Abetz, Otto, 350
Able Archer, 657. See also Cold War
Adenauer, Konrad, 417, 423, 553, 647
Adorno, Theodor, 200
Aerenthal, Alois von, 61
Agadir, 62
agriculture, transformations of, 544–45. See also collectivization
Airbus, 633
Akhmatova, Anna, 431
Aldi, 541
Algeria, 31; war of independence, 489; white settlers in, 488, 489, 500. See also decolonization
Allied and associated powers, 97, 135
Allied Control Council (ACC), 407, 409, 457, 463. See also Germany: division of
Alsace-Lorraine, 60, 66, 78, 88, 137, 146, 349, 408
American Forces Network, 554
Americanization, 197, 543, 556, 722; as a form of modernization, 557; McDonaldization, 745–46. See also anti-Americanism
Amin, Idi, 494
Anderson, Perry, 590
Angola, 29, 490, 496, 640. See also decolonization
Antall, József, 683
anti-Americanism, 556–557, 752, 759–60. See also Americanization
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936), 298
anticommunism, 104, 138, 347, 422, 462
antinuclear movements, 588, 604–5, 656
anti-Semitism, 201, 269, 343, 599; in Nazi ideology, 270, 283, 346–347; racial, 201, 346. See also Holocaust
Anzio, 381
Apel, Erich, 567
appeasement, 289, 304–5, 306–7. See also Munich Conference
April Theses, 103. See also Lenin: theories of
Arajs, Victors, 774
Ardennes Offensive, 323–24. See also World War II: western front in
Arendt, Hannah, 428
arts: abstraction in, 190, 549–50; currents in, 179–80, 185–86, 189; futurism, 156, 189; as reaction to war, 98–100; transnationalism of, 51
Ashton, Catherine, 762
Asia: culture gap with, 765; manufacturing in, 621; relations with Europe, 764–65; “tiger states” of, 498, 621
Atlantic Charter (1941), 371. See also self-determination
Attlee, Clement, 408, 413, 463, 564
austerity policy, 224, 228–29, 267, 412, 529, 626, 723, 767, 787
Austria, 137, 142–43, 210, 299–300, 408, 409, 418, 742; Anschluss of, 300–303; fascism in, 300–301; neutrality of, 418, 473, 526
Aznavour, Charles, 546
Babel, Isaac, 252
Babi Yar, 342
Bagration Offensive (1944), 386. See also World War II: eastern front
Bahr, Egon, 652
Balcerowicz, Leszek, 718
Baldwyn, Stanley, 289
Balfour Declaration (1917), 89, 139
Balkan Wars: of 1912–13, 62–63; of 1990s, 714–17. See also Yugoslavia
Baltic States, 309, 333, 429, 527, 703, 769–70; independence of, 122, 138, 667, 684. See also Eastern Europe
Baruch Plan (1946), 643
Basic Treaty (1972), 653. See also Ostpolitik; East Germany; West Germany
Baudouin I, King, 481
Bauer, Otto, 300
Bauhaus, 197–98, 550, 607. See also modernism: architecture in
Beatles, the, 555
Beck, Ulrich, 612
Beckmann, Max, 198
Beer Hall Putsch (1923), 170, 270. See also Hitler
Belgium, 323, 413, 510; independence of, 88–89; neutrality of, 67, 77
Bell, Daniel, 636
Bergman, Ingmar, 554
Berlin: access to, 652–53; Battle for (1945), 391–92; blockade of (1948–49), 453, 465–66; crisis in (1958), 473–74, 645; uprising in (1953), 442, 473. See also Cold War; East Germany; West Germany
Berlin Wall: building of, 474–75; fall of, 667, 677–79
Berlusconi, Silvio, 635, 722, 742
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von, 66, 68, 96
Bevan, Aneurin, 564
Beveridge Report (1942), 412, 564, 580. See also Great Britain: welfare state in
Bhagwati, Jagdish, 723
Biennale exhibition, 535
Biermann, Wolfgang, 672
Bismarck, Otto von, 10, 26, 56, 60, 578
black market, 404
“blank check,” 65. See also July Crisis
Blitzkrieg, 315–17, 322–23; advantages of, 315–16, 339. See also World War II: strategy in
Bohr, Niels, 197
Bologna Process (1999), 525, 727
Bolsheviks, 103–5, 108–9, 112, 116, 778; “old Bolsheviks,” 115, 237, 251–52; seizure of power by, 117–22. See also Russian Revolution
Bolshevism, 120–21, 124–25, 239; appeal of, 113–14, 121–22; cultural, 205; terror under, 122–23; and “war communism,” 123, 242
Bór-Komorowski, Tadeusz, 386
Borders of 1937, 408, 410, 650. See also Germany; Ostpolitik; Poland
Boulez, Pierre, 550
Bradley, Omar, 383
Brandt, Willy, 278, 474, 569, 580, 597, 651–52, 660
Braque, Georges, 190
Braun, Werner von, 389
Brecht, Bertolt, 198–99, 204, 253, 279, 436
Bresson, Robert, 554
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918), 121–22, 124, 137–38, 244
Bretton Woods, 407, 419, 519, 616
Brezhnev, Leonid, 258, 448, 600–601, 640, 656, 659, 674
Brezhnev Doctrine, 601–2, 662; repeal of, 674–75. See also Eastern Europe: Soviet domination of; Prague Spring
Briand, Aristide, 147, 150, 510
Briand-Kellogg Pact (1928), 291
Britain, Battle of (1940), 326–28
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 194, 365, 380, 634
British Commonwealth, 484, 486, 489–90
Britten, Benjamin, 551
Brown, George, 568
Brüning, Heinrich, 224, 229, 267, 278
Bulganin, Nikolai, 489
Bulgaria, 83, 137, 349, 527, 667, 684, 687, 696. See also Eastern Europe
Bulge, Battle of the (1944–45), 390
Bundeswehr, 468, 647. See also West Germany
Bush, George W., 737, 740, 748
Cadorna, Luigi, 79
Cameron, David, 766
“Cape to Cairo,” 30, 60. See also imperialism
capitalism, 183, 669; anticapitalism, 742; crisis of, 233; critics of, 200, 227–28, 707–8. See also Marxism; Keynesianism; neoliberalism
Carrefour, 541
Castro, Fidel, 475
Catholic Church, 158; and communism, 442, 674; and fascist Italy, 172; and modernity, 159–60, 201, 552
Caucasus Offensive, 333. See also World War II: eastern front
Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 641, 649, 675, 684
Céline, Louis-Ferdinand, 99, 180, 234, 350
Center Party (Germany), 266, 277, 417
Cézanne, Paul, 186
Chamberlain, Austen, 150
Chamberlain, Joseph, 20
Chamberlain, Neville, 289, 304–6, 322
Checkpoint Charlie, 475. See also Berlin
Chernenko, Konstantin, 656, 659
Childers, Erskine, 57
China, 335, 408; civil war in, 447–48, 459–60; and trade with Europe, 764–65
Chirac, Jacques, 738
Choltitz, Dietrich von, 383
Christian Democracy, 415
Churchill, Winston, 20, 27, 177, 218, 234, 289, 306, 322, 326, 329, 374, 400, 407, 408, 422, 464, 510, 645
Cieszyn. See Teschen
citizens’ initiatives, 603
civil society, 588–89; and social movements, 602–3; suppression of, 438
Clay, Lucius D., 416, 453, 463, 465
Clemenceau, Georges, 88, 94, 135, 139, 147
collectivization of agriculture, 234, 246–48, 250, 255, 258, 394, 442, 447, 539, 547
Cold War, 428, 455–59, 783; and arms race, 469, 643–45, 657; cultural competition in, 446, 470, 534, 555–56; debates about, 454, 458–59, 641; and decolonization, 487; economic rivalry in, 448–49, 470–71; end of, 642, 658–59, 662, 663–65, 686; ideological confrontation in, 469, 471, 691–92; mentality of, 454, 472, 644; military confrontation in, 464–65, 467–68, 473–76, 655–56; nonaligned nations in, 471–72; and nuclear warfare, 456, 645–46; peaceful coexistence in, 446, 473, 478–79; role of Europe in, 641, 645, 646–50, 657–58, 660–61; second, 640, 654–58, 663–64; space race in, 446; in third world, 654–55
colonialism, 22; settler colonization, 345, 355. See also imperialism; decolonization
Comecon, 419, 440, 447, 526, 620, 702
Comintern, 124, 143, 176, 298, 308, 312
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 508, 517, 731
Common Market, 507, 513–18; compromises in, 514; institutions of, 516
Commonwealth of Independent States, 684
communism, 104; antifascism of, 432; appeal of, 124, 143, 195, 233–34, 436–37; arts under, 205; consumer communism, 445–49; debates about, 253–54, 428; disillusionment with, 601–2, 671–73; erosion of, 669–73; failures of, 450–51, 670, 671
Communist Party of Germany (KPD), 267, 466
Compiègne, 134, 315. See also World War I: armistice; France: surrender of
concentration camps, 283, 354–55, 357–59; experiences in, 360; extermination camps, 359–60; labor in, 357; medical experimentation in, 361. See also Holocaust
“Concerted Action,” 569. See also Keynesianism
Concordat: with fascist Italy, 172; with the Third Reich, 278
Congo, 28, 29, 41, 481, 485, 492, 500. See also decolonization; imperialism
Congress of Cultural Freedom, 470
Conrad, Joseph, 21
containment policy, 458, 461. See also Cold War
Coppi, Fausto, 195
Council of Economic Advisers, 569, 627
Court of Human Rights, 510
Croatia, 329, 349, 409, 700, 704, 713, 714–16, 762–63, 769. See also Eastern Europe; Yugoslavia
Cromme, Gerhard, 623
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), 475–76, 645, 663. See also Cold War
cult of personality: duce, 170–71, 179; Führer, 286; vozhd, 236–37, 254–56
cultural modernity, 534; advance of, 535–36; opposition against, 534, 548; reasons for success of, 548–49
cybernetics, 561
Czechoslovakia, 303, 705; communism in, 427, 434, 599–600, 683; creation of, 135, 138;
Czechoslovakia (continued) democracy in, 141; minorities in, 303–4; partition of, 303–6; reform of, 600; separation of, 687, 701
Czech Republic, 527, 687, 701, 704
Dada, 182
Dalí, Salvador, 198
D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 162, 164
Danzig. See Gdańsk
Dawes Plan (1924), 150, 218, 266
Dayton Accords (1995), 715–16. See also Yugoslavia: break up of
Debussy, Claude, 186
decartelization, 416, 463. See also Potsdam Conference
decolonization, 782–83; in Africa, 488–90; causes of, 482, 483–87, 490–91; challenges of independence, 491–95; debates about, 481–82; patterns of, 489–90; results of, 482, 494–99, 504–5; successes of, 493, 498; white exodus, 500
de Gasperi, Alcide, 418, 423, 751
de Gaulle, Charles, 315, 325, 350, 413, 423, 489, 517, 518–19, 596, 626, 647, 650, 782
deindustrialization, 620–23, 637, 722; consequences of, 622–23, 636; struggle against, 624
Delors, Jacques, 522
demilitarization, after World War II, 416, 463
democracy, 162, 165–66, 206, 228, 459, 471, 740; cyber-democracy, 743–44; democracy deficit, 531, 741; failures of, 142–44, 154, 267; grassroots, 602–3, 740–41, 742; and human rights, 786–87; new democracies, 140–41, 152–153; people’s democracy, 433–47, 471; reform of, 411, 424–25, 531, 743–44; restoration of, 401, 411–15, 423, 425
democratization, 109, 125–26, 130; in Eastern Europe, 697–701
denazification, 416, 463; Soviet style of, 432, 435, 451
Derrida, Jacques, 607, 748, 769
d’Estaing, Giscard, 519, 521, 626
de-Stalinization, 257–58, 441–45. See also Khrushchev; Secret Speech
détente, 640–41, 653, 654, 655, 658–62, 670. See also Cold War
developmental dictatorships: communist, 493; right-wing, 493–94. See also decolonization
dictatorship of the proletariat, 126, 143, 239, 257, 260, 312, 459; in Eastern Europe, 437, 471. See also democracy: people’s democracy
Dien Bien Phu, 488
Dietrich, Marlene, 187
Dimitrov, Georgi, 436
disarmament: after the world wars, 138, 292; nuclear, 476, 604, 646, 661–62
Döblin, Alfred, 191
Dual Alliance, 58, 60, 68, 77. See also World War I: alliances in
Dual Monarchy, 33, 87. See also Habsburg Empire
Dulles, John Foster, 138, 473, 511, 643
Duma, 108, 109. See also Russian Empire
Dunkirk, 324
Durkheim, Emile, 4
Dzerzhinsky, Felix, 123
East Germany (GDR), 432, 435–36, 466–67, 676; civil society in, 438; de facto recognition of, 652; demonstrations in, 678–79; election in, 680–81; exodus from, 674, 676–77; June 17 (1953) revolt in, 442; rearmament of, 467–68; Socialist Unity Party (SED) of, 435, 466–67, 676, 678, 681; unification with FRG, 680–81, 688, 702, 719. See also Eastern Europe; West Germany
Eastern Europe, 152, 430, 471, 692–93, 696, 699–701; collapse of communism in, 667–78, 673–674, 682; communist repression in, 432–33, 437–38; consumerism in, 445–49, 543; culture in, 439, 555–56, 709; dissent in, 441–42, 672, 709; economy in, 436, 440, 445, 446–47, 450, 539, 619–20, 623–24, 671, 701–5; in the EU, 527; liberation of, 433–34; nationalism in, 88, 687–88; postcommunist parties in, 698–99; protest in, 588, 598–602; society in, 547, 605–6, 705–9; Soviet domination of, 427–48, 429–30, 432, 436–37, 449–50; standard of living in, 445, 446–47, 706–7
education, 574–75, 577–58, 727; early childhood, 576; in Eastern Europe, 575; higher, 576–77; and overcrowding, 592–93; polytechnic training, 575; reform of, 525, 575–76; secondary, 576
Egypt, 30, 61, 328, 375, 471, 484, 488–89, 494, 658
Ehmke, Horst, 569
Ehrenburg, Ilya, 443
Einstein, Albert, 52, 197, 279, 642
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 380, 383, 391, 392, 410–11, 428, 473, 489, 643
El Alamein, Battle of (1942), 375
Elysée Treaty (1963), 519, 530, 647
“empire by invitation,” 420, 457, 478, 557, 648, 692. See also Americanization; Cold War
Enabling Act (1933), 277
energy sources: coal and steel crisis, 621; nuclear, 507, 514, 588, 729, 786; oil, 614, 616–17; renewable, 732
English Channel: blockade of, 83. See also naval warfare
Enigma, 379
Entente, 49, 60–61, 77, 79, 86, 88, 91–92. See also World War I: alliances in
environment, 731–32, 786; climate change, 729–30; degradation of, 497–98, 728–29; environmental movements, 605, 730
equalization of burdens law, 539. See also welfare state: German model of
Erasmus Program, 525, 529, 768
Erdogan, Recep Tayyip, 763
Erhard, Ludwig, 416, 514, 536–37, 567, 569, 580
espionage: in Cold War, 469–70; U-2 planes, 470, 475; in World War II, 379
Ethiopia, 161, 175, 296, 484, 640
ethnic cleansing: in Bosnia, 715; in World War II, 345–46, 352–56, 462–63
Europe, 6–13, 16, 764, 787–88; criticism of, 7, 482, 748–49, 754; defense of, 557–58, 749; destruction of, 395, 400, 402–3; differences from the U.S., 754–57, 760; division of, 410, 453, 464, 476, 783; hegemony of, 11, 42–45, 215, 482; identity of, 509–10, 529, 757, 768–69; impact of imperialism, 38, 44–45, 499–503; narratives of, 774, 780–84; reconstruction of, 220–21, 401–2, 536, 562; recovery of, 783–84; reuniting of, 526, 687; role of, 748, 762–66; self-destruction of, 781, 782; soft power of, 760–61
“Europe of the fatherlands,” 518, 647
European Central Bank (ECB), 524, 529, 725, 767; deficit criteria of, 524; euro, 524–25, 767
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 511–12
European Community (EC), 519–21
European Defense Community (EDC), 422, 468, 507, 512–14
European Economic Community (EEC), 507, 516, 567
European integration, 422, 507; antecedents of, 509; crises of, 512–13, 521, 528; debates about, 507–8, 526, 532; Euroskepticism, 508, 766, 787; functionalist approach to, 513; successes of, 516–17, 529, 530
European Monetary System (EMS), 519, 524, 784
European Parliament, 516, 521–23, 527–28, 741, 767
European Union (EU), 522–24, 771, 784; attraction of, 699, 762; constitution of, 527–28; enlargement of, 526–27, 687, 763; environmental protection in, 730–31; exit from, 766; foreign policy of, 762, 767–68; further integration of, 526–29, 766; as postmodern polity, 770–72; science programs of, 525, 727; successes of, 768–70
Evian Accords (1962), 489
Falaise, 383
Falkland Islands, Battle of (1914), 84
Fallada, Hans, 226
fascism, 162, 165, 172–73, 176–77, 178, 180, 195, 234; and gender, 164–65; ideology of, 156–57, 164–65, 170, 178–79; opposition to, 177–78; origins of, 156; as a transnational movement, 169–70, 176–77, 180
fascism (in Italy), 156, 157, 163–65; life under, 170–74; opposition to, 168–69; Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF), 166–68; seizure of power, 166–70; terror under, 168–69, 173–74. See also Mussolini, Benito
Fashoda Crisis (1898), 41, 60–61
Ferguson, Niall, 20
Finland, 309, 320, 349, 409; independence of, 122, 138; neutrality of, 414, 526
firestorm bombing, 371, 378–379
Fischer, Joschka, 508, 605, 772
Fiume, 162
five-year-plan, 225, 234, 236, 238, 248–50, 439. See also Soviet Union: industrialization of
Foch, Ferdinand, 133, 135, 310, 315
folkhemmet, 231, 563. See also Sweden
Ford, Gerald, 640
Fordism, 197, 221, 367, 376, 538, 616, 620, 636–37; post-Fordism, 637, 745
forest dieback, 603. See also environment
Fortuyn, Pim, 742
Fourteen Points, 129
France, 91, 413; Battle for (1940), 324–25; economy in, 230, 626; Fifth Republic, 489, 626; foreign policy of, 88–89, 147, 457, 518, 647; and Germany, 88–89, 519, 530, 647, 757; liberation of, 383, 411–12; social security in, 580; student protests in, 596; surrender of, 315, 325; Third Republic, 31, 88, 146, 350; in World War I, 66–67
Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, assassination of, 47–48, 63, 65
Francis Joseph, Emperor, 87
Franco, Francisco, 158, 175, 298–99, 335, 414, 520
Frank, Hans, 270
Frankfurt School, 199–200, 591
Free German Youth (FDJ), 438
Free French, 325, 350–51, 365, 413, 647
Friedrich, Carl, 428
Front Populaire, 230, 289, 578
Fukushima, 732
Fukuyama, Francis, 690
Funk, Walter, 279
Gallipoli, Battle of (1915–16), 83–84, 483
Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 159
Gdańsk (Danzig), 137, 307, 674
Gehring, Frank, 607
Generational Revolt of 1968, 588–90, 597; American influences on, 591–92; antiauthoritarianism of, 592; causes of, 588–94; impact of, 589–90, 597–98; nonviolent protest in, 594–95; and sexuality, 593; and “value change,” 611
genocide, 5, 343–44, 356, 362, 367; and decolonization, 496; and wars in Yugoslavia, 715, 717. See also Holocaust
German Empire, 31–32; defeat of, 133; economy in, 56; imperialism of, 56–57, 62; politics in, 91
German Fatherland Party, 94
German Labor Front (DAF), 281, 364–65
Germany: citizenship of, 736; division of, 407–8, 409, 457–58, 463, 466; occupation of, 415–16, 433–34, 463–64; reconstruction of, 415–16, 463–64; relations with Poland, 295, 652, 757; reunification of, 680–81, 688–89, 719; role in Europe of, 689, 772
Ghana, 471, 490, 493, 496, 498
ghettos, 347, 352, 357, 360, 362
Gide, André, 187
Giolitti, Giovanni, 161, 162, 166
glasnost, 660. See also Gorbachev
globalization, 722, 746; adaptation to, 725–27, 745; alternative, 741–42; benefits from, 745–46; and communication, 633, 722, 725, 745; debates about, 722–24; economic, 215, 622, 724–25; results of, 727–28
Gobineau, Arthur de, 201
Godesberg Program (1959), 537. See also SPD
Goebbels, Joseph, 263, 271, 280, 375–76, 379, 388, 390; “Total War” speech of, 375–76
Goerdeler, Carl, 280
gold standard, 211, 215, 218, 224, 293; abandonment of, 229–30
Gollwitzer, Heinz, 656
Gomułka, Władysław, 444, 599, 600
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 258, 674, 677, 680, 681, 682, 685, 686; reforms of, 659–60, 672–73, 674; turn towards détente, 660, 661, 664, 676
Göring, Hermann, 270, 271, 277, 298, 302, 309, 324, 328, 348, 373, 392
Gottwald, Klement, 427, 438, 464
Gramsci, Antonio, 174, 197, 590
Grand Alliance, 371–72, 455; erosion of, 400–401; formation of, 336–37
Grass, Günter, 669
Great Britain, 30–31; domestic politics in, 91, 144–45, 322, 412, 520, 615, 625; economy in, 56, 229–30, 568; and the EU, 519, 766; foreign policy of, 306, 457; and Germany, 62, 89; imperialism of, 20, 457; labor strikes in, 227; naval blockade of, 83, 85, 95, 327, 377; welfare state in, 412–13, 564, 580–81, 630
Great Depression, 210; and agricultural crisis, 220, 267; causes of, 222–24; effects of, 232–33; experience of, 224–27, 232–33; impact of, 151, 211–12, 785; solutions to, 210–11, 228–32, 293; unemployment during, 225; in Weimar Republic, 266–67
Great Purges, 237, 250–54, 330, 394
Greece, 85, 329, 520, 767; civil war in, 460
Green Parties, 605
Grimm, Hans, 24
Gropius, Walter, 198, 535, 550, 571
Grosz, Karoly, 675
Grundig, Max, 538
Guderian, Heinz, 316, 324, 325, 387
“guest workers,” 733. See also immigration
gulag, 237, 253, 259. See also Bolshevism: terror under
Haber, Fritz, 92
Habermas, Jürgen, 509, 532, 589, 609, 748, 769
Habsburg Empire, 33, 61, 87; demise of, 137
Hacha, Emil, 306
Haggard, H. Rider, 20
Haig, Douglas, 83
Halbstarke, 534. See also generational revolt
Halle-Neustadt, 572
Hammarskjöld, Dag, 481
Hašek, Jiři, 191
Havel, Václav, 600, 672, 683, 700–701, 709
Havemann, Robert, 672
Hayek, Friedrich von, 565, 615
Heidegger, Martin, 202, 234, 266, 364, 549
Heisenberg, Werner, 197
Helsinki Declaration (1975), 640, 653–54, 670
Henlein, Konrad, 304
Hesse, Hermann, 199
Heydrich, Reinhard, 357
high-tech economy: enthusiasm for, 632–33; opportunities of, 635–36
Himmler, Heinrich, 319, 345, 346, 348, 359, 392
Hindenburg, Paul von, 78, 93, 133, 262, 267, 271, 278
Hindenburg Program, 93
Hirschfeld, Magnus, 266
Hitler, Adolf, 48, 262, 268–70; attitude toward the U.S., 336; crimes of, 278–79; downfall of, 391–92; fascination with technology of, 285–86; foreign policy of, 294–96, 298–99, 345; ideology of, 270, 288, 345; international opposition to, 295, 296–97, 299, 301, 304, 306; personality of, 271–72; popularity of, 344; rise to power of, 262, 268, 271, 276–77, 278
Hitler Youth, 280–82, 296, 391
Hoare, Samuel, 296
Hobson, John, 21
Holocaust, 342–44, 359; collaborators in, 362–63; debates about, 342–43, 365–67; Judeocide in, 342, 346–47, 352, 356–62; resistance to, 361–62. See also anti-Semitism; World War II
holodomor, 237, 247. See also collectivization
Honecker, Erich, 435, 641, 658, 660, 669, 673, 675, 678–79
Horthy, Miklós, 143
Hoßbach Memorandum (1937), 288
Hötzendorff, Conrad von, 65, 68, 78
Hoyos, Alexander von, 65
Hungary: and Austria-Hungary, 137; border opening in (1989), 676; communism in, 142, 435; democratization in, 675, 683, 705; fascism in, 349; uprising of (1956), 444, 473
hunger plan, 354. See also World War II: POWs in
Hürtgen Forest, Battle of, 383
hyperinflation (1923): causes of, 216; effects of, 217; experience of, 216–17; solutions to, 218–19
IKEA, 542
immigration, 732–34; attitudes toward, 501, 732–33, 735; EU restrictions on, 734, 735–36; non-European, 500–501; and social integration, 734–35
imperialism, 21, 23–26, 38–40; “blowback” of, 499–503; and Christianization, 36–37; bureaucracy and, 37, 39; civilizing mission of, 25, 28–29, 31, 36; criticism of, 20–21, 41; culture of, 36, 38–42; definitions of, 22–23; economy of, 24, 27–28, 35–36, 50; and exploitation, 27–28, 34–35; impact of, 22, 34, 37–38, 44; landed empires, 32–34; neoimperialism, 492; overseas empires, 30–32, 484; patterns of, 26–30; and rivalry, 25–26, 56, 60–62; society under, 28, 35, 40–41
India, 27, 30, 457, 471–72, 485–86, 497–98, 764
industrialization, 7–8; nationalization of industry, 413, 425, 439, 466, 474, 477, 539, 547, 565, 621, 626; smokestack, 447, 539; Soviet, 236, 245–50; of warfare, 92
influenza pandemic (1918), 213–14
intergovernmentalism, 525. See also EU
International Building Exhibition (IBA), 535, 571
International Monetary Fund, 407, 493, 702
international order, 10–11, 47–48, 130; alliances, 58, 60, 70; crises of, 49, 59–64, 290; democratic conception of, 311–12; the Hague convention, 52, 70; post-1945 reconstruction, 419–23; sources of hostility, 53–59, 150–51, 311; ties of peace, 49–53
Iron Curtain speech (1946), 464
Italy, 159–60, 162–63, 166–69, 417–18, 425, 464, 635; backwardness of, 158–62; democracy in, 159–60, 166; and Germany, 174–75, 176; imperial ambitions of, 161, 174–75, 296; protests in, 596; in World War I, 68–69, 79, 87, 161–62; in World War II, 328
Izetbegović, Bakir, 715
Izvolsky, Alexander, 61
Japan, 67, 498; invasion of Manchuria, 293; surrender of, 408; war with China, 335; in World War II, 336–38, 349, 408
Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 674, 682
Jewish councils, 357. See also Holocaust
Joffre, Joseph, 77
John Paul II, Pope, 674
Joyce, James, 191
Jutland, Battle of (1916), 85
Kamenev, Lev, 115, 119, 244, 245, 251
Kandinsky, Wassily, 190
Kautsky, Karl, 53
Keitel, Wilhelm, 279, 315, 392
Kekkonen, Urho, 640
Kelsen, Hans, 228
Kemal, Mustafa, 32
Kenyatta, Jomo, 495
Kerensky, Alexander, 114, 115–16, 119–20
Kesselring, Albert, 381
Keynes, John Maynard, 139, 211, 212, 228–29, 785
Keynesianism, 210–11, 615, 616, 626, 637; neo-Keynesianism, 562, 569
Khmer Rouge, 496
Khrushchev, Nikita, 257, 441, 442–43, 446, 473–75, 646; overthrow of, 448
Kierkegaard, Søren, 549
Kipling, Rudyard, 25
Kirov, Sergei, 251
kitchen debate (1959), 446. See also Cold War
Kitchener, Herbert, 27, 41, 60
Klee, Paul, 198
Klemperer, Victor, 262, 283, 437
Klima, Ivan, 600
Klimt, Gustav, 186
Kluck, Alexander von, 77
Kocka, Jürgen, 5
Kohl, Helmut, 619, 627, 631, 660, 667, 680–81, 743
Kolchak, Aleksandr, 123
Kollwitz, Käthe, 198
Kombinate, 539. See also East Germany
Kopelev, Lev, 434
Korean War, 467–68; impact of, 422, 512, 649
Kornilov, Lavr, 119
Krenz, Egon, 679
Kristallnacht, 347. See also Holocaust
Krupp Company, 351, 621, 622–23
Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 685
kulaks, 237, 246, 247, 252; dekulakization, 247, 259. See also collectivization
Kultur, 91, 131. See also Germany
Kun, Béla, 143
Kundera, Milan, 600
Kursk, Battle of (1943), 384–85
Kyoto Protocol (1997), 731
labor: and codetermination, 562, 569; and communism, 52–53; competitiveness of, 726–27; labor unions, 93, 579; strikes of, 227, 596
Labour Party, 145, 412; antifascism of, 289
Lang, Fritz, 191
Lasky, Melvyn, 470
Lausanne: Treaty of (1923), 137; Conference (1932), 151, 229
Lawrence, D. H., 187
Lawrence, T. E., 92
Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 501
League of Nations, 131, 148–49, 153–54, 290; accomplishments of, 149, 152, 154, 291; collective security of, 291; failures of, 149, 154, 292–94; mandates of, 484; and minorities, 153; plebiscites of, 137, 149, 307; structures of, 149, 290
Lebensborn program, 286
Lega Nord, 501
Lemkin, Raphael, 343
Lend-Lease program, 331, 336, 385, 394
Lenin, Vladimir, 53, 103, 117–18, 240–41; cult of, 241; legacy of, 238–42; personality of, 238; seizure of power by, 119; theories of, 103, 117–18, 124, 126–27, 143, 238–40
Lettow-Vorbeck, Paul von, 84, 483
Levi, Primo, 361
Ley, Robert, 281
Liddell Hart, Basil H., 315
Liebknecht, Karl, 94, 142, 265
Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963), 476, 646
Limits to Growth (1972), 606
Lippmann, Walter, 458
Lisbon: Strategy (2000), 727, 746; Treaty of (2007), 528, 766, 767, 784
“Living Space,” 270, 273, 288, 294, 345, 782
Livingstone, David, 23
Lloyd, Selwyn, 568
Lloyd George, David, 62, 94, 135, 139, 144, 146
Locarno Treaties (1925), 150–51, 266, 510
Lollobrigida, Gina, 546
Lomé Convention (1975), 764
London: attacks on (2005), 739; London Agreement (1914), 89; Treaty of (1915), 86–87, 162
Ludendorff, Erich, 58, 75, 78, 133, 270
Lumumba, Patrice, 481
Lusitania, sinking of (1915), 84, 95
lustration, 711. See also postcommunist transition
Luxemburg, Rosa, 53, 94, 142, 265
Lyotard, Jean-Francois, 608
Maastricht Treaty (1992), 523–24, 784
MacArthur, Douglas, 380
Macmillan, Harold, 519, 568, 581
Madrid, attacks on (2004), 738–39
Malenkov, Georgy, 441
Malta Summit (1989), 686
Manchester Petition (1932), 227
Mandela, Nelson, 490
Manhattan Project, 642
Mann, Thomas, vii, 92, 199, 263, 279
Manstein, Erich von, 320, 373, 374
Mao Zedong, 408, 447–48, 459, 649; Maoism, 590, 597–98, 602, 649
“March on Rome” (1922), 167
Marchand, Jean-Baptiste, 41, 60
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 156, 164
Maritain, Jacques, 534
Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program), 421, 425, 457, 461–62, 471, 537, 565, 776
Marxism, 53, 103, 113; and anti-imperialism of, 487; Marxism-Leninism, 103–4, 439; in Russia, 107–8
Masaryk, Jan, 427
mass consumption, 535; effects of, 544; origins of, 222, 540; spread of, 541–42; and technology, 540–41
mass media: in Eastern Europe, 710–11; enemy stereotyping in, 57, 96, 97–98, 100; press, 192–93, 552–53; and propaganda, 91, 194; radio, 194, 553; record player, 193; television, 554, 634–35
Masur, Kurt, 678
Masurian Lakes, Battle of (1914), 78
Max of Baden, Prince, 133
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 682
Mazzini, Giuseppe, 159
Médecins Sans Frontières, 502, 764
Mein Kampf, 270, 295. See also Hitler
Mengele, Josef, 361
Mensheviks, 108–9, 112, 115–16, 118, 120–21, 126, 243
Merckx, Eddy, 546
Messina Conference (1955), 514
militarism, 58
Miller, Oskar von, 182
Milošević, Slobodan, 713–14, 715–16
Miłosz, Czesław, 436
Mindszenty, Jozsef, 442
Mittal, Lakshmi, 695
Mitterrand, François, 520, 523, 619, 625–26, 657, 660
Mobuto, Joseph, 481
modernism, 183–84, 204–5; and antimodernism, 200–204, 263; in architecture, 197–98, 535, 550, 560, 571–72, 607; fascist, 179–80; in film, 191; in literature, 186–87, 190–91, 199; in music, 186, 190, 535, 550–51; “New Objectivity,” 196, 199; in painting, 185–86, 198, 535, 549; origins of, 184–85; in theater, 198–99
modernity, 2–4, 14–16, 610–12, 780; achievements of, 204; alternate versions of, 5, 126, 131, 157–58, 180, 233–34, 371–72, 476–77, 690–93; antimodern form of 184, 284–86, 366–67; classical, 196–200, 561; and the Cold War, 455, 479; crisis of, 211–12, 233–34; critique of, 200–204, 606; and decolonization, 482–83, 505; democratic model of, 130, 266, 394–95, 477–78; destructiveness of, 365–66, 478, 779–80; end of, 610; European version of, 508–9, 530, 749–50, 754–58, 787–88; global phase of, 638, 744–45; Nazi model of, 263–64, 284–86, 367, 393–94, 779; optimism about, 539–40, 547–48; plurality of, 753–54, 778; and progress, 2–3, 184–85, 777–78; and science, 182, 196–97; Soviet model of, 125, 394, 450–51, 477, 669, 692, 717–18, 779; warfare in, 75–76, 82, 90–91, 316–17, 338–40, 343–44
modernization, 4–5, 13, 535; conservative form of, 401–2; debates about, 182–83; democratic, 423–24; fascist model of, 171–72, 179–80; postcolonial, 503–4; Soviet model of, 103–4, 126, 237–38, 245–46, 258–60, 449; spread of, 778
Modrow, Hans, 680
Molotov, Vyacheslav, 256, 309, 431
Moltke, Helmut von, 66, 68, 78
Monnet, Jean, 423, 510–13, 564
Monte Cassino, Battle of (1944), 381
Montgomery, Bernard, 328, 375, 380, 382–83, 391
Morgenthau Plan, 405
Moroccan Crisis: of 1905–6, 61; of 1911, 62
Mozambique, 490
Mueller, Irmgard, 774
Munich: conference in (1938), 289, 304–7; “Munich Analogy,” 306–7; Olympic Games massacre in (1972), 736
Murdoch, Rupert, 546
Musil, Robert, 199
Mussolini, Benito, 79, 163; beliefs of, 163–64, 171–72, 178–79; foreign policy of, 174–76; personality of, 163, 165–66, 170–71; seizure of power by, 166–70
Myrdal, Alva, 663
Nanterre, 596
nation-state, 9–10; survival of, 419–20, 518, 744, 770–71
National Front (France), 500, 501
national fronts, 435, 436–37. See also Eastern Europe
National Health Service (NHS), 413, 564, 581, 630, 755
national liberation movements, 484–85, 487–91, 504
National People’s Army (NVA), 467
National People’s Party of Germany (DNVP), 266, 271, 276, 277
National Socialism: anticommunism of, 264, 270, 272, 276–77, 347; antimodernism of, 263; appeal of, 264, 272–74, 275–76, 280–81, 393; debates about, 263, 284; ideology of, 158, 262–64, 272–74, 282, 284–86; women under, 282. See also Hitler
nationalism, 55, 59, 156, 687–88
NATO, 421–22, 468, 469, 518, 647, 686, 687, 751; dual-track decision, 604, 640, 655
naval warfare, 57, 326–27; convoys in, 377; naval blockade, 83, 85, 95, 327, 377
Nazi Euthanasia Program, 356–57
Nazi Party (NSDAP), 262, 348; auxiliaries of, 281–83; failures of, 393–94; followers of, 274–75, 363–64; popularity of, 279, 280–81, 283–84; propaganda of, 280–81, 284, 375–76, 378; rise of, 271, 276–80; terror under, 277–79, 283, 302–3, 393
Nazi People’s Welfare (NSV), 282–83
Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939), 308–9, 320, 347, 432; secret annex to, 309
Negri, Antonio, 723
Németh, Miklós, 675
neoconservatism, 203
neoliberalism, 615, 624, 628; and welfare state, 628
Netherlands, 323, 383, 486, 691, 742
Neuilly, Treaty of (1919), 137,
New Economic Policy (NEP), 124, 236, 240
New Forum, 678
New York stock-market crash, 151, 210, 223
Nicholas II, Tsar, 66, 68, 110, 112
Nicolson, Harold, 130
Niemeyer, Oscar, 535, 550, 571
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 164, 202
9/11 attacks (2001), 737
Nivelle, Robert, 83
“No Annexations, No Indemnities,” 94, 121, 133
Nokia, 634
Non-Aggression Pact (1934), 295, 308
Non-Aggression Treaty (1970), 652
Nono, Luigi, 551
Nordhoff, Heinz, 538
Nordic Council, 414
Norman, Montagu, 211
Normandy Landing (1944), 382–83; D-Day, 371, 382, 384
Norway, 320, 412, 519; occupation of, 321
November Revolution (1918), 141–42, 265, 272–273
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), 476, 646, 647
nuclear weapons, 469, 642, 662–63; creation of, 642–45; ICBM, 469, 642, 644; intermediate-range missiles, 475, 604, 640, 655, 661; proliferation of, 643–44
Nuremberg Laws (1935), 302–3, 347
Oder-Neisse Line, 409, 652, 681
Offe, Claus, 606
Ohnesorg, Benno, 595
Oil Price Shock: causes of, 616, 618–19; effects of, 617–18, 619; of 1973, 614; of 1979, 618–19; responses to, 617
Omdurman, Battle of (1898), 27
Operation Barbarossa (1941), 330–31
Operation Market-Garden, 383
Operation White (1939), 308
Ortega y Gasset, José, 202
Orthodox Church, 105
Ossietzky, Carl von, 206
Otto, Werner, 538
Ottoman Empire, 32, 63, 67–68, 79, 83, 137
pacifism, 52–53, 604–5, 656, 755–56, 784–85
Paderewski, Ignace, 135
Palach, Jan, 601
Pan-Africanism, 504
Pan-Europa Movement (1923), 510
Paris: liberation of, 383; occupation of, 325; Paris Peace Conference (1919), 135–37; Paris Peace Treaty (1947), 406; Treaty of (1951), 511
Parnell, Charles Stewart, 145
Pasternak, Boris, 123, 431, 443
Patton, George S., 380, 383, 390
Paulinck, Richard, 572
Peace Corps, 502
peaceful revolutions, 667–68, 685; debates about, 668; in Germany, 678–80; hardline responses to, 675–76, 678–79; in Hungary, 683; impact of, 686; origins of, 673–75, 677; in Poland, 682; Velvet Revolution, 683
Penkovsky, Oleg, 470
perestroika, 660. See also Gorbachev
Pétain, Philippe, 84, 325, 350
Petersburg (Petrograd/Leningrad), 115, 241; siege of, 354
Petrov, Stanislav, 657
“phony war,” 319. See also World War II: western front
Picasso, Pablo, 51, 187–88, 535, 549
Picht, Georg, 574
pieds-noirs, 489, 500, 732. See also Algeria
Planck, Max, 197
planned economy: communist model of, 259, 563; disadvantages of, 447; in Eastern Europe, 438–39, 567; French model of, 563–64, 567–68; Scandinavian model of, 563; in Western Europe, 566, 567
Poincaré, Raymond, 67, 68, 147, 217
Poland, 135, 138, 141, 682, 698; anti-Semitism in, 599; communist opposition in, 674; foreign policy of, 307–9; Home Army of, 365, 386–87, 434; invasion of, 308, 310, 317–19; minorities in, 307–8; murder of the elite of, 353; postcommunist developments in, 527, 687, 695, 705, 718; protests in, 443–44, 599; territorial claims of, 304, 305, 408, 410
Polish Corridor, 307
Pompidou, Georges, 596
popular culture, 192–96, 552; appeal of, 534–35; in arts, 535; critique of, 202; and film, 193–94, 553–54; and leisure, 195, 541–42; and popular music, 554–55; and sports, 194–95
population: growth of, 497; decline of, 732–33
population transfers, 137, 345, 355, 403–4
populism, 501, 508, 697, 700, 742
Portugal, 31, 335, 414, 490, 520
postcolonial development: economic, 492–93, 496–97; ties with Europe, 501–2, 763–64
postcommunist transition, 689–90, 696–97; “catch-up development,” 701–2; debates about, 695–96; economic, 702–4; failures of, 700, 704; nostalgia for socialism, 712; political, 697–701, 711–12; results of, 704–5, 718–20; social transformations, 705–10; successes of, 699–700, 703–4; winners of, 706–7
postmodernism, 590; appeal of, 611–12; in architecture, 607; as critique of master narratives, 608; debates about, 609–10, 612; “deconstruction” method, 607; impact of, 609; linguistic turn, 607–8; origins of, 606–7
Potsdam Conference (1945), 406; debates about, 410–11; territorial decisions at, 408–10
Poznań (Posen), 307–8, 704; revolt (1956), 349, 443–44, 588
Prague: German embassy, 677; Prague Spring (1968), 600–602
Preuss, Hugo, 142
Princip, Gavrilo, 47
privatization, 702
Proust, Marcel, 190
Provisional Government, 112, 125; failures of, 113–14, 116–17, 118–19, 126; issues in, 114–15
Provos, 591
Putin, Vladimir, 238, 259, 700, 717, 762
qualified majority voting, 522, 527–28, 766
Quisling, Vidkun, 321
Radio Free Europe, 442, 470, 473, 555, 692, 709
Rapallo, Treaty of (1922), 124, 149–50, 308
Rasputin, Grigori, 111
Reagan, Ronald, 640, 656, 660–62; turn to détente of, 659
real existing socialism, 449–51, 671–72, 692
Red Army, 431–32; creation of, 123; crimes of, 355, 371, 390, 404, 434, 463; leadership of, 330; victories of, 332, 340, 361, 370–71, 374, 384–88, 433
Reichow, Werner, 572
Reichstag: dissolution of, 276–77; fire of, 276–77, 347
Remarque, Erich Maria, 99, 192
Rennenkampf, Paul von, 78
reparations, 138–39, 150–51, 212, 214–15; and dismantling of factories, 430; settlement of, 229; after World War II, 409
resistance, anti-Nazi, 350–51, 364–65, 368
Reuter, Ernst, 453
Reykjavik Summit (1986), 661
Rhineland, remilitarization of, 297–98
Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 280, 309
Riefenstahl, Leni, 280
Rifkin, Jeremy, 749
Romania, 85, 138, 349, 527, 649, 687, 696, 700, 704; revolution in, 684
Rome, Treaties of (1957), 507, 514–15, 784
Rommel, Erwin, 324, 328, 363, 375
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 400, 420, 456; antifascism of, 335–36; domestic reforms of, 293; Quarantine Speech by, 336
Rosenberg, Alfred, 263, 284, 348
Rosenberg, Julius, 469
Rossellini, Roberto, 554
Rostow, W. W., 493
round table, 679–80, 682–83, 685
Ruhr, occupation of, 147, 148, 150–51, 217–18
Rushdie, Salman, 738
Russia: civil war in, 123, 242, 244; in World War I, 65–66, 109–13, 115–16
Russian Empire, 32–33; February Revolution (1917) in, 105, 111–13; politics in, 108–13, 114–16; reform in, 106–7, 125; Revolution of 1905 in, 106–8; westernization in, 105–9
Russian Revolution (1917): causes of, 114–15, 117–19; and counterrevolution, 119; debates about, 104, 117
Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), 108
Saar, 88, 137, 296; and plebiscite (1935), 296
Said, Edward, 749
Salazar, Antonio, 158, 335, 520
Salo, Republic of, 381
Samsonov, Alexander, 78
Sander, Helke, 604
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 253, 405, 470, 549, 602
Sauckel, Fritz, 351
Scheidemann, Philipp, 142
Schelsky, Helmut, 535
Schiller, Karl, 569
Schleicher, Kurt von, 267, 271, 278
Schmeling, Max, 195
Schmidt, Helmut, 519, 521, 618, 627, 636, 640, 641, 655
Schnitzler, Arthur, 187
Scholl, Sophie, 368
Schönerer, Georg von, 269
Schröder, Gerhard, 737, 738, 743
Schumacher, Kurt, 417
Schutzstaffel (SS), 346
Sebald, W. G., 371
Second International, 52
Secret Speech, 442–43. See also Khrushchev
Seelow Heights, 391
self-determination, 131, 137, 153, 371, 420, 781
Sennestadt, 572
Serbia, 61, 64–65; democratization in, 716–17
September Program, 87. See also Riezler
Sèvres, Treaty of (1920), 137
Seyß-Inquart, Arthur, 302
Shaw, George Bernard, 177, 187
“shock therapy,” 696, 703. See also postcommunist transition
Sicily, 380
Simmel, Georg, 183
Single European Act (SEA), 522–23, 768, 784
Sino-Soviet Split, 447–48, 649
Situationist International, 591
Skorzeny, Otto, 381
Slovakia, 305, 349, 409, 527, 687, 698, 700
Slovenia, 527, 687, 700, 704, 713–14, 762
social Darwinism, 25, 55–56, 312–13
social inequality: reduction of, 546–47; social restratification, 706, 708–9; and solidarity, 755, 785–86
social market economy, 531, 536–37, 726, 754–55 783, 785
social planning, 560–61; limits of, 562
Socialist German Student League (SDS), 596
Socialist Party of Italy (PSI), 157, 161, 163–65
socialist realism, 551
Socialist Revolutionaries (SR), 108, 109, 112, 115, 116, 118, 122–23, 126
Solidarity (Solidarność), 667, 674, 679, 682, 695. See also peaceful revolutions
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 237, 253, 431, 443
Somme Offensive, 85
Sonnino, Sidney, 162
Souchon, Wilhelm, 68
South Africa, 31, 139, 488, 490, 496, 498
Sovietization, 429, 431, 437–41; limits of, 450–51; opposition to, 440; support for, 439–40
Soviet Union, 240; accomplishments of, 445–46; collapse of, 684–85; German policy of, 435, 456; in the Great Patriotic War, 255, 331–34, 429–30; industrialization of, 236, 245–50; military coup in (1991), 685; propaganda in, 470; reforms in, 659–60, 672–73, 674; society in, 252–53, 255; “thaw” in, 443
soviets (of deputies), 112, 118, 120, 121
Spaak, Paul-Henri, 514
Spain, 335, 414, 520, 767; civil war in, 175–76, 298–99
Spengler, Oswald, 202, 234, 534
Spiegel Affair, 553
“Spirit of 1914,” 91. See also World War I
Srebrenica, 715
SS Einsatzgruppen, 319, 333, 342, 353, 359
“stab-in-the-back legend,” 142, 372
stagflation, 618
Stakhanov, Alexey, 249
Stalin, Joseph, 242–44, 256–57; beliefs of, 236; crimes of, 237, 247, 250–54, 259–60, 462–63; cult of, 236–37, 254–55, 431; debates about, 237–38; legacy of, 257–58, 259–60; personality of, 242–43, 251, 256, 431; seizure of power by, 236, 241, 244–45
Stalingrad, Battle of (1942–43), 333, 373–74
START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty), 657, 662, 686
Star Wars (Strategic Defense Initiative), 641, 657, 661
Stasi, 470, 653, 673, 680, 711
Stauffenberg, Klaus, 365
St. Germain, Treaty of (1919), 137, 142, 300
Stirling, James, 607
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 551
Stolypin, Pyotr, 106
Straits of Constantinople, 61, 63, 68, 83
Strauss, Richard, 186
Stresa Front, 296
Stresemann, Gustav, 150, 218, 266, 510
submarine warfare, 85–86, 95–97, 337, 377–78
Suez Crisis (1956), 421, 488–89
Sweden, 230–31, 335; neutrality of, 414, 648
Switzerland, 335, 414, 526, 743
Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 89
“tax revolt,” 629. See also neoliberalism
Taylor, A.J.P., 583
technology: and computers, 561, 567, 608, 616, 622, 633–34, 725; and economy, 632; “miracle weapons,” 388–89; and warfare, 338
Tehran Conference (1943), 407
“Ten Great Blows,” 385–86. See also World War II: eastern front
Ten Point Plan, 680. See also West Germany, unification
terrorism, 597, 736, 738–39; measures against, 739–40; and religious fundamentalism, 736–37
tertiarization, 546
Teschen (Cieszyn, Tĕšin), 305
Thatcher, Margaret, 520, 615, 624–25
Third Reich: annexations of, 349; economy of, 351; rearmament of, 231, 279, 292, 295–96, 298
“third way,” 455, 579, 680, 709
Thomson, Edward P., 590
Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989), 675
Tiso, Josef, 305
Tisza, Istvan, 65
Tito, Josip Broz, 387, 472, 648–49, 713; Titoism, 648
Tönnies, Ferdinand, 183
totalitarianism, theory of, 428, 712
Touré, Sekou, 490
Toynbee, Arnold, 202, 296, 534, 607
transatlantic cooperation, 558; Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, 761
Treitschke, Heinrich von, 201, 346
Trianon, Treaty of (1920), 137, 143
Trotsky, Leon, 103, 120, 121–22, 130, 236, 237, 241, 242, 244–45, 254
Truman, Harry, 408, 420, 456, 460,
Tschombe, Moishe, 481
Tudjman, Franjo, 713
Tunner, William, 465
Turkey, 49, 79; debate about EU membership, 763
twentieth century: debates about, 14–16; conceptualization of, 775–76; disasters of, 776; experiences in, 777; lessons of, 784–87; recovery in, 776–77
Two-plus-four Agreement (1990), 681
“Two Thousand Words” manifesto, 600
Ulbricht, Walter, 278, 435, 438, 448, 466, 474, 600
UK Independence Party, 508, 532, 766
Ukraine, 122, 123, 247, 333, 682, 684, 687, 697, 720, 762, 763
unconditional surrender policy, 372, 392, 408
unemployment, structural, 620, 622, 624
Union of European Federalists (UEF), 422, 510
United Kingdom. See Great Britain
United Nations: creation of, 407; and decolonization, 485; missions of, 420–21; peacekeepers of, 485; structures of, 420
United States: domestic affairs in, 219–20; engagement in Europe, 412; hegemony of, 456–57; isolationism of, 335–36, 456; propaganda in, 97–98; and reconstruction of Europe, 218, 219–20, 421, 565; turn away from Europe, 748–49, 758–59
urban guerrilla, 597
urbanism, 221–22, 543–44; criticism of, 573, 603; housing shortage, 570–71; modernist solutions, 571–72; quality of life, 756–57; satellite cities, 572; urban planning, 560, 572–73
V-2 missiles, 357, 389, 469, 644
Vance-Owen Plan (1993), 715
Vatican Council (1962–65), 552
Veblen, Thorstein, 137
Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 139–40, 148, 273; Article 231 of, 48, 139; colonial settlement in, 139; and reparations, 138–39, 150–51; and territorial changes, 136–38
Victoria, Queen, 20
Vietnam War, 454, 616, 650, 752, 760; opposition to, 591–92, 593–94
Visvanathan, Shiv, 775
Vittorio Emmanuele III, King, 167
Volksgemeinschaft, 262, 273, 280–84. See also National Socialism
Volkssturm, 389, 391. See also World War II
Volkswagen Beetle, 538
Vonnegut, Kurt, 371
Wałęsa, Lech, 667, 674, 682, 698
Wall Street stock-market crash, 151
Wannsee Conference (1942), 359
warfare, modern, 75–76, 82, 90–91, 316–17, 339, 338–40, 343–44; Soviet style of, 340; and miracle weapons, 388–89
war-guilt controversy, 48, 68–69, 138–39, 148. See also Versailles Treaty
“war of annihilation,” 319, 331, 340, 343–44, 366, 782. See also World War II
“war of attrition,” 83, 333–34. See also World War I
Warsaw: Treaty of (1970), 652; uprising in (1944), 365, 386–87
Warsaw Pact, 423, 440, 440, 601, 649, 673, 701
Weckmann, André, 774
Weimar Republic, 141–42, 264; accomplishments of, 266; chaos of, 142, 265–68; constitution of, 265; culture of, 183; democracy in, 265–67; economy in, 217–18
Weizsäcker, Ernst von, 305, 309, 363
welfare state, 578, 755; costs of, 581–82; cutbacks of, 628–32, 705–6; debate about, 615, 629–30; in Eastern Europe, 578–79, 705–6; expansion of, 424–25, 538–39; German model of, 579–80, 630–31; in Great Britain, 412–13, 564, 580–81, 630; reform of, 631–32, 742–43; Scandinavian model of, 231, 563, 579, 631; in Third Reich, 282–83; welfare capitalism, 580–81
“West”: concept of, 70; conflict with, 753, criticism of, 482, 752–53; in the Cold War, 751–52; and postcolonialism, 502; western civilization, 91, 131, 557–58, 751
West Germany (FRG), 416–17, 466; Basic Law of, 417, 466, 579–80; currency reform in (1948), 416, 453, 465, 536; domestic politics in, 417, 568–70, 579–80, 627; economy in, 465, 467, 564–65, 622–23, 627; foreign policy of, 647–48; 466; relations with GDR, 651–53; student protests in, 594, 595–96
Western Europe, 414–15; automobile industry in, 220, 635, 768; economy in, 537–38, 565–66, 618–19; society in, 545–47; standard of living in, 222, 538
Western Union Defense Organization, 464
Westwall, 231, 320, 382, 390. See also World War II: western front
Weygand, Maxime, 324
Wiesel, Elie, 361
Wilde, Oscar, 187
William II, Emperor, 57, 62, 68, 91, 135, 142; Weltpolitik of, 60
Wilson, Harold, 519
Wilson, Woodrow, 129; attempts at neutrality of, 89, 95, 97; idealism of, 129, 130–31, 140, 152, 214; “new diplomacy” of, 130; resistance against, 130, 135
Winter War (1939), 320
Witt, Katarina, 712
women: as consumers, 542–43; in Eastern Europe, 707; under imperialism, 35; and new feminism, 589, 604; “New Woman,” 195–96, 266; in the Third Reich, 282; voting rights for, 141
Wonneberger, Christoph, 678
World Economic Conference (1933), 293
World Trade Organization (WTO), 724, 744, 765
World War I (Great War, 1914–18), 57–58, 75–76, 91, 781; alliances in, 58, 60, 70; American entry in, 94–98; armistice, 134; Balkan front in, 83–84; causes of, 53–59, 65–68, 70–71; colonial troops in, 83, 84, 92, 483; consequences of, 74, 140, 147–48, 184, 188–89, 212–15; death toll in, 213; demobilization after, 134, 138, 162–63; domestic front in, 75, 90–94, 100, 110; eastern front in, 78–79, 83, 85, 110, 134; end of, 121–22, 133–35; enthusiasm about, 58–59, 76; impact on arts of, 188–92; meaning of, 74, 191–92; mutinies in, 94, 141–42; naval power in, 57, 84, 85; outbreak of, 63, 64–65, 68–69; peace moves during, 89–90, 133, 135; propaganda in, 57, 91; reconstruction after, 213; resources in, 77, 92, 110; “short war illusion,” 76–82; soldiers’ experiences during, 74, 86, 98, 100, 188; stalemate in, 79–86, 93, 98; strategy in, 63, 77–83, 132; war aims in, 86–90, 129–130; western front in, 77–78, 83–85, 132–33; women in, 75, 93
World War II (1939–45), 350, 429, 782; in Africa, 328, 374–75; air combat in, 327–28, 378–79; allied propaganda in, 379–80; American entry in, 336–37; atrocities in, 319, 333, 347–48, 353–56, 371; attempts to prevent, 309–10; Balkan front in, 328–29, 387; causes of, 288, 290, 292, 310–11; colonial soldiers in, 334, 485; consequences of, 401, 402–6, 419; debates about, 371, 384, 393; death toll in, 355, 403; eastern front, 331–34, 384–88, 391; French campaign in, 382–83; as a global struggle, 334–38; invasion of Soviet Union in, 330–33; Italian campaign in, 380–82; losses in, 328, 332–33; Nazi allies in, 329, 349; Nazi defeats in, 332–33, 373–75, 377, 384–85, 390; Nazi surrender in, 375, 389–90, 392; Nazi victories in, 317, 321–22, 331–32; neutrality in, 334–35, 414; outbreak of, 310, 317–19; and postwar planning, 372, 400, 407–8; POWs in, 331–32, 351, 404, 431; punishment after, 404–5, 409–10; resources in, 322, 331, 332, 351, 376–77, 385–86; in Scandinavia, 320–21; slave labor in, 351; strategy in, 315–17, 323–24, 331, 377–79, 382–83, 386; submarine warfare in, 337, 377–78; victory in, 370–72, 375, 387–88, 390–92, 402, 429; war aims in, 345, 347, 383–84; weapons in, 316, 332; western front in, 319–20, 322–26, 382–84, 390–91
Yalta Conference (1945), 388, 400, 408, 456
Yeltsin, Boris, 685
Yezhov, Nikolai, 252
Yugoslavia, 387, 648; breakup of, 687–88, 713–17; in Cold War, 471; creation of, 137, 138; and the EU, 762–63; in World War II, 329
Zhdanov, Andrei, 256, 431, 458