Contents

Introduction to the Bloomsbury Revelations Edition

Preface to the First Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the Third Edition

Introduction

Introduction

1 A brief survey of the history of linguistics

2 Data and aims of linguistics: Connexions with related sciences

3 The object of study

1 On defining a language

2 Linguistic structure: Its place among the facts of language

3 Languages and their place in human affairs. Semiology

4 Linguistics of language structure and linguistics of speech

5 Internal and external elements of a language

6 Representation of a language by writing

1 Why it is necessary to study this topic

2 The prestige of writing: Reasons for its ascendancy over the spoken word

3 Systems of writing

4 Causes of inconsistency between spelling and pronunciation

5 Consequences of this inconsistency

7 Physiological phonetics

1 Definition of the subject

2 Transcription

3 Writing as evidence

Appendix Principles of Physiological Phonetics

1 Sound types

1 On defining speech sounds

2 The vocal apparatus and how it works

3 Classification of sounds by oral articulation

2 Sounds in spoken sequences

1 Necessity of studying sounds in spoken sequences

2 Adduction and abduction

3 Combinations of adduction and abduction in the spoken sequence

4 Syllabic boundaries and vocalic peaks

5 Criticism of theories of syllabification

6 Duration of adduction and abduction

7 Sounds of aperture 4. Diphthongs. Questions of spelling

   Editorial note

Part One General Principles

1 Nature of the linguistic sign

1 Sign, signification, signal

2 First principle: The sign is arbitrary

3 Second principle: Linear character of the signal

2 Invariability and variability of the sign

1 Invariability

2 Variability

3 Static linguistics and evolutionary linguistics

1 Internal duality of all sciences concerned with values

2 Internal duality and the history of linguistics

3 Examples of internal duality

4 Difference between the two orders illustrated by comparisons

5 Synchronic and diachronic linguistics: Their methods and principles contrasted

6 Synchronic laws and diachronic laws

7 Is there a panchronic point of view?

8 Consequences of the confusion of synchrony with diachrony

9 Conclusions

Part Two Synchronic Linguistics

1 General observations

2 Concrete entities of a language

1 Entities and units. Definitions

2 Methods of delimitation

3 Practical difficulties of delimitation

4 Conclusion

3 Identities, realities, values

4 Linguistic value

1 The language as thought organised in sound

2 Linguistic value: Conceptual aspects

3 Linguistic value: Material aspects

4 The sign as a whole

5 Syntagmatic relations and associative relations

1 Definitions

2 Syntagmatic relations

3 Associative relations

6 The language mechanism

1 Syntagmatic interdependences

2 Simultaneous functioning of both types of group

3 Absolute arbitrariness and relative arbitrariness

7 Grammar and its subdivisions

1 Definitions. Traditional divisions

2 Rational divisions

8 Abstract entities in grammar

Part Three Diachronic Linguistics

1 General observations

2 Sound changes

1 Their absolute regularity

2 Conditioning of sound changes

3 Methodological considerations

4 Causes of sound change

5 The scope of sound change is unpredictable

3 Grammatical consequences of phonetic evolution

1 Breaking grammatical links

2 Obliteration of word-composition

3 There are no phonetic doublets

4 Alternation

5 Laws of alternation

6 Alternation and grammatical link

4 Analogy

1 Definition and examples

2 Analogies are not changes

3 Analogy as the creative principle in languages

5 Analogy and evolution

1 How an analogical innovation enters the language

2 Analogical innovations as symptoms of changes in interpretation

3 Analogy as a principle of renovation and conservation

6 Popular etymology

7 Agglutination

1 Definition

2 Agglutination and analogy

8 Diachronic units, identities and realities

Appendices

A Subjective and objective analysis

B Subjective analysis and determination of units smaller than the word

C Etymology

Part Four Geographical Linguistics

1 On the diversity of languages

2 Geographical diversity: Its complexity

1 Coexistence of several languages in the same place

2 Literary language and local dialect

3 Causes of geographical diversity

1 Time, the essential cause

2 Linguistic areas affected by time

3 Dialects have no natural boundaries

4 Languages have no natural boundaries

4 Propagation of linguistic waves

1 Force of intercourse and parochialism

2 A single principle underlying both forces

3 Linguistic differentiation in separate areas

Part Five Questions Of Retrospective Linguistics Conclusion

1 The two perspectives of diachronic linguistics

2 Earliest languages and prototypes

3 Reconstructions

1 Their nature and purpose

2 Degree of certainty of reconstructions

4 Linguistic evidence in anthropology and prehistory

1 Languages and races

2 Ethnicity

3 Linguistic paleontology

4 Linguistic types and group mentality

5 Language families and linguistic types

Index