Surveillance Network (PPHSN) 163–164

Pakistan, CHIKV 161

Philippine hemorrhagic fever 143–144

Philippines, CHIKV 

best-fit models 147

cohort study 147–148

isolation 146

nationwide outbreak 147

Phylogenetics 

CHIKV 116

ZIKV 116

D394E point mutation 270–271

endemic strains 269

genetic mutations 269–270

neurotropic diseases 271

NS4B A/G36S mutation 271–272

NS4B and NS5 proteins 271–272

nucleotide sequence 272–273

P38G mutation 271–272

S17N mutation 270–271

type-I interferon signaling pathways 271–272

Plaque-reduction neutralization test (PRNT) 

CHIKV 300–301

ZIKV 311

R

Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) methods 

CHIKV 297–298

ZIKV 296–297

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) 238

Rockefeller Foundation (RF) 1–2

Ross River virus 351

S

St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) 371

Saudi Arabia, CHIKV 167

Semliki Forest virus (SFV) 5, 351

Sequelae 72

Singapore 

CHIKV 151–152

ZIKV 175

Solar cycle 369

South America 

CHIKV emergence 216–218

ZIKV emergence 223–225

South Asia, CHIKV.  See specific country

Southeast Asia 

CHIKV, dispersal 252–260

ZIKV 174–176

Southern Africa 

CHIKV emergence 94–95

ZIKV emergence 103

South Korea, CHIKV 163

Sri Lanka, CHIKV 159

Subunit vaccines 347–348, 348–351t, 358–360

Sudan, CHIKV emergence 96–97

Surveillance system 

CHIKV 118–119

ZIKV 118–119

Swim bladder inflation 318–320t, 321

Sylvatic CHIKV, amplifications of 104–107

Sylvatic vectors 368–370

T

Taiwan, CHIKV 162–163

Tanzania, CHIKV emergence 97

Texas, ZIKV emergence 229

Thai hemorrhagic fever 143–144

Thailand, CHIKV 

dengue hemorrhagic fever 143–144

outbreaks 144–145

retrospective study 144

seroprevalence study 144–145

southern provinces 144–145

study of risk factors 145

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) 352, 371

Timor-Leste, CHIKV 149–150

Tok-kive-ana 142

Transmission cycle 367–368, 371–372

arbovirus components 17f

CHIKV 116–118

in Africa 26–33

America 37

in Asia 33–36

in Europe 37

in Indian Ocean 35–36

mosquito 

anatomy 21, 22f

consequences of infection 25

dissemination of virus 23–24

midgut infection 22–23

salivary glands 24

transmission experiments 24–25

vector characteristics 

host preference 18–19

mosquito species and intraspecies variation 17–18

vertebrate characteristics 19–20

vertebrate host 16

viral characteristics 20–21

ZIKV 116–118

in Africa 37–39

America 40–41

in Asia 39–40

emergence 41–42

Trioplex Real-time RT-PCR Assay (Trioplex rRT-PCR) 298, 307–308

Two-dose immunization scheme 351

U

Ubiquitous vector 367–368

Uganda 

CHIKV emergence 97

ZIKV emergence 102

United States 

CHIKV emergence 218–223

ZIKV emergence 225–231

US travelers, ZIKV emergence 229–231

V

Vaccines 

CHIKV 373–374

challenges 360–361

chimeric virus vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 355

inactivated virus vaccine 347–348, 348–350t

live-attenuated virus vaccine 347–348, 348f, 348–350t, 353–354

nucleic acid vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 356–357

subunit vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 358–359

viral vector vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 355

VLP vaccine 347–348, 348f, 348–350t, 358–359

whole virus formulations 351–352

ZIKV 373–374

challenges 360–361

chimeric virus vaccine 356

inactivated virus vaccine 347–348, 350–351t

live-attenuated virus vaccine 347–348, 348f, 350–351t, 354

nucleic acid vaccine 347–348, 350–351t, 357–358

subunit vaccine 347–348, 350–351t, 360

viral vector vaccine 347–348, 350–351t, 356

VLP vaccine 347–348, 348f, 350–351t

whole-virus formulations 352

Vero cells 351

Vertebrate hosts, in CHIKV 

Aethomys 115

in animals 114–115, 114f

Arvicanthis 115

in birds 115

Mastomys 115

wild vertebrates 115

Vietnam, CHIKV 

prospective study 146

retrospective study 146

serologic study 146

surveillance 146

Viral vector vaccine 347–348, 348–350t, 355

Virus-like particles (VLPs) 199, 347–348, 348f, 348–350t, 358–359

W

Wesselsbron virus 371

West Africa 

CHIKV emergence 89–92

ZIKV emergence 

in humans 100–101

serological surveys 101

Western Asia/Middle Eas, CHIKV.  See specific country

Western Hemisphere 367–369

West Nile virus (WNV) 371

WT C57BL/6 mouse model 322

X

xMAP MultiFlex Zika RNA Assay test 308

Y

Yellow Fever Commission 1–2

Yellow fever virus (YFV) 352, 367–368

Yemen, CHIKV 166

Z

Zika syndrome 368–369

Zika virus (ZIKV) 

amplification of 372

animal models 

infection 325–329, 326–329t

pathogenesis 325–329, 326–329t

replication 325–329, 326–329t

sexual transmission 333–334

antivirals 373–374

compartmental model 368

crossprotection 372–373

discovery of 325–329

emergence 7–10, 87–88

in Brazil 41, 224–225, 225f

coinfection 103–104

in Florida 228–229

prevention and control 119–120

in South America 223–225

in Texas 229

transmission cycles 41–42

in United States 225–231

US travelers 229–231

entomological surveillance 119

enzootic cycle 371–372

epidemiology 

identification 199–200

reported case 200–202

symptomatology 205–206

transmission 202–204

vaccine development 206–207

evolution 369–371

immune enhancement 372–373

infection 301–303

adults 329–333

CZS 77–79

differential diagnosis 79

febrile exanthema 74–75

Guillain-Barré syndrome 75–77

management 81

neonates 329–333

during pregnancy 335–337

prognosis 80–81

N154 glycosylation 369–370

phylogeny 116

replication of 238

reproductive rate 367–368

in Singapore 368–369

surveillance system 118–119

sylvatic vectors 368–370

transmission cycles 367–368, 371–372

vaccines 373–374

challenges 360–361

chimeric virus vaccine 356

inactivated virus vaccine 347–348, 350–351t

live-attenuated virus vaccine 347–348, 348f, 350–351t, 354

nucleic acid vaccine 347–348, 350–351t, 357–358

subunit vaccine 347–348, 350–351t, 360

viral vector vaccine 347–348, 350–351t, 356

VLP vaccine 347–348, 348f, 350–351t

whole-virus formulations 352

vector distribution 

Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus 208, 208t

arthropod vectors 207

European Region 207–208

mosquito to transmit 208

urbanization 207

vectorial capacity 369–371

viral virulence 369–371

western hemisphere 367–369

zoonotic cycle 368–369

Zoonotic arboviruses 239

Zoonotic cycle 368–369